HIST 1302 Exam 3 (9-14)

Explain the origins of America's "One China Policy."

- is a policy saying that there is only one country of China, despite the fact that there are two regimes, People's Republic of China and Republic of China, with the official name of China. -It is the diplomatic acknowledgement of China's position that there is only one Chinese government. Under the policy, the US recognises and has formal ties with China rather than the island of Taiwan, which China sees as a breakaway province to be reunified with the mainland one day. -The policy can be traced back to 1949 and the end of the Chinese civil war. The defeated Nationalists, also known as the Kuomintang, retreated to Taiwan and made it their seat of government while the victorious Communists began ruling the mainland as the People's Republic of China. Both sides said they represented all of China. -Since then China's ruling Communist Party has threatened to use force if Taiwan ever formally declares independence, but it has also pursued a softer diplomatic track with the island in recent years.

What were their attitudes toward trade and diplomacy?

-Once the world economy started to crumble in the late 1920s, nations reverted to protectionism instead of reaffirming open trade agreements. Global trade stalled -the U.S., Britain, and Europe remained yoked together under tight monetary policy tied to the gold standard, inhibiting stimulus spending when the Depression set in US Smoot-Hawley Tariff -US also diplomatic isolationism -The U.S. didn't join the League even though its president, Woodrow Wilson, founded it (see cartoon, below). American opponents of the League weren't mere reactionaries; they made a solid isolationist case that membership over-committed the U.S. to intervene all over the world in conflicts that didn't really concern Americans. -Invested in aircraft carriers -the U.S. also started a special Air Corps within the Army that became the Army Air Force (USAAF) and branched off into the Air Force after World War II, and they trained pilots in the Navy/Marines.

Describe why Eisenhower insisted on filming the camps.

General Eisenhower knew that people would later deny the concentration camps existed, so he marched nearby villagers at gunpoint out to tour the camps, forcing them to help SS officers bury the remaining dead. He ordered journalists to film the macabre scenes.

How can conflicts of interest arise between contractors and policymakers? Does the danger still persist??????????

contractors did have some impact on American involvement in Vietnam and were among those pushing George W. Bush to invade Iraq in 2003

Explain how and why military intelligence in Europe helped trigger the digital age.

- Codebreaking helped usher computer age - Phones, telegraphs, radios easy to tap or hear - early computer at Bletchley Park and Turing's bombe helped to break German code - Binary system key for scaling up computations - COLOSSUS: world's first programmable electronic digital computer amplified binary code on massive scale to decipher Enigma successor, Lorenz cipher, and launched digital age

Understand the basic facts of the Nazi Holocaust.

-American and British forces came across their first concentration camps as they made their way into Germany, along with the Jewish slave rocket factory at Mittelbau-Dora near Buchenwald. Leaders were aware of the camps and neither FDR nor Winston Churchill seemed overly concerned about them in their letters, but they were a shock to the military -Roosevelt learned of the camps in 1942. To his credit, FDR established the War Refugee Board in January 1944 to aid survivors, but historians disagree on how complicit the president was in restricting immigration and information prior to then. -The Soviets discovered their first camps in the East in 1944 and reported them, but many Westerners thought they were exaggerating, as warring countries often do to demonize their opponents (e.g. Britain went a bit overboard in their descriptions of German atrocities in Belgium during WWI). -While more civilians might have died in Stalinist Russia than the Holocaust, the Nazis reveled in the slaughter and torture in a more perverse way, exploring the bounds of evil. -Not only were prisoners forced to kill each other, but they left corpses strewn around the living -Polish prisoners at the Auschwitz slave and extermination camp were thrown into the snow so doctors could measure the rate at which people froze to death. -Jews had to buy tickets for the trains that took them to the death camps, where millions were gassed, worked to death, and used for medical experiments -Some prisoners were subjected to medical experiments, most famously those led by Josef Mengele (the "Angel of Death") at Auschwitz, who escaped to South America after the war. -Auschwitz claimed more victims (1.1 million) than the combined British and American soldiers killed in WWII. -Next worst after Auschwitz was Treblinka, an extermination camp in Poland masquerading as a train station. -Nazis wiped out most of the European Jewish population, slaughtering at least six million Jews and another three million homosexuals, Gypsies (Romani), dissident intellectuals and theologians, people with disabilities, Poles, Soviet POWs, Jehovah's Witnesses, and "Swing Kids," or Swingjuden— German youth enamored with the West, especially the sounds and styles of negro-inspired American jazz. -The number of facilities associated with the Holocaust has only recently come to light, exceeding 40k according to one report. Some were factories or brothels with prisoners available to Nazi officers while many were simply death camps -Estimates as to how many people died have risen dramatically to 15-20 million. -Nazis accomplished nowhere near what they'd hoped. With their Generalplan Ost (Eastern Plan), they hoped to murder or enslave Eastern Europe's entire Slavic population (31 to 45 million) to create more "living space" for Germans.

Summarize the cause and long-term impact of the Suez Crisis.

-Egypt needed more funding and seized the all-important Suez Canal in the northeastern part of the country, built by French and British engineers in the 19th century. -Nasser scuttled ships at the canal's northern entrance to block Europeans from Middle Eastern oil and planned to tax ships for passage Britain got the American CIA to bail them out in Iran and wanted more U.S. aid in helping to secure the all-important choke point of the Suez Canal — Europe's passage to the Persian Gulf and East Asia. -After nearly three months of negotiation, with the U.S. both condemning Nasser's actions but also discouraging force, the British concocted a phony war whereby Israel would attack Egypt and Britain and France would intervene to separate the combatants and protect the canal. -But this time, Ike didn't bail out the British the way he had in Iran three years earlier. Eisenhower didn't want a big incident enticing the Soviets or disrupting his upcoming presidential reelection, and that fall the Soviets invaded Hungary to put down an uprising -Ike ordered the allies out of Suez under threat of withholding monetary aid and driving down their currency -Ike sent a message to the USSR directing them to stay out, as well, or be "hit with everything in the bucket." -He meant that he was going to nuke the Soviets back into the Stone Age if they went near the canal. The Soviets, in turn, threatened to nuke Paris and London if the British and French didn't retreat, inadvertently strengthening Ike's hand. -While the United Nations, not the U.S., officially ordered the French, British, and Israelis to retreat, the upshot was that the U.S. and Soviets were taking over the region from the old imperial powers. Egypt, in turn, retained control of the Suez Canal. -The Suez Crisis showed how the U.S. was able to order European and Israeli allies around during the Cold War while fending off the Soviets at the same time Long term impact: The Suez Crisis packed a powerful punch historically given that it was a relative blip on the screen at the time 1. Israel had easy enough success in the brief war prior to their withdrawal that it helped convince them to take more territory from Egypt eleven years later 2. Western Europeans resolved to get partly out from under American control But Great Britain and France both developed their own nuclear bombs after Suez. and moved towards EU (monetary union) 3. The Suez Crisis also helped re-ignite the Pan-Arab movement that traced back to World War I, when Arab countries that had been under Ottoman rule realized they'd been duped in their British alliance during the Arab Revolt. they'd just been taken over by Britain and France. The Suez Crisis fueled Arab Nationalism in the Middle East, whereby leaders like Nasser strove to get out from under Western domination 4. Iraq's monarchy overthrown 5. Later, as part of this ongoing pan-Arab movement, newcomers like Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and Ba'athist Saddam Hussein of Iraq nationalized their oil fields, meaning that they wrested control away from Western oil companies.

Evaluate Japan's foreign policy in Asia in the 1920s and 30's.

-In Asia, the U.S. and Britain were leery of Japan's rapid industrial and military buildup. The Japanese took advantage of Europe's preoccupation and their alliance with Britain to expand their holdings in the Pacific during WWI, especially at the expense of Germany. -At the Washington Naval Conference after the war, Japan agreed to freeze the proportion of their battleship tonnage in relation to Britain and the U.S. at a 3-5-5 ratio (unlike Japan, the U.S. and Britain had to maintain two-ocean navies). -nobody anticipated the advent of aircraft carriers (aka flat-tops), which weren't included in the agreement. Restrictions on traditional capital ships only motivated the U.S. and Japan to put more money and research into carriers -Regardless of how many carriers or planes they built, Japan was slamming shut the Open Door Policy that had kept China's spoils evenly divided amongst Japan and the West since the late 19th century. -Japan now countered the American Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary with what it euphemistically called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere -Japanese fed themselves the usual gibberish about God liking them better than everyone else -In Japan's case, Emperor Hirohito lent credence to their version of Manifest Destiny but its Parliament (National Diet) and generals, led by Hideki Tōjō (prime minister starting in 1941), pursued military expansion most aggressively -Touting order after the disaster, they kept communism and republicanism at bay, moving the country toward fascism. extension of Russia's Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok was threatening Japan's potential control of Manchuria in northeastern China. -In 1931, hoping to offset the economic downturn of the Depression, Japan took over Manchuria, a mineral and coal-rich area with good soil for soy and barley. -Japan walked out of the League of Nations, but the League didnt stop their Manchurian invasion -Japan conquered most of China in 1937 in the Second Sino-Japanese War, kicking off World War II in the Pacific with attacks on Peking (Beijing) and Shanghai. -The U.S. feigned some disapproval over the 1937 Japanese invasion of China but wasn't put off enough to discontinue feeding the war machine. America was in a depression and needed the money.

Identify some examples of where American (or Western) interests conflicted with America's commitment to democracy.

-In the Cold War, democracies in poorer countries commonly interfered with developed countries' corporate profits, meaning they had to be snuffed out and replaced with dictatorships friendly to Western interests. -Interests = money -Several Cold War examples illustrate America's follow-through on Kennan's advice, including Iran, Guatemala, the Republic of Congo, Brazil, and Chile -In Iran (then Persia) in the early 1950s, their new democracy wanted a fairer share of oil profits than the 80/20 split under their arrangement with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., an antecedent to British Petroleum (BP) *the British convinced President Eisenhower that Iran's leader, Mohammad Mosaddegh, constituted a communist threat, leaving out mention of a recent book he'd written denouncing communism. *the CIA overthrew Mosaddegh and elevated the Shah from being a figurehead monarch to a full-on dictator. The U.S. got a 40% share of oil exports for their trouble, much to the chagrin of Saudis and Kuwaitis who didn't welcome the competition. - Guatemala's democracy wanted to boot out the United Fruit Company of Boston (Chiquita brand®), that owned one-third of the country, and take their land back. *United Fruit ran a major operation throughout Latin America and a plan to keep the company's real estate was on President Truman's table as early as 1951. *The U.S. had supported a puppet dictatorship led by Jorge Ubicountil he was overthrown in 1944, and his two democratically-elected successors instituted reforms to help workers. *A small group of CIA operatives and guerrilla rebels got control of the main radio station and used broadcasts to drive a wedge between the country's army and president, Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán. The false flag coup resulted in America's installation of dictator Carlos Castillo Armas, whose faults were many, but who kept cheap bananas flowing north. -Ike was impressed with how inexpensive and easy the coup was and how worthwhile it was to hire a professional propagandist, Edward Bernays, to dupe the citizens. *in the Congo, Africa (now Zaire) in 1960. -The CIA lent support to Patrice Lumumba's kidnapping and execution when he brought democratic socialism to that newly independent country. His election threatened profits of Belgian diamond and copper companies, so Belgians murdered him. -As for Lumumba's death, Belgium officially apologized in 2002 but the CIA never explained how his corpse ended up in one of their operative's car trunk. -Aside from fears of having the wrong people win elections, there was often genuine concern about the difficulty of conducting fair elections in unstable regions. It's hard to pull off completely clean elections even in stable countries and the U.S. valued the dependability of dictators in fending off communism. People wrongly remember ideological simplicity as one silver lining in the Cold War cloud. Even at the time, most Americans never knew how complicated it was.

Situate America's post-WWII European foreign policy in the broader context of the Cold War.

-The U.S. and Soviet Union were the two powers left standing at the end of WWII, but their long standing rivalry never degenerated into a direct armed conflict between the two nations. Thus, their rivalry was called the Cold War as opposed to an actual hot war. What lent the Cold War such urgency was that if it had turned into a hot war, it would've been the hottest war in history because each side stockpiled big arsenals of nuclear weapons. -The Cold War fault line was the border between Western and Eastern Europe, where the Soviets set up a series of client states, or puppet governments with no real autonomy, who took their cues from the Soviets. These countries were known as the Eastern Bloc and, in a commencement speech in Missouri, United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill nicknamed the line between them and the West the Iron Curtain. -While the U.S. and Soviets were allies in WWII against their common enemy, Germany, the two countries never got along well. -As far back as the 1830s, French writer Alexis de Tocqueville observed of the U.S. that "no country in the world has a more lively or concerned feeling for property." Since the late 19th century, the U.S. considered its economy dependent on global trade and the emergence of communist countries threatened to dilute its prosperity. The Soviets remembered American anti-Bolshevik intervention in the Russian Revolution at the end of WWI and thought of the U.S. as an aggressive, interventionist country. *In between WWI and WWII, the U.S. was never purely isolationist, but they were unilateralist in their orientation, mostly going it alone without regard for cooperating with allies. That changed dramatically with the onset of WWII. America spearheaded the formation of the new United Nations even as WWII was starting in 1939, and built U.N. headquarters in New York City → had authority to act militarily w/ Security Council 4 policemen*

What would liberals and conservatives, respectively, cherry-pick and flush down the memory hole?

????????????

Evaluate the Western Allies' strategy in Germany in 1944-45. Why did Eisenhower let the Soviets conquer Berlin?

Allied Bombing of Germany -By the time the Allies discovered the camps in 1945, Germany was nearly defeated. They'd already run out of fuel, grounding the Luftwaffe and exposing the country to unopposed aerial bombardment. -The Allies took advantage, murdering civilians from the air more out of revenge than any constructive strategic purpose. Yalta Conference -the Western Allies weren't in as strong of a position in early 1945 as one might think in hindsight given that they won the war three months later. -The Italian campaign had stalled in that country's northeastern Po Valley, the western front stalled after the failure of Operation Market Garden and Battle of the Bulge setback, and southeastern Europe (especially mainland Greece and Crete) were still contested. -the Soviets were in a stronger position, having nearly won their war against Germany and now occupying huge swaths of Eastern Europe -In February 1945, FDR, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta on the Black Sea -FDR wanted two favors from Stalin: Soviet support and membership in the United Nations, and for the Soviets to open up a second front against Japan once the European war ended. -The Americans later regretted inviting the USSR to re-join the Japanese war but, at the time, casualties were mounting in the Pacific and FDR wanted all the help he could get Germany's defeat -Germany was trapped between the Soviets and Western Allies. -Erwin Rommel, the "Desert Fox" German commander from the African campaign, was in France after the Normandy Invasion. He wanted to capitulate on the Western Front so that the Western Allies would conquer Germany instead of the Soviets, and Rommel likely took part in the July Plot to blow up Hitler in Wolf's Lair in 1944. -Later, when the Soviets entered Berlin, German troops tried to fight their way west out of the city to surrender to American forces instead. -*Dwight Eisenhower let the Soviets conquer Berlin, mainly to save American lives* -Toward the end of the Battle of Berlin in May 1945, Hitler committed suicide in a basement bunker with his mistress Eva Braun. The Third Reichcollapsed only twelve years into its hoped-for thousand-year reign -Hitler had delusions of victory until very late, even naïvely hoping that FDR's death in April would mean America's withdrawal from the war -In Austria's Tyrolean Alps, five days after Hitler's suicide, an unlikely alliance of American, French, and German Wehrmacht soldiers defeated SS troops for control of a POW prison at Itter Castle. The European war was over. -FDR died in April 1945, so Stalin met with U.S. President Harry Truman and Prime Ministers Winston Churchill and (after July 26th) Clement Atlee. Talks continued at the Potsdam Conference on the fate of postwar Europe but focus shifted to the Pacific and whether the Soviets would break their truce with Japan and enter the war.

Describe how the right to collective bargaining increased the power of labor unions.

Collective bargaining meant that management was legally obligated to sit down and negotiate with unions rather than simply firing, harassing, or (in rare cases) killing strikers. A simpler way to understand collective bargaining would be to say that management lost the right to not bargain or negotiate.

Integrate that knowledge by describing how a Keynesian would deal with the recession of 2008-13.

Keynesian deal: gov't spending -- further temporary debt to jump start economic engine; "priming the pump"; SHORT-TERM DEBT e.g. stimulus package

What did Truman mean by "rotten apples in a barrel?"

Wanted to stop communism in key countries hoping it wouldn't spread to other countries hoping to not let "one rotten apple spoil the barrel" as Truman put it → later called the domino theory

Describe what foiled Eisenhower's peace initiatives with the USSR toward the end of his second administration.

Two events foiled Eisenhower's peace initiative: the downing of an American spy plane over the USSR and a communist revolution in Cuba. -the president was dubious about the CIA flying spy missions over the Soviet Union. In February, Ike voiced concern that a mishap could tarnish his integrity in Soviet eyes and prophetically feared a downed plane being "put on display in Moscow." -However, Ike only expressly forbade any flights after May 1st. -he CIA wanted to collect information that he could use at the Paris Summit and scheduled a mission for May Day (May 1st), -In 1955, the CIA developed the high-altitude U-2 reconnaissance plane -The CIA mistakenly thought the U-2 flew high enough to be outside the range of Soviet radar - that was the point of its unique design. -The Soviets knew about the U-2 all along but allowed the flights to continue because they didn't want the U.S. to know that they knew, or for the Americans to realize how strong their radar was. -Alas, they couldn't tolerate Powers buzzing Moscow during their May Day parade, even at 70k feet, and shot him down with a SAM over Sverdlovsk, -but the U-2 Incident ruined Ike's hopes of ending his second term by winding down the Cold War -To avoid such incidents in the future, the U.S. stepped up its research on drones (unmanned aircraft) that became prominent during the War on Terror in the early 21st century. In 1959, communist dictator Fidel Castro took over Cuba just 90 miles off the Florida coast. The U.S. had more or less run Cuba after the Spanish-American War of 1898 but gradually ceded qualified autonomy by the 1930s, when Cuba was allowed to run their government as long as they didn't do anything contrary to U.S. interests -In the 1930s and again after 1952, America carried on a lucrative trade with dictator Fulgencio Batista but he was unpopular with many Cubans. Poor Cubans resented criminals plundering their country, be they Cuban or American. They were exposed to and controlled by the worst face of capitalism. -The Batista regime jailed rebel lawyer Fidel Castro in 1953, but when he got out he led another rebellion -Working out of bases in the Sierra Maestra Mountains of southeastern Cuba, revolutionaries including Castro's brother Raul and Argentine doctor Ernesto "Che" Guevara fought their way toward Havana and took over the capital as Batista fled. Theirs was more of a middle-class rebellion than the peasant uprising associated with communist revolutions in Asia. -At first, there was promise of democratic socialism and Castro was popular among many Americans. -In an interview with American television host Ed Sullivan (1.11.59), Castro promises that Batista's will be the last ever dictatorship in Cuba, that there would be upcoming elections, and expresses his hopes for friendship with the U.S. Castro denounced Marxism and promised "representative government, social justice, and a well-planned economy -However, the democratic part of the equation evaporated quickly and Castro and Che established a Marxist dictatorship. -Castro had no choice but to attempt a friendly relationship with the U.S. government given its size and proximity, but Eisenhower wasn't happy with this dramatic transgression of Containment Doctrine -It flew directly in the face of America's entire foreign policy for the prior fifteen years. As U.S. corporations lost their land, Eisenhower's administration cut off American sugar imports and, via the CIA, authorized the Mafia to kill Castro. -Ike's anger was understandable, but giving Castro the cold shoulder threw him onto Khrushchev's lap, who was more than willing to aid the Cubans and establish a Soviet foothold near the U.S. -Consequently, it wasn't imperative for the Soviets to build launch sites near enough America to deliver intermediate-range missiles. Politically, though, the spread of communism so close to U.S. shores was an embarrassment, worsened by Cuba's alliance with the USSR. By the time Eisenhower left office, he had plans on the table to use the CIA to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro.

Distinguish between what the U.S. knew about the crisis in 1962 and what they learned later when Soviet archives opened after the Cold War.

-JFK obviously knew about the Turkish missiles at one point because he'd leaked it to the press to mollify Republican criticism of him being weak on communism. -He told them about the SS-4 missiles in Cuba that could reach the southeastern U.S., and that longer-range SS-5's were on the way that could reach the entire Lower 48. -The day after the crisis subsided, October 28th, LeMay (right) called it the "greatest defeat in [American] history...we should invade today." However, we know now that would've been a colossal mistake. Unbeknownst to Americans until Soviet archives opened after the Cold War in 1992, there were the aforementioned 43k Soviet troops on Cuba to fight an invading force and American tactical nuclear weapons they could have seized at nearby Guantánamo. -According to the U.S. National Archives, the Soviets had six of their own LUNA battlefield nuclear weapons on site that would've eviscerated any invading force.The medium-range missiles — if not as "locked and loaded" as the LUNA's — were further along in their preparation than the CIA or ExComm realized at the time. -The Americans also weren't aware of four nuclear submarines moving into position; one Soviet sub nearly fired its warhead at the U.S. Navy

Identify the Marshall Plan and explain Herbert Hoover's role in that plan.

-Secretary of State George C. Marshall traced Hoover's path, meeting with many of the same people, and agreed with his proposals for rebuilding West Germany's economy -Marshall, who led the U.S. Army during WWII as Chief of Staff and served as Secretary of State until 1949, pushed the idea of a major European stimulus package in his Harvard commencement address -Another reason, though, is that while it's easy to remember how the misguided punitive peace after WWI led to WWII, it's easy to forget that the smart resolution to WWII led to 70 years and counting of peace and prosperity in Western Europe → the Marshall Plan laid the foundation for that success -the Marshall Plan passed Congress in 1948, sending $13 billion worth of grants (not loans) to Europe and Britain. *They also forgave Germany's wartime debt. *Similar funds aimed at Japan helped the U.S. rebuild a bulwark of democratic capitalism in the Pacific. *Congress offered to include aid to the Eastern Bloc in the Marshall Plan, knowing that the Soviets would turn it down -The Marshall Plan supported democratic capitalism but, beyond that broad framework, Europeans were left to work out the details. It did not impose an "Americanization" program but instead helped lay the foundation for decades of growth amidst a collection of like-minded independent countries that would be responsible for their own renewal. *the Marshall Plan didn't contain provisions for enforcement or meddling -Hoover: thought imperative that US help rebuild Asia and Europe financially, Hoover Report made case to public and Truman that W. Ger essential to Europe -Hoping to avoid the meltdown in world trade that followed WWI, Americans and Western Europeans set up GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), which became known as the WTO (World Trade Organization) in 1995. Later, other countries joined the group. The WTO arbitrates trade disputes between countries, refereeing global commerce and encouraging low trade barriers.

Evaluate ExComm's and JFK's handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

-The Pentagon, along with brother Bobby, pressed JFK to invade the island. -John Kennedy wisely ignored critics, his brother, vice-president, future president, and "Best and Brightest" ExComm staff, and instead steered the crisis toward a resolution that saved face for everyone while also saving the world -He continued to quarantine Cuba, preventing the Soviets from off-loading any more ships -Khrushchevr drafted two letters that arrived in Washington on the same day. The first included a lot of emotion and bluster but offered a way out, which was for the U.S. to give up on overthrowing Castro. As the inner circle digested that dispatch, a second arrived demanding that the U.S. remove its missiles in Turkey -JFK's ExComm security advisors called for a retaliatory attack on Cuba. On the recorded transcripts, Kennedy takes in the advice after Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane over Cuba with a surface-to-air missile, killing its pilot the U.S. promised to never overthrow Castro (the demands of the first letter) if the Soviets dismantled the Cuban missiles, and they complied. -The U.S. also secretly agreed to dismantle its Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Italy, after first rejecting that condition by ignoring the second letter. Again, all the ExComm advisors thought it was a bad idea, and Kennedy overrode them. It was obvious to Kennedy and U.N. Ambassador Stevenson that the Turkish trade was the best way out of the crisis

What factors played into the decision?

-was obvious that a potential invasion of Japan would cost many lives, on both sides. → The U.S. had an option to compel Japan to surrender: the atomic bomb. -At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the U.S. and Britain demanded Japan's unconditional surrender, with terms including forfeiture of all overseas territories, war crimes for unusual cruelty toward POWs, and amnesty for common Japanese soldiers. -In the kokutai tradition, many Japanese viewed their divine emperor more the way traditional Catholics view the Pope, except that rather than being an embodiment of God, the emperor embodied the land, history, and its people → Japan not willing to surrender in full terms (leaders stepping down, losing territory, etc.) and unconditional 3 factors: 1. the Japanese never reached a consensus on who would be willing to step down or even whether to continue fighting and gain more territory in a settlement -Prime Minister Kantarō Suzukirejected the July 26th Potsdam Declaration on August 2nd, four days before the Hiroshima attack ; ignored it -while American and Asian lives would've been at risk in the meantime. All we know for sure is that, as of August, no such surrender was forthcoming. 2. there weren't effective means of clear, well-translated two-way communication between the U.S. and Japan, leading to garbled messages, third-party hearsay, and misunderstandings -the U.S. also attained some third-party communication through the Soviets, but Stalin downplayed the peace entreaties, claiming that the peace party in Japan was small and uninfluential. Stalin may have been right, but he had his own motives, hoping to extend the war to acquire more eastern territory. -by going through Stalin, the Japanese were using an intermediary who wanted to delay peace until he could get a piece of the pie 3. the wheels were already in motion on the Manhattan Project and the U.S. never seriously pursued an earlier negotiated settlement -According to unverified sources, Truman was told that hundreds of thousands of American troops would be killed in the proposed land invasion (Operation Downfall) and he said months later that he thought "a quarter million of the flower of our young manhood [was] worth a couple of Japanese cities." -Thought it would save American lives (over 46k)

Familiarize yourself with the basics of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009(2009-19 Stimulus Package) know the essentials of what it was about

Basics of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act: -Was a stimulus package signed into law by Obama -Developed in response to the Great REcession -Primary objective was to save existing jobs and create new ones as soon as possible -Provide temp relief programs for those most affected by the recession and invest in infrastructure, edu, health, and renewable energy was estimated to be $787 billion at the time of passage, later revised to $831 billion between 2009 and 2019 -Based on the keynesian economic theory 1. To preserve and create jobs and promote economic recovery. 2. To assist those most impacted by the recession. 3. To provide investments needed to increase economic efficiency by spurring technological advances in science and health. 4. To invest in transportation, environmental protection, and other infrastructure that will provide long-term economic benefits. 5. To stabilize State and local government budgets, in order to minimize and avoid reductions in essential services and counterproductive state and local tax increases.

Explain how Munich has affected American foreign policy ever since.

Delay or inaction are inevitably equated with spinelessness or naiveté in this line of thinking — an old idea that just had a name after 1938. This Lesson of Munich — i.e. that appeasement only feeds the appetite of the aggressor — is worth knowing for sure but has also narrowed American options ever since in areas like Vietnam and Iraq, leading to knee-jerk, escalate-first-and-ask-questions-later strategies.

Identify what's meant by being on the Left or Right. Understand that most people view themselves as moderate and others who disagree as extreme.

Far left = radical Left of center = liberal Center = moderate Right of center = conservative Far right = reactionary picture in book

Describe how they shaped policy for the next eight presidential administrations. ????????

The executive's "breakfast reading" is known as the President's Daily Brief (PDB) and includes recent information from the CIA, NSC, and, today, the Department of Homeland Security. Presidents have varied as to how they receive the reports. Reagan liked videos, Bill Clinton liked small bits called "snowflakes," George W. Bush liked his read to him, Obama liked to read them on a secure iPad®, and Trump preferred to not hear them daily, saying "I get it when I need it."

Define the term collective security.

can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches to peace.

Evaluate the economic and diplomatic policies of the Western Allies (U.S., Britain, France) in the 1920s and 30's.

-After the 1919 Versailles Treaty ended World War I, there was an understandable push to prevent a major war from ever happening again -this Long Armistice was just a break from fighting before World War II, which in the United States' case started with Japan's bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii in 1941 -How did the armistice come unraveled? For one, the dedication to peace among most of the countries allowed aggressive ones like Japan and Germany to get away with more than they otherwise would have -No country could step in between the wars to maintain stability

Analyze how Britain was able to defend itself from the German blitzkrieg in 1940-41. Why did Hitler fail to conquer England?

-*Germany's Blitzkrieg (lightning warfare) invasion of Poland in September 1939 started World War II in Europe.* -The British lost 68k overall on the continent in May 1940 but, at *Dunkirk*, ~350k of ~400k soldiers escaped, narrowly averting a catastrophic loss that might have ended the war in Germany's favor. Though Dunkirk's harbor was mostly destroyed, an armada of pleasure and fishing boats, Merchant Navy, and ~ 50 Royal Navy destroyers (magnetized to repel magnetic German mines) rescued most of those clinging to life along a long, thin breakwater and makeshift piers strung together with sunken trucks, while others swam out to the boats as they were getting shot at -Royal Air Force (RAF) Spitfires bombed Germans behind the perimeter surrounding Dunkirk, but Stukas still bombed British ships as they loaded troops. -Anticipating the upcoming Battle of Britain and seemingly willing to cut some losses, Churchill also refused to expose too many Royal Navy ships to U-boat attacks and mines to rescue the trapped forces. -He ordered the rescue/retreat known as Operation Dynamo just in time, as Hitler released ground troops to invade the city. -Though harsh and demoralizing to those trapped with their backs to the North Sea, preserving most planes, ships, and troops was a key to future success because they "lived to fight another day." -In the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe bombed English ports, airfields, and infrastructure from June through October 1940 -*This was not a purely aerial war, as it was fought on land and sea, too, and Britain's Royal Navy was superior to the German Kriegsmarine*. German U-Boats were feared for good reason, but they didn't have enough at the time to choke off Britain and small English fishing boats — the same ones used to rescue soldiers at Dunkirk — mounted guns and served as minesweepers and eyes and ears -*the Royal Air Force (RAF) stood as the last line of defense for the Free World.* RAF: -*However, the British proved their superiority in manufacturing quantity → german planes were better* -*German engineering set the pace, but they valued quality over quantity whereas the RAF ramped up production, replacing their lost planes*. -*American and British factories made weapons 'round the clock in three shifts, seven days a week, whereas German plants, with their able-bodied population spread thin and slaves on many assembly lines, ran one eight-hour shift on weekdays.* -*Germans also had to concern themselves with running out of gas, unlike their RAF counterparts who didn't have to fly home across the English Channel* -*The Luftwaffe never eliminated enough British planes on the ground the way they had in short order against Poland in 1939. The RAF posed more of a challenge than Germany planned for and, without air superiority, there was no hope of a land invasion.* -the Germans underestimated their capacity to damage the radar stations because they mistakenly thought most of them were underground. Moreover, the British learned to jam the German pilots' navigation systems. -The WWII Blitz killed far more civilians than the WWI bombings. Forty-thousand "direct hit" citizens died and another 45k were injured among the "near misses" who survived. → even less likely to give up than if they'd never experienced the bombardment -*In any event, Operation Sea Lion, Germany's proposed UK land invasion, never happened, stopping Germany's momentum in the west, saving England from invasion, and arguably helping to defend America.* *Together, these "stiff upper-lipped" pilots, radar operators, munitions makers, and politicians held off the Luftwaffe* Der Führer later pointed to the Battle of Britain as the turning point in the war. Frustrated at their inability to defeat Britain through the air, Germany turned east and invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941

Francis Townshed

-California, retired farmer, and physician -advocated a $200/month public pension system for retirees over sixty -FDR disliked the idea, thinking it verged on communism, but it was the basis for the Social Security system that he reluctantly went along with in 1935. A key difference is that under Social Security each worker funds the system directly as they go with paycheck deductions

Analyze and explain what Josef Stalin meant when, after the war, he said of Hitler's defeat: "England provided the time, America provided the money, and Russia provided the blood."

-Referring to England's heroic defense and North Africa -US: Arsenal of Democracy -Russia: gruesome battles in USSR -Referring to England's heroic defense of 1940-41 (previous chapter) and North Africa, America's Arsenal of Democracy and these gruesome battles in the USSR

Charles Coughlin

-america's first radio shock jock; from Detroit -Right critic of the New Deal -managed to be on the right and left simultaneously, lambasting the New Deal "socialist" cabinet as "Christ-killing Jews" while also imploring FDR to nationalize the banks

Explain the origins of Social Security and why, despite its relative success, it poses challenges for future generations of Americans. Identify Frances Perkins and her role in Social Security legislation.

Origins: -Basis was in Francis Townsend's requests -FDR willing to agree if it was funded directly out of payrolls instead of the general fund, thus guaranteeing its solvency and giving all workers a stake its survival. -At first, provided a modest retirement pension and short term unemployment insurance -"Christian thing to do" Challenges for future: -While Social Security has worked well so far and remains popular among most citizens, demographic projections show it will no longer operate in the black by the 2030s -At that point, the trust fund wouldn't run out, but to remain solvent (in the black, not the red) recipients would have to take a 25% or so cut in benefits -Only way to avoid that would be for workers to accept a 2.5% increase in the payroll tax portion of their paychecks -Problem = the ratio of retirees to workers paying into the system will grow to ~ 1:2 based on current projections. Frances Perkins -made her name on New York's Safety Commission after the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (Chapter 5). As Secretary of Labor, Perkins was a major player in many aspects of the New Deal and helped win labor's support of FDR -With the Social Security Act she established unemployment benefits, pensions for the many uncovered elderly Americans, and welfare for the poorest Americans.

Identify John Maynard Keynes and the ideas behind Keynesian economics.

-British economist John Maynard Keynes -Keynesians, then and now (e.g. Paul Krugman), argue that governments should spend in recessions to stimulate economic growth, and not raise taxes or cut programs, and then collect tax receipts at normal rates later to pay off the debt when the economy rebounds. -supply side economics (cut taxes for wealthy so jobs trickle down) also a theory -Contrary to popular opinion, Keynes did not advocate long-term, structural debt, but rather short-term debt that would be erased once the economy picked up and tax revenue increased.

Explain why President Hoover was frustrated with Franklin Roosevelt's campaign strategy in 1932 and his behavior after he won.

- Roosevelt (FDR) criticized Hoover for raising taxes, overspending and putting too many "on the dole" (welfare), not too few → Out of the other side of his mouth, Roosevelt told the appropriate voters on the left that he'd do more to help people and, in fact, he had already done just that as governor of New York with work programs and direct relief. -Hoover called him a "chameleon on plaid -Hoover hated his guts, bc after FDR crushed him in the Electoral College 472-59, winning 46 of 48 states, Hoover wanted to work with the incoming administration during the five-month interim between the election and inauguration → FDR gave him the cold shoulder to accentuate the supposed contrast between their two approaches - ended tradition of presidents-elect picking up incumbents and traveling to inauguration together -FDR told one reporter off the record that the country's troubles "weren't yet his baby" and went fishing in the Caribbean

Describe why Hitler invaded the USSR and what factors complicated his plans.

-A good starting point for understanding the European War is to think of it as the Western Allies and Soviets trying to shove Nazi aggression off on each other. -the Nazi-Soviet Pact when Hitler and Stalin had agreed to not fight in the east, -why : Hitler broke the truce when he invaded the USSR in June 1941 to eradicate communism, gain access to more oil, and give Germans more "living space." -invaded USSR with motive of OIL -USSR begged allies for help and got limited aid -- shipped Russians' oil, ammunition, boots, food, trucks Factors: -Despite Russia's astonishing losses, things didn't go well for the Wehrmacht (German army) either. Germany bogged down stopping to murder Jews wherever they went. -They also didn't anticipate that Soviet railroads ran on a different gauge, meaning they had to build their own track. -Moreover, despite Germany's reputation for cutting-edge engineering, around 80% of the Wehrmacht in Russia was horse-drawn cavalry. Germany couldn't make vehicles fast enough to keep up with their vast conquered territory. -At first blitzkrieg successful destroying 1/4 air force but got trapped as advanced into Russia, fiercest fighting around Stalingrad, 6 month battle of Stalingrad -Russia's vastness and bitter winters proved inhospitable to the over-extended, invading army. Instead of an anticipated three-week victory, Hitler got a grueling four-year defeat. -no supplies, freezing, not enough troops or weapons, HUGE TURNING POINT -Americans supplying Studebakers and walkie-talkie -Strategic Bombing missions on Germany

Describe how the New Deal changed after 1934

-Abandoned balance budget philosophy -Cavalcade of gov't sponsored programs that put people to work (alphabet soup) -Paid artists to paint murals, historians to interview ex-slaves, photographers eg. San Antonio River Walk -Civil Works Admin put 4 million to work in winter 1934 -Civilian Conservation Coprs built TX state parks -Tennessee Valley Authority: built hydro dams on Tennessee River that employed ppl and controlled flooding helping to industrialize region; damaged environ and displaced ppl with floods --> Rural Electrification Act -Grand Coulee Dam in central Washngton, largest power producing facility in US; strong on job growth and weak on civil rights/environmentalism; irrigated interior and fueled industry in Seattle and Portland during WWII -Lower Colorado River Authority: provides water, flood management, electricity, parks Historians commonly speak of a First New Deal (1933-1934), with the "alphabet soup" of relief, recovery, and reform agencies it created, and a Second New Deal (1935-1938) that offered further legislative reforms and created the groundwork for today's modern social welfare system. The second phase of the New Deal focused on increasing worker protections and building long-lasting financial security for Americans. Four of the most notable pieces of legislation included: 1. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) = jobs 2.The Wagner Labor Relations Act = workers the right to form unions and bargain collectively 3. The Social Security Act https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/rise-to-world-power/great-depression/a/the-new-deal

Why didn't the Allies just invade German-occupied France directly at the beginning of the war? ?????????

-After WWI, the British had no appetite for another stalemated western front in France, and neither the U.S. nor Britain was ready early on for a direct land invasion of heavily guarded Germany, though the U.S. was more game than Britain -The Americans, British, Dutch, Canadians, Australians, and Free French vanquished Germany and Italy from Africa. They chased the Axis Powers to the island of Sicily (west of Italy), then painstakingly up the mountainous and heavily mined Italian boot after "mini-Normandy" landings at Salerno and Anzio -The primary goals of the Italian campaign were to defeat fascist Italy and to satisfy the Soviets that the Western Allies had opened a second front at a time when they weren't fully prepared to attack Nazi forces in France and Germany. -The campaign hastened the end of fascist rule in Italy under Mussolini and occupied some German forces in the meantime.

Evaluate the role of industry in winning World War II. What advantages did the Arsenal of Democracy have over Germany and Japan?

-America's industrial advantage over Japan grew as the war progressed because U.S. factories were never bombed and the U.S. was a larger country to begin with. -Spearheaded by the War Production Board, the U.S. was out-producing Japan at a 15:1 ratio by the end of the war. -they instituted rations on items like rubber and vinyl, making tires hard to come by and temporarily ending the recording industry -Non-essential drivers got four gallons of fuel a week, while drivers helping the war effort got eight -Car production virtually came to a halt as the military compelled contracts with Ford, GM, and Chrysler for tanks, guns, jeeps, and fuselages. -The government was as involved in the economy as it had been during the Depression, except that this time Roosevelt was trying to curb inflation instead of deflation. With people making more money, but consumer goods scarce from rations, the concern was that prices would skyrocket, devaluing the dollar. FDR capped salaries, taxed the wealthy and corporations at high rates, set price ceilings on consumer goods, and encouraged people to stop installment buying and spend on war bonds instead. -In the meantime, shipyards and plants produced weapons at a staggering rate *MANUFACTURING EFFICIENCY; Ford's production methods helped bring down Ger and Jap, helped make planes quickly; US could make planes, ships, and tanks faster than destroyed and unlike Axis powers not trying to rebuild bombed-out factories, railroads, and oil refineries*

Identify NSC-68 (or Document #68) and how it changed the Cold War.

-As part of the National Security Council's list of recommendations, NSC-68, the U.S. declared that it would fight communist expansion anywhere and everywhere rather than just strategic areas. -They poured money into countries all over Asia, built air bases in Libya and Saudi Arabia, armed NATO in Europe, and dedicated research into a bigger bomb: the "Super" or hydrogen bomb. -In sum, the Cold War escalated considerably after 1949, with a dangerous nuclear arms race fueling an already intense ideological rift. -Moreover, the Chinese Revolution and NSC-68 led to future American interventions in Korea and Vietnam. While almost any area is strategic by some definition, it's a stretch to define either Korea or Vietnam as critical.

Assess how much danger the continental U.S. was in during World War II. ??????????

-At the time, Germany presented a more immediate threat to the U.S. than Japan, with their U-boats in close proximity to the East Coast and Gulf of Mexico -In February 1942, a Japanese sub fired on an oil field north of Santa Barbara and a tanker near Los Angeles. The night after the Santa Barbara attack, February 24-25th — three months after Pearl Harbor — anti-aircraft artillery at Fort MacArthurin San Pedro unleashed a middle-of-the-night barrage at a mystery aircraft over the city in the Great L.A. Air Raid. To this day, no one is sure if the craft was Japanese (to test L.A.'s defense, which was formidable) or American (to rationalize the internment of 20k Japanese from the city's Little Tokyo district). Others say it was a weather balloon or that there was never a craft to start with, while still others say it was a UFO. by a Japanese submarine against United States coastal targets near Santa Barbara, California. Though damage was minimal, the event was key in triggering the West Coast invasion scare and influenced the decision to intern Japanese-Americans.

Evaluate the U.S. decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

-Based on a letter drafted by Szilárd and signed by the normally pacifist Einstein addressed to Franklin Roosevelt, the U.S. started the secret Manhattan Project in 1939. The race was on to build the world's first nuclear weapon. Germany was home to the world's leading quantum physicist, Werner Heisenberg, who wasn't enthusiastic about the Nazis but was too patriotic to defect to the West. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers put Lt. General Leslie Groves in charge of its project. Groves, who also oversaw construction of the Pentagon, set to work lining up the country's best scientists from leading universities -Manhattan Project chief scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer was distraught and considered resigning but, instead, he led efforts into triggering plutonium through implosion. -Some people have cited racism as a motive for the U.S. dropping atomic bombs on Japan but, until 1944, the original purpose of the program was to build a weapon intended for Germany, or at least as a deterrent against a German bomb. The Allies showed no compunction about bombing German civilians with incendiary bombs. However, the war with Germany ended before they could use an atomic bomb. Meanwhile, peace talks with Japan suffered from poor communication and stubborn resistance on the part of Emperor Hirohito, who seemed little concerned with the civilian casualties suffered in the B-29 raids. Japan, not Germany, ended up in the crosshairs after the Manhattan Project had poured years of effort and money into building atomic bombs.

Explain the main criticisms that FDR got from the left and right.

-Both right and left were skeptical of these agencies -Right wing of the CCC = likened it to Soviet-style socialism -They thought the worst workers ended up on the public crews and said the largest such organization, the WPA, stood for "walk, piss and argue" or "we poke along." -some of the jobs were indeed contrived or silly, created merely just to put people to work. -According to legend, some people were paid to chase around tumbleweed on windy days. -Left = the work crews' low wages hurt unions' bargaining power Challengers to the New Deal: -Right = thought Roosevelt was destroying America's proud tradition of free-market self-sufficiency. -Some actually thought he was the Antichrist because they'd been taught big government was the devil's preferred avenue to power -Left = saw Roosevelt as a Wall Street lackey missing an opportunity for a real socialist revolution

Together, these "stiff upper-lipped" pilots, radar operators, munitions makers, and politicians held off the Luftwaffe

Der Führer later pointed to the Battle of Britain as the turning point in the war. Frustrated at their inability to defeat Britain through the air, Germany turned east and invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941

Explain how American eugenics influenced Nazi Germany.

-But South Africa, Sweden (Uppsala University), and the U.S. were epicenters of eugenic research and policy in the early 20th century -California eugenicists translated their works into German and circulated them among Nazi officials -Hitler wrote admirably of America's racist immigration policies in Mein Kampf (1924) and wrote a letter to American eugenicist Madison Grant, calling his book The Passing of the Great Race (1916) "my bible." -American support for eugenics, both intellectual and scientific, came before Americans knew that Germans had expanded their agenda beyond sterilization and breeding programs to eugenicide, or extermination.

Contrast the American foreign policy Congress expressed in the Nye Committee (1935) and Neutrality Act (1937) legislation with that of Woodrow Wilson circa 1919 (Versailles, Chapter 6) and FDR circa 1940.

-But in Depression-era America, there was only lukewarm concern for the Nazi's onslaught. -President Franklin Roosevelt was more anxious to oppose Hitler than most of Congress and the American public in the late 1930s, but even FDR wasn't a full-fledged hawk. Due to voters' skepticism about WWI, the Congressional Nye Committee outlawed American intervention in foreign wars in 1935. -In 1937, they even went so far as to outlaw American aid to any allies at war, with the third round of the Neutrality Acts. Woodrow Wilson 1919: -League of Nations -he championed a new League of Nations, but he was unable to win Senate approval for U.S. participation in the League. -Both Wilson and the GOP were willing to protect American interests, but only Wilson wanted to participate in international policing of ulterior conflicts -Article X of the Covenant of the League of Nations seemed to suggest that the U.S. military was subordinate to the League since the League could call members to fight without the authorization of the U.S. Congress. FDR 1940: -By mid-1941, around 75% of Americans opposed intervention in WWII. -If Britain fell and Japan attacked, George Washington's two-ocean buffer idea could easily turn into a pincer. FDR realized that sooner than others did and even went so far as to produce a bogus map showing Germany's intention to conquer America -FDR maneuvered around the Neutrality Acts by sending Britain destroyers in exchange for little-used bases and with programs called Lend-Lease and Cash-And-Carry. -Lend-Lease basically involved lending military equipment to Britain under the promise that they'd return it someday, but also sent aid to China and the USSR. -With Cash-And-Carry, America sold weapons at its shore for cash or gold as long as the buyer wasn't German or Japanese -FDR was slowly and deftly drawing the U.S. into a war its citizens weren't ready for. During the 1940 campaign he dishonestly promised the public that, despite Lend-Lease, no American boys would fight overseas as they had in the Great War

Identify FDR's Court-Packing Scheme and the Switch in Time That Saved 9.

-But it wasn't just curmudgeonly old judges that opposed the New Deal, or even the conservative "Four Horseman" against the liberal "Three Musketeers." -the Supreme Court simultaneously ruled that even the pillars of the moderate First New Deal, the NRA and AAA, were unconstitutional. -In response, FDR threatened to pack the Court with more judges, all favorable to the New Deal. He didn't play up the pro-New Deal angle but merely suggested adding one judge for each existing judge over 70 that refused to retire and claimed the bigger court would lighten their workload. -Called the Court-Packing Scheme -as ridiculous - with that precedent, any president could simply add judges favorable to his policies - but FDR was cleverly focusing the public's attention on the Court threatening to undo the New Deal -The Supreme Court, sure enough, backed off on its own, preempting FDR's controversial court-packing plan. -The Court okayed minimum wage, collective bargaining, and Social Security, and reverted to its broad interpretation of the Commerce Clause -In 1936, journalists nicknamed the Court's sudden change of heart the switch in time to save nine, meaning that it salvaged the traditional nine-judge Court -It was a play on an old sewing phrase a stitch in time saves nine, meaning to mend a tear before it gets larger

Explain how liberals and conservatives might interpret it differently and why it is difficult to draw helpful lessons from that recession. ???????

-But just to make things difficult for economic historians trying to learn lessons from the past, the recession also coincided with a big tax hike in the upper bracket, from 57% to 75%. It was also the first year that payrolls deducted taxes for Social Security. -Conservatives = recession shows that lack of cash among spenders (supply) caused the downturn, with the capital needed for further recovery either taxed away or forced into hiding -Liberals = blamed the recession on the reduction in federal spending and authorized more stimuli ???? -Conservative critiques of the New Deal can't plausibly argue that the economy worsened in the 30's, but rather that all the programs and interventions delayed what would've been a quicker recovery if they'd allowed the free market to work out its own kinks.. -liberals: they stopped stimulus spending too soon -Conservatives: Lack of cash supply among spenders

Summarize how NATO and the Warsaw Pact raised stakes, provided protection, and increased tensions during the Cold War.

-Dean Acheson organized a group pact called NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) the following year. NATO's terms, laid out in Article 5, were that, among all the Western countries, an attack on one was an attack on all, creating regional collective security similar to what the UN was attempting globally. -NATO was a bold step for the U.S. given its relative isolationism in the 1920s and 30's. It committed the U.S. to defend all of Western Europe and North America -The Soviets countered with the Warsaw Pact in 1955, operating on the same collective security principle in the Eastern Bloc as NATO in the West. Had any Western forces invaded Eastern Europe, the Soviets would've nuked America.

Assess the effectiveness of the Allies' aerial bombardment of Germany

-Despite the challenges and heavy casualties, bombing raids had their desired effect, as strategic bombing missions on factories, railroads, and oil refineries decimated the Nazi war machine. -On a single day in 1944, the Allies dropped over 12k bombs on the BMW aircraft engine factory in Munich. The Strategic Bombing Survey FDR commissioned in 1944-45 determined that, while Anglo-American raids failed to slow down German steel and aviation production (the BMW raid notwithstanding), they disabled oil, ammunition, submarine, and truck manufacturing (Opel and Daimler-Benz). → more efficient if they had bombed electrical grid bc factories couldnt run without power -The Nazis called the bombing campaign catastrophic

Summarize how intelligence aided U.S. efforts in the Pacific War.

-Lucky Japanese POWs were treated well on Angel Island in San Francisco Bay where the Americans' top priority was to bug their cells. By listening in on conversations, Japanese-American intelligence officers gradually pieced together an idea of Japan's naval command structure and which boats covered which parts of the Pacific. Guards kept their sources of information comfortable and well fed. -U.S. Intelligence was key throughout the Pacific War. They used Japanese-Americans to help break Japanese codes while passing their own sensitive information among Navajo Indian Code Talkers -Navajo was an unwritten and difficult language -For even better security, bilingual Indians developed a code within Navajo -The U.S. broke some Japanese codes. They learned that Commander Isoroku Yamamoto, head of the Imperial Fleet, was going to be near Guadalcanal → FDR ordered his assassination

Recognize the fundamental challenges facing the Weimar Republic,

-Drawing a simple, straight line from the Great War to Nazi Germany is overly deterministic, given that nearly fifteen years transpired in between. There's no doubt, though, that martyrdom and vengeance fueled the Nazis' rise. -Fundamental challenges facing the Weimar Republic -it was unrealistic, unfair and counterproductive to expect Germany to pay the victors' debts -Kaiser Wilhelm had to abdicate his throne, they destroyed their submarines, planes, and battleships, and Germany gave up territory in the west to France and east to the reconstituted country of Poland -*the Allies embargoed Germany for another year-and-a-half* -*the Weimar Republic struggled to get out from under the restrictions of the Versailles Treaty* -They experienced hyperinflation in the early 1920s due to the devaluation of the German Mark, recovered briefly, and then sank into a depression that exacerbated the worldwide economic slowdown of the 1930s. -Coal shortages triggered German inflation -Erratic economy + debt from war -had political problems → Its constitution muddled the relationship between the chancellors, presidents, and Reichstag (parliament). - It allowed leaders to rule without parliament's consent in an emergency but didn't clearly define emergency

Explain what Eisenhower meant in his Farewell Address by the dangers of the military-industrial complex.

-Eisenhower himself feared the contractor's influence. He discussed the potential conflict of interest in his 1961 Farewell Address, warning that lobbyists seek influence in policymaking and coining the phrase military industrial complex to describe the iron triangle of defense contractors, politicians, and the Pentagon. -the military-industrial complex (MIC) is an informal alliance between a nation's military and the defense industry that supplies it, seen together as a vested interest which influences public policy. -A driving factor behind this relationship between the government and defense-minded corporations is that both sides benefit—one side from obtaining war weapons, and the other from being paid to supply them -Even if some of this lobbying is more effect than cause, contractors did have some impact on American involvement in Vietnam and were among those pushing George W. Bush to invade Iraq in 2003. In that case, the contractors were construction and energy companies who stood to rebuild Iraq even more than weapons manufacturers. -In the context of the United States, the appellation given to it sometimes is extended to military-industrial-congressional complex (MICC), adding the U.S. Congress to form a three-sided relationship termed an iron triangle.[10] These relationships include political contributions, political approval for military spending, lobbying to support bureaucracies, and oversight of the industry; or more broadly to include the entire network of contracts and flows of money and resources among individuals as well as corporations and institutions of the defense contractors, private military contractors, The Pentagon, the Congress and executive branch

Analyze the importance and timing of the Allied landings in Normandy, France in June 1944.

-Firmly in control of the Atlantic, with the Wolfpacks at bay, the Allies prepared to invade German-occupied France. -this was the most famous "D-Day" in history and biggest amphibious assault to date, the Normandy Invasion (Operation Overlord) led by Dwight Eisenhower -they retained an element of surprise with an elaborate ruse to convince Adolf Hitler that the Allies would attack Norway and cross at a different spot in northwest France than Normandy: Operations Fortitude and Bodyguard. - Put mock tanks and planes near Dover to fool Germany into thinking they'd cross Channel at narrowest spot - English double agents in France fostered Calais deception among Nazis - Dropped paratroopers in France wks prior to kill Germans and bombed to soften up resistance (friendly fire)

Contrast Keynesian stimuli with more conservative approaches like that of Friedrich Hayek.

-For conservative economists, Keynesian spending is not worth it. There's "no free lunch" and the theory makes no more sense than saying that someone stimulates the economy by stealing from your bank and then spending the stolen money at the shopping mall. Yes, it stimulates business at the mall, but no more than would've been spent by those that had their money stolen; *it's simply a break-even diversion of funds* — the aforesaid robbing Peter to pay Paul. These critics obviously aren't buying the jumpstart portion of the theory. -Keynes' counterpart Friedrich Hayek believed that governments should balance their budgets and interfere as little as possible with the natural capitalist process of creative destruction. -For Hayek and American conservatives like Milton Friedman of the University of Chicago, stimulus spending is counter-productive hogwash. -Friedman's theory of increasing money supply (more money in circulation and greater ant of money by lower taxes)

Identify challenges the Allies faced after gaining a foothold in northern France.

-For many, like those at Omaha Beach, Normandy was a near-suicidal sacrifice. If they managed to make it off the boat, they had to wade to shore and make it across hundreds of yards of mined beach and barbed wire -By landing at Normandy, they were further away from Germany than they would've been had they crossed between Dover and Calais. Of Americans that died in WWII, ~75% died in Europe and 25% in the Pacific. Of those that died in Europe, most died between D-Day and Germany's surrender a year later. -A daunting challenge confronted the British, Polish, Free French, Canadians, and Americans led by Omar Bradley, Courtney Hodges' 1st Army and George "Blood & Guts" Patton's 3rd Army: a tortuous "hedgerow-to-hedgerow" crawl across the countryside, so named because of the shrub-lined roads and fields of France's Bocage region. -they blocked tanks and were impossible to climb, constituting a maze filled with Nazi snipers and ambushers. The Western Allies found themselves in the same rattenkrieg (rat warfare) the Soviets experienced in Stalingrad a year-and-a-half earlier. Hand-to-hand combat was common as the Allies cleared Germans from barns, groves, and villages. -the Allies suffered several defeats in northern France and the Low Countries in the summer of 1944 before making significant headway. Meanwhile, the Germans' improved V-2 Rockets terrorized Londoners.

Explain how FDR's administration tried to jumpstart the economy during the early New Deal.

-Gov spend money when no one else had money left to spend -The New Deal provided some direct relief, but mostly it focused on creating jobs through a cavalcade of government-sponsored programs that put people to work. -There is always work to be done in the form of road building, clearing trails through national forests, construction, fighting forest fires, etc

Assess the theory that Japan was on the verge of surrender before the bombings.

-Historians debate whether or not Japan was already willing to surrender, at least conditionally, prior to the atomic attacks. Truman suspected they might surrender when the Soviets entered the war. -Many analysts argue that the Japanese were willing to surrender as long as Emperor Hirohito was allowed to stay on the throne. Stalin told Prime Minister Clement Atlee as much at the Potsdam conference. -On July 17th, Japan's Foreign Minister Shigenori Togo sent this message to Russia: "If today, when we are still maintaining our strength, the Anglo-Americans were to have regard for Japan's honor and existence, they could save humanity by bringing the war to an end. If, however, they insist unrelentingly on unconditional surrender, the Japanese are unanimous in their resolve to wage a thorough going [sic] war." On July 18th, Truman wrote this: "Stalin had told [British] P.M. of telegram from Jap emperor asking for peace. Stalin also read his answer to me. It was satisfactory. Believe Japs will fold up before Russia comes in [the war]. I'm sure they will when Manhattan [the atomic bomb] appears over their homeland." -However, there's a flaw in the theory that Japan was willing to surrender as long as they retained an emperor. Despite consistent setbacks and steady erosion of territory since mid-1942, some elements in Japan wanted to fight on. The Togo message to Russia suggests they wanted to retain their territories with their current political and military leadership in place -Either way, it doesn't say: we're willing to give up, relinquish territory and step down as leaders as long as the emperor stays. According to messages he Japanese were arguing amongst themselves over what to do. Some favored a peace settlement, perhaps with the USSR acting as mediator, while others favored continuing.

Explain how Nazis revived the German economy and the significance of the 1936 Berlin Olympics.

-Hitler implemented a more aggressive Keynesian strategy of stimulus spending than his contemporary Franklin Roosevelt, rebuilding the country and putting people back to work. -Relative to GDP, Germany spent about 5x more than the New Dealers and it worked. The Nazis pioneered interstate engineering (four-lane roads, on-ramps/exits, overpasses) in their Autobahn, -Hitler not only admired Henry Ford's anti-Semitism, but also the industrial efficiency of his plants, and hoped to jumpstart Germany's economy with their own car for the common folk, the Volkswagen. -Nazis salvaged their reputation by *curbing inflation and turning around the German economy.* Germany showcased their rebuilt country in the 1936 Olympics. -The mere fact that Berlin was chosen for the games signaled their readmission into the international community and a tacit approval of fascism. -Hitler hoped to use the Olympics to prove the superiority of fascist regimes and largely succeeded -Germany finished first in the overall medal count and the U.S. second — and American Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage argued that the U.S. should consider that as a lesson on the upside of fascism. Shortly after those comments, and likely because of them, Brundage became president of the IOC -African-American Jesse Owens (left) famously humiliated Hitler by winning four gold medals in track & field. The record-breaking sprinter from Ohio St. upset Hitler's notion of Aryan superiority in front of a packed house and early television cameras. -The Olympics bought Hitler time and helped camouflage the Nazis' real intentions

Analyze the Battle of the Bulge. What factors foiled Hitler's plan to regain momentum?

-Hitler pushed back against the least experienced part of the American lines in eastern Belgium and northern Luxembourg. It was a 44-day counterpunch known as the Battle of the Bulge, intended to divide Allied troops and trap Allied armies in Belgium as the Wehrmacht captured Antwerp and drove them back to the English Channel (LC Interactive Essay). -Retreating American troops blew up their own fuel dumps to stall the Ardennes Offensive, realizing the German plan would fail without it. -Two factors turned the tide in the Allies favor: destroying their fuel paid off and clearer weather allowed bombers to target the stalled Germans. -the Allies prevailed in Belgium and made their way into Germany,

Explain why it's an oversimplification to say that the U.S. fought for democracy during the Cold War.

-Ike blazed another new trail in Cold War policy: overthrowing democracies. That sounds strange at first to American readers, because the ostensible purpose of the Cold War was to see through the victory of democracy over communism and Americans juxtaposed the two forms of government. -At times, during the Cold War, the U.S. helped overthrow socialist democracies and replace them with capitalist dictatorships. -George Kennan said The goal was to "devise a pattern of relationships to maintain that position of disparity without detriment to our national security -But his prescribed policy fits the ensuing Cold War historical record well — better at least than an oversimplified narrative of the West supporting human rights, living standards, and democracy at all costs -The United States usually valued capitalism more than democracy when the two conflicted.

Besides NATO, identify other events in 1949 that intensified the Cold War.

-In 1949, the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb, code-named Joe 1 for their leader Stalin, after Los Alamos scientist Klaus Fuchs sold them designs -Another Los Alamos employee, David Greenglass, passed on information to his communist brother-in-law, Julius Rosenberg, -Making matters worse for the U.S., Chinese communists led by Mao Zedong won their civil war over the American-backed Nationalist Party. -The Soviets got the bomb and the largest country in the world (China) went communist in the space of a couple months.

Cuban Missile Crisis

-In 1962, American spy planes confirmed their fears that the Soviets were constructing launch pads in Cuba and building a base. Low-flying Goddard jets took photos that confirmed the U-2 high-altitude photos in greater detail. -The U.S. had a mole in the Kremlin, Oleg Penkovsky, whose Menshevik father was killed by the Bolsheviks. He told them about the SS-4 missiles in Cuba that could reach the southeastern U.S., and that longer-range SS-5's were on the way that could reach the entire Lower 48. -The U.S. felt threatened by the missiles in the same way that Soviets did by the Thors and Jupiters. Kennedy huddled over the photos with his "ExComm" team (Executive Committee on the National Security Council) -At first, he wisely kept the missile photos private and even continued to campaign for his younger brother Ted in Massachusetts. He rejected advice to invade Cuba with troops preparing in Florida and instead ordered a quarantine around the island and more spy plane missions. -Then, six days after discovery of the missiles, Kennedy went public with the spy-plane photos, ratcheting up the pressure in an ensuing high-stakes game of chicken.

Summarize the basic military strategy of U.S. forces in Europe & North Africa.

-In Europe, as in Asia, the Allies executed a peripheral strategy, pushing Nazis and Italians out of North Africa and working their way up the Italian "boot" (boot-shaped peninsula). -The North African Campaign (Operation TORCH) against German, Italian, and pro-Nazi "Vichy" French forces was controversial from the start, as some Pentagon advisors thought the indirect approach was a waste of time -The time in North Africa wasn't wasted because Germany was squandering men, money, and energy in their ill-advised invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) while the Allies delayed their western invasion. -But North Africa was more than just a diversionary tactic. Fighting there seasoned American troops that needed experience and also weakened Italy, whose 10th Army the British destroyed in 1940. -In northwest Africa, American troops defeated the Germans and encouraged people of cities like Casablanca, Morocco to side with the Allies -The Americans, British, Dutch, Canadians, Australians, and Free French vanquished Germany and Italy from Africa. They chased the Axis Powers to the island of Sicily (west of Italy), then painstakingly up the mountainous and heavily mined Italian boot after "mini-Normandy" landings at Salerno and Anzio

Describe the backdrop to the Cuban Missile Crisis. Bay of pigs =

-JFK authorized the already planned CIA invasion of Playa Girón, a southern harbor known to Americans as the "Bay of Pigs," though they altered Ike's original plan in some key ways that backfired (CIA). -By the time the small CIA-trained troops arrived, the secret was out. Some ships sank on coral reefs and backup paratroopers landed in the wrong spot. The mission's two assumptions - that the CIA could handle it on their own with a small handful of rebels and no assistance from the military, and that the Cuban people would rally around the rebel force - both proved false -The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a fiasco from the U.S. perspective, resulting in the death or capture of all the forces in three days and getting Kennedy's presidency off to a rough start just two months in. The U.S. was also caught red-handed lying about the plot at the United Nations. Operation Mongoose -In the meantime, the CIA's Operation Mongoose continued to run strategic missions over Cuba, bombing railroads and factories, poisoning sugar, and engaging in other petty forms of propaganda and psychological warfare, all the while trying to kill Castro as the Mafia did the same. -Mongoose was the biggest CIA operation to date but its failure bolstered Castro's popularity and it strengthened the Soviets' argument that the only way to protect Cuba's sovereignty was to arm the island with missiles. -The Soviets also wanted to influence communism throughout Latin America and prove to China that they were the leading force for communism

Describe the backdrop to the Cuban Missile Crisis. Berlin Crisis =

-JFK got an early test when the Soviets built a wall through Berlin to stop emigration to the western (free) sector and tried to compel the U.S., British, and French to withdraw from West Berlin. They refused, but the standoff known as the Berlin Crisis of 1961 brought the Cold War factions to the brink of conflict, with missile silos on alert and soldiers and tanks lined up hundreds of yards from each other. -It was better to underscore America's NATO commitment to the rest of Europe than start WWIII over a concrete barrier separating East and West Berlin. The Soviets, meanwhile, resumed above-ground tests and exploded the gigantic 58-megaton hydrogen bomb Tsar Bomba (yields).

Contrast it with America's Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary and Britain's historical pattern of industrial/naval buildup as described by Alfred T. Mahan.

-Japan now countered the American Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary with what it euphemistically called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere -Basically Japan was taking over Asia -They were following the same logic Alfred T. Mahan had laid out for the U.S. in the 1890s in terms of acquiring overseas territories (markets) and building a strong navy to fuel domestic industry -Mahan based his theories on Britain's rise to maritime and naval prominence and the British model, not America's, fit Japan best. -Like England, Japan was a small island country and had even fewer natural resources (some coal), but they hoped to dominate the western Pacific economically with a superior navy -Conquered Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands

Evaluate America's preparation for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

-Japan resolved to deliver a preemptive knockout blow to the U.S. Navy by destroying its Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor, on Oahu -Pearl Harbor was the main American naval base in the Pacific -the U.S. learned that the main Japanese fleet had left Tokyo in late November but didn't know where they were. Many analysts figured they'd attack the most vulnerable Americans stationed in the Philippines and some ships left Pearl Harbor to defend the Philippines → Roosevelt guessed they'd attack British Malaya or Burma -As a decoy, Japanese diplomats flew to Washington to discuss a potential withdrawal from China -In Hawaii, Japanese tourists had gone up in planes and taken pictures of how the U.S. Navy arranged its boats and planes, huddled together for protection, so as to make them easier to guard. Unfortunately, that arrangement only made them more vulnerable to being destroyed in rapid succession -while U.S. Navy brass that favored destroyers over aircraft carriers ignored Harry Yarnell's 1932 mock raid launched from carriers, Yamamoto didn't. The Japanese even positioned their boats in the same place and followed his route of flying in from the northern part of Oahu on a Sunday morning -Japan's navy had modified a new type of shallow-water torpedo that the U.S. didn't know about and American underwater nets were all down to make it easier for boats to get around the harbor -Two-thousand-four-hundred Americans died that Sunday morning -Pearl Harbor could've been far worse. Not only had three American carriers — the USS Lexington, Enterprise, and Saratoga — left the base, but the Japanese called off a final, third sortie that might have exploded the Navy's fuel storage tanks at Ford Island, hindering America's capacity to fight in 1942 -all the American ships damaged at Pearl Harbor were in service at the end of the war except the Arizona, Oklahoma, and Utah, whereas all the Japanese ships in the attack were sunk during the war.

Why is the U.S. in a delicate diplomatic predicament regarding China and Taiwan?

-Korea and Vietnam are contiguous with China, and if the U.S. wasn't going to invade China directly, then it wasn't going to allow communism to spread far beyond its borders. To this day, the U.S. also backs Taiwan insofar as it would (supposedly) defend the island country from a Chinese invasion, and it sells them weapons. -Yet, to please China once it improved relations with them in the 1970s, the U.S. doesn't diplomatically recognize Taiwan -Taiwan still claims to be the "Republic of China" and fears that if it formally declared independence, China would conquer it to put down the rebellion in a region it still considers part of the "People's Republic of China." Meanwhile, the U.S. backs South Korea more unambiguously.

How Nazi Party gained adherents in Germany and abroad

-Nazis filmed French soldiers kicking around Germans who failed to doff their caps and killing uncooperative miners and factory workers. → helped recruit -Germany's erratic economy also played into Nazis' hands -The U.S. restructured Germany's debt -The US would forgive Britian and Frances debts, so those countries needed Germany's full payments to repay America -Nazis, to make a long story short, came to power through a combination of democratic elections, media manipulation, and street-level intimidation

Why do historians see FDR as more of a "pragmatic tinkerer" than a left-winger?

-New Dealers did try almost anything and some of it worked and some of it didn't -they tinkered as pragmatically as they could and, in the process, reshaped the relationship between Americans and their government. -By talking directly to Americans and promising them he had their backs and would create work for them, FDR dramatically expanded the expectations of the presidency and set a difficult standard for subsequent leaders to match 1.) He was willing to do anything and everything to fix the economy. 2.) wasn't ideological in any specific direction. 3.) moderate Keynesian-- he wanted the government to create jobs, but didn't like the deficit spending (debt)... he later changed his mind though.

How do their projects still impact us today?

-One project = San Antonio River Walk → It didn't have to be built, but it didn't need to not be built either, so why not put people to work? -Boosted the city's economy for years as a tourist attraction -Funded the UT tower and buily most of Camp Marby in west Austin Nationwide, other crews built tunnels, bridges, airports, fire towers, waterfronts, post offices, city halls, playgrounds, fairgrounds, zoos, parks, fountains, museums, community centers, swimming pools, gyms, and sports stadiums around the country. Not only did most state parks in Texas originate during the New Deal, but FDR also designated many areas that became national parks, including the Everglades, Joshua Tree, Big Bend, and the Smoky Mountains. -WPA crews paved much of Route 66, connecting Chicago to Los Angeles -WPA projects built 75k bridges, 20k miles of water mains, and 116k buildings. The Grand Coulee Dam not only successfully irrigated the interior, it fueled industry in Seattle and Portland during WWII, powering aluminum factories and production at Boeing and Kaiser Shipyards. Today, there are nine more dams on the Columbia and Grand Coulee alone provides enough clean energy to power Seattle twice over.

Evaluate the common notion that the Western Allies (the U.S., Britain & France) should've stopped Hitler in 1938.

-Polls showed that most Americans disapproved of Nazi policies, but less than 20% of the "Greatest Generation" favored opening American shores to Jewish immigrants. Eighty-Five percent of Protestants and Catholics opposed offering Jews refuge, as did 25% of Jewish Americans. We should remember, at least, that few people knew of the concentration camps in the late 1930s -The tightening up of foreign borders in the late 30's helped seal the fate of Jews trapped in Europe -None of the Allies had large armies in 1938 and they weren't prepared for war. If they'd challenged Hitler then, they might have lost the war and been worse off in the long run. -Because of changes in their constitutional status, UK Commonwealth countries Canada, Australia, and New Zealand wouldn't have necessarily fallen in behind Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) if they declared war, the way they had in World War I. -The British also lacked faith in the French military because of so much turnover among their political leaders -The British public wasn't particularly riled up about Germany taking over German-speaking areas like the Rhineland or Austria, let alone part of newly-created Czechoslovakia (1919). Was it their job to go save people who, for all they knew, didn't want to be saved? -The Allies' real mistake was not making better use of the time they bought at Munich so that they'd be better prepared later -Not everyone agrees that the Western Allies were less prepared in relation to Germany in 1938 than they were in 1939 or '40. - Hitler's own generals argued at the Nuremberg Trials after the war that the Allies missed a chance to defeat Germany as late as 1938, pointing out that bad intelligence caused the Allies to overestimate the strength of German forces at the time -Some historians think likewise, arguing that Germany would've been easier to defeat in 1938 than after 1939 -The classic appeasement-was-a-mistake interpretation of Munich isn't necessarily wrong, but it needs to be predicated on this angle: that the Allies were stronger in relation to Germany proportionally in 1938 than they were by 1939-40

Describe the decisions FDR and his cabinet faced as of December 1941.

-President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall had to lead two wars simultaneously. Should America fight both at the same time? If not, which first? The U.S. fought both wars at once, in the process growing their military 40-fold in comparison with what it was in 1940 when it was the 17th-biggest force worldwide. -They started by mainly trying to defend American territory in the Pacific rather than going on the offensive. -American planners saw Germany as a bigger long-term potential threat to the U.S. than Japan, and England as a sort of giant stationary aircraft carrier from which the U.S. and Britain could bomb Germany. -The Pentagon wanted to invade German-held France and move toward Germany on the ground, but Churchill didn't want a rerun of the previous war with its stalemated Western Front and argued that a failed offensive in France would lose the war. -Churchill favored fighting Germany in North Africa first to protect Middle Eastern oil and FDR went along with him.

Explain the collective contribution of Harry Truman, Dean Acheson and George Kennan on U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War.

-President Truman arrived at a middle containment option to stop the further spread of communism while acquiescing in communism where it already existed → the idea's proponents theorized, accurately as it turned out, that communism would eventually destroy itself if the Free World could just outlast it. -Containment overlapped with the Truman Doctrine that called for funneling weapons and money into key strategic areas to blunt communist expansion. -Containment theory was the brainchild of two men in particular: Dean Acheson in the state department and George Kennan, an American diplomat in Moscow *Kennan saw no hope for long-term peaceful co-existence because of the Soviets' hostility to global capitalism, including institutions like the World Bank and IMF. *Kennan wrote "Long Telegram"/Article X outlining logic but saw no longterm peaceful hope -The Truman Doctrine initially focused on stopping communism in strategic areas like Greece, Turkey, and Iran - hoping to not let "one rotten apple spoil the barrel" as Truman put it → later called the domino theory *Truman hoped they could influence the outcome of wars and revolutions in these areas through money and arms without sending American troops into combat, and they succeeded at first. -had new Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Department of Defense, National Security Council, CIA, NSA -Just as the Army Air Corps was the forerunner of the Air Force, the Army's Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was the forerunner to the CIA

Explain how the rise of Germany and Japan were connected. Put another way: why did the Tripartite Agreement adding a third Axis Power make sense?

-The Axis Powers of Germany and Italy signed the Tripartite Pact with their imperial counterpart Japan in September 1940 -Germany and Japan reinforced each other because Japan coveted the European-held colonies of Asia. -Germany kept Britain, France, and the Netherlands at bay in Europe, making it impossible for them to defend their territories in British Hong Kong and Singapore, French Indochina (Vietnam), and the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia).

Summarize the basic ideas behind the early (or First) New Deal.

-Repeal prohibition → didnt sig lower unemployment but boosted morale and strengthened FDR's relationshp with the ppl -Roosevelt closed all banks for a four-day "bank holiday." → They subjected them to what we'd today call stress tests in order to ferret out weaker ones, which were closed, and recapitalized the remainder -Through fire side chat said "hoarding was now out of fashion" and that on Monday they should return their cash to the reopened banks → millions of people complied and did just that, helping turn around the banking disaster -The Banking Act and Glass-Steagall Act set up the FDIC, regulated bank loans for on-margin investing, and separated regular retail commercial banking from investment banks that took greater market risks -FDR gradually converted the gold-dollar standard from $20.67 to $35 per Troy Ounce in 1933-34, and the U.S. left the gold standard completely in 1971 (Listen). The stock market rose 87% in the first three months after FDR loosened the gold standard. -National Recovery Administration (NRA) -The early New Deal also provided some relief to farmers through the Agricultural Adjustment Act, at least those that were already somewhat efficient and well-capitalized. Like banks, they weeded out the weak. -*Consequently, the First New Deal had less long-term impact than the Second (below), but it got the U.S. on a looser gold standard, shored up the banking system, spurred the stock market, and provided the public with some nutritional and psychological relief* Goal of Relief, Recovery, and Reform

What were the most important legacies of the Second New Deal of 1934-38?

-Roosevelt abandoned his earlier polite requests to industry for cooperation and sided unequivocally with labor -wanted wealthy to "meet their master" -FDR's sense of noblesse oblige (obligation of the nobility) surfaced in dramatic fashion, moving the needle of America's political spectrum to the left -*The Second New Deal featured more lasting measures than the First, including Social Security, the right to collective bargaining for unions, minimum wage, and federal housing assistance.* -*Medicaid & Medicare* -The Second New Deal improved workers' leverage as strikers and their pay through collective bargaining through the *Wagner Act* -*Minimum Wage Act*, set then at 40¢/hr. Supporters wanted to protect the dignity of each worker and make it possible to support families, but critics claimed it raised unemployment because companies could afford fewer workers and laid some off. -the Government also reformed housing during this second phase of the New Deal → *FHA* -the Supreme Court simultaneously ruled that even the pillars of the moderate First New Deal, the NRA and AAA, were unconstitutional. Five of the nine judges opposed the government's unprecedented intervention in the economy and they undercut the (interstate) Commerce Clause justification for much of the progressive legislation dating to the late 19th century 1. Even with its mixed record on civil rights, the New Deal helped all workers and consumers enough to attract minorities to the Democratic Party 2.ed to bigger government with the establishment of Social Security and its offshoot programs like unemployment insurance and Medicare. This safety net has allowed capitalism and democracy to co-exist in relative harmony since then, as has been the case in other Western democracies 3. led to bigger government with the establishment of Social Security and its offshoot programs like unemployment insurance and Medicare. This safety net has allowed capitalism and democracy to co-exist in relative harmony since then, as has been the case in other Western democracies

Analyze why the U.S. didn't attack Germany or Japan directly in 1942.

-Started by trying to defend US territory in the Pacific rather than offensive; American public HIGHER PRIORITY for Japan; FDR wanted Atlantic shipping lanes -American forces couldn't get at the home island of Japan directly. Planes couldn't carry enough fuel to make round-trip bombing missions over Japan from any American or British-held points, whether in western China, Hawaii, or Alaska. The Pentagon wanted to invade German-held France and move toward Germany on the ground, but Churchill didn't want a rerun of the previous war with its stalemated Western Front and argued that a failed offensive in France would lose the war. -Churchill favored fighting Germany in North Africa first to protect Middle Eastern oil and FDR went along with him.

Familiarize yourself with the basics of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009(2009-19 Stimulus Package): where the money went (see Provisions).

-The Act specifies that 37% of the package is to be devoted to tax incentives equaling $288 billion -$144 billion, or 18%, is allocated to state and local fiscal relief -The remaining 45%, or $357 billion, is allocated to federal spending programs such as transportation, communication, waste water and sewer infrastructure improvements; energy efficiency upgrades in private and federal buildings; extension of federal unemployment benefits; and scientific research programs.

How did the Allies confuse the Germans before the attack?

-The Allies prepared for months, amassing mock tanks and planes near Dover to fool Germany into thinking they'd cross the English Channel at the narrowest spot, across the Straits of Dover to Pas de Calais. -A network of spies in France carefully and courageously fostered the Calais deception among Nazis. These double agents were on the Nazi Abwehr's payroll but really worked for the British MI6 passing on fake intelligence to Germany -While most Nazi officers weren't fooled by the Calais ruse, the highest-ranking Nazi was. Adolf Hitler took the bait and put his best divisions along the coast near Calais, ready to confront American George Patton, who'd purposely been put in charge of the eleven "ghost divisions" near Dover because the Allies knew that the Germans thought he was their best general. -Real Allied paratroopers accidentally dropped over Belgium further confused Germany on D-Day. -As intended, Hitler saw the bombings and initial Normandy landings as a diversionary tactic intended to trick him into moving his main forces from Calais, and he kept them there based on Juan Pujol's word. -June 6, 1944 - flotilla w/ 140k troops hit beaches in NW France and smaller force invaded S France; for many, near suicidal sacrifice to defeat fascism; gave W Allies a foothold on continental Europe hadn't had since Dunkirk

Distinguish between U.S. policy toward Germany after World War II and the Allies' policy after World War I.

-The American government was anxious to avoid the mistakes of the previous generation by not over-punishing WWII's losers the way the Allies had Germany after WWI. -Despite five years of violent conflict, Japan quickly became America's biggest Pacific ally, an "ideological dam" against communism as former president Herbert Hoover called it. -Germany's heavy indebtedness only helped sink the world economy in the 1930s and led to Nazism. This time, the U.S. rebuilt West Germany's economy as best it could, hoping for a strong ally in the heart of Europe, and wrote off a big chunk of the debt they still owed from the Versailles settlement of 1919. -President Harry Truman called Herbert Hoover out of retirement because of his experience in reconstruction efforts after WWI. The ex-president opposed an expensive American military presence in Europe and Asia, arguing that it would bust the budget and turn the U.S. into an authoritarian nation. -Hoover thought it was important, though, that the U.S. help rebuild Asia and Europe financially. -With the 1920s immigration policies still in place (Chapter 7), the U.S. granted only 40k visas to Jews who survived the Holocaust from 1945-48.

What lasting impact did it have on 20th-century American history?

-The Court okayed minimum wage, collective bargaining, and Social Security, and reverted to its broad interpretation of the Commerce Clause -the Supreme Court mostly backed away from economic cases altogether until the 1980s, allowing New Deal liberalism to flourish for the next half-century and Social Security beyond that -Both the executive and judicial branches seemed to learn a lesson from the controversy. No president since has challenged the makeup of the Court and the Court hasn't picked fights with any legislation as popular as Social Security.

As in Chapter 5, know the basics of the American political spectrum in relation to economics.

-The Depression was bottoming out in 1933-34. At least things weren't getting worse, but neither was the economy rebounding toward anything like the boom years of the 1920s. Aside from reforming banking and Wall Street and feeding the hungry, the American economic engine still needed a spark -FDR didn't want to overturn capitalism, but rather to "trim the weeds and vines." -His ideas were new, but the word deal represented more of an opportunity or a mutually agreed upon arrangement than a strict policy being imposed from above by an unyielding government. -New deal technique for priming the pump

Describe the fundamental disagreement between Stalin and the Western Allies when they met at Casablanca and Tehran in 1943.

-The Grand Alliance between the U.S, Great Britain, and the USSR has been called the "Strange Alliance" because it united such an unlikely combination in their fight against Hitler. As the saying goes, war "makes for strange bedfellows." Casablanca conference -The debate and negotiations produced what was known as the "Casablanca Declaration", and what is, perhaps, its most historically provocative statement of purpose, "unconditional surrender". The doctrine of "unconditional surrender" came to represent the unified voice of implacable Allied will—the determination that the Axis powers would be fought to their ultimate defeat and annihilation. -Churchill and FDR met twice in 1943 to discuss strategy, first at the Casablanca Conference in Morocco in January. Stalin didn't attend this first meeting as he was predisposed on the Eastern Front -The U.S. would've preferred a 1943 invasion of France, but Britain lobbied to wait until 1944 while continuing to focus on the Mediterranean. Stalin wanted as much resistance in the west as possible, wherever it came from, but preferred that they invade France. -FDR and Marshall surprised everyone at Casablanca, including Churchill and other generals, when they declared on the last day that the Allies would only accept unconditional surrender from Germany. Unlike WWI, Germans would not be allowed to rule their own country immediately after the war (presuming the Allies won). He clarified that the Allies did not seek the destruction of the German or Italian populations, but rather their governments' philosophy of conquest → However, at Casablanca, FDR signaled an Allied takeover of Germany after the war, a much bigger commitment. Tehran: -In Tehran, the Western Allies agreed to open a western front against Germany in France the following year, 1944. For Stalin, it was better late than never, but he was conflicted. The sooner the U.S. and Britain opened a western front, the sooner they'd defeat Germany; yet, the later they opened a second front the more opportunity the Soviets would have to seize territory of their own in Europe. -Although all three of the leaders present arrived with differing objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran Conference was the commitment to the opening of a second front against Nazi Germany by the Western Allies.

Identify the importance of Guadalcanal (Coral Sea) and Midway in turning momentum against Japan.

-The Japanese established a foothold on the northern coast of New Guinea and threatened to take over Australia. -Americans, British, New Zealanders, and Australians fought the Japanese to a year-long muddled victory at Guadalcanal that *won them a key airstrip, Henderson Field, and helped save Australia from a Japanese invasion* -Background: The U.S. Navy got off to a rocky start at Guadalcanal and their initial defeat left Marines stranded and surrounded on the island for months without sufficient food or ammunition. → As they awaited supplies, Marines fought off mass, near-suicidal assaults by Japanese forces -*Guadalcanal and the big naval engagements offshore stemmed the tide of Japanese expansion in the South Pacific in 1942.* -*In the Battle of the Coral Sea, the U.S. Navy inflicted enough damage on Japan's fleet to limit their capacity the next month in another battle at Midway Island northwest of Hawaii* -Midway: codebrokers found out Jap thought Doolittle Raids came from Midway Island rather than USS Hornet; Jap wanted to attack and take Midway & Dutch Harbor -Put aircraft carriers nearby after using out of water trick to verify attack -The U.S. knew the Japanese were planning a major attack on a location they called "AF." Experts couldn't agree on where AF was, so they sent a message they knew the Japanese would intercept from Midway saying that the base there was out of water. They intercepted a Japanese message stating that AF was out of water, confirming the tiny island as the target. -Goal was to attack each other carriers and Jap tried to destroy those but took precious time; group under Mccluskey turned around as low on fuel and spotted Jap destroyer coming toward main carrier grp, Squadron nose dived and destroyed 3 Jap carriers and sev smaller ships (5 of the most productive minutes in military history) -*The Battle of Midway was the first naval defeat of Japan's modern history and a costly one at that. Four of Japan's six carriers were gone, along with 40% of their top tier pilots* -*it allowed the U.S. to catch up to Japan in the size of its carrier fleet.*

Should the U.S. have seen the attack coming?

-The U.S. sank a Japanese sub off the coast an hour before the bombing started on December 7th but commanders didn't consider that an unusual enough occurrence that it indicated a broader attack. Radar operators also picked up some signals but radar was new at the time and their commanders wrote off the signals as American boats and planes arriving from the mainland -The serene Hawaiian setting created a sense of complacency on American bases and most of the soldiers and sailors were teenagers with no serious expectation of an imminent battle, especially a surprise attack when the two countries weren't at war. -there were clues of an impending attack and mistakes made in failing to notify Hawaii as quickly as officials might have. -American Intelligence had at least a partially decoded a message from the Japanese navy to their embassy in Honolulu from September 24th, 1941 requesting information on Pearl Harbor ship location and geography. This so-called "bomb plot message" was never relayed to the U.S. Navy. - British agent Dušan Popov tried to warn FBI director J. Edgar Hoover that they had picked up on rumors of a Pearl Harbor attack and that the Japanese were asking Germany if they knew how the depth of Pearl Harbor compared to Taranto and if Pearl had anti-torpedo nets. -Commanders in Hawaii never learned what Popov told the FBI -never conveyed — vital information in order to not reveal that they'd broken the Japanese code (JN-25 but not JN-25b), including that Japanese were spying on Pearl Harbor and suggesting that they were planning an attack if negotiations didn't improve by November 25th

Identify the victims of the Holocaust.

-The result was their own schoolyard memorial housed suitably in a boxcar with 11 million paperclips sent by people all over the world — 6 million for Jewish victims and another 5 million for Gypsies, homosexuals, and other targeted groups -Nazis wiped out most of the European Jewish population, slaughtering at least six million Jews and another three million homosexuals, Gypsies (Romani), dissident intellectuals and theologians, people with disabilities, Poles, Soviet POWs, Jehovah's Witnesses, and "Swing Kids," or Swingjuden

Summarize the basic military strategy of U.S. forces in the Pacific War.

-Their first two objectives were to secure the Burma Road — a makeshift supply route Chinese and Burmese built with hand-held tools (above) to connect them to British-held Burma — and defend the connection across the southern Pacific between the U.S. mainland, Hawaii, and Australia Pacific War Strategy -Partly to pique public interest — it had been six months since Pearl Harbor — and partly to inflict damage, the U.S. ran some one-way strategic bombing missions over Japan, known as the Doolittle Raids after their leader, James Doolittle -Aside from the Doolittle Raids, America employed a peripheral strategy in the Pacific, painstakingly nibbling away at Japan's vast empire from the perimeter in -gradually retake tiny islands in the Pacific until they worked their way back to within striking range of Japan -Island-hopping cleared shipping lanes for destroyers, cruisers, and aircraft carriers, which were even more valuable than islands as mobile runways. Moreover, they needed to clear Japanese forces from the oil and rubber-rich areas in the outer part of their conquered territory to undermine their war machine. -The U.S. leapfrogged some insignificant or heavily fortified islands if there was an easier target beyond it. They called this strategy "hitting 'em where they ain't" after a popular baseball phrase. -The U.S. coveted small islands mainly as spots to build runways on. Planes could then take off from the new airstrip to help soften up the next island. There, Marines landed on the beach while the Navy bombed the island from offshore. -Lucky Japanese POWs were treated well on Angel Island in San Francisco Bay where the Americans' top priority was to bug their cells. By listening in on conversations, Japanese-American intelligence officers gradually pieced together an idea of Japan's naval command structure and which boats covered which parts of the Pacific. Guards kept their sources of information comfortable and well fed. -Merchant Marine for supply chain -Seabees: army Corps of Engineers -US intelligence, used Navajo Indian Code Talkers; BROKE JAPANESE CODE

Describe early fascist expansion and identify the phrase Remember Munich.

-They made their first expansionary move in March 1936, retaking the Rhineland region ceded to France after WWI. That included the industrially important Ruhr Valley -Their next moves were the German-speaking Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, a country created from scratch at Versailles, then on to Hitler's home country, where Austrian Nazis helped expedite a mostly bloodless takeover called the Anschluss. -Hitler took advantage of their desire for peace, knowing that he could get away with more than he would have had they not been haunted by WWI. And he took advantage of the widespread hatred of Jews throughout the Western world -after, when WWII broke out, only the Danish, among occupied countries, refused to cooperate with their arrest, instead smuggling Jews in fishing boats to neutral Sweden. -Remember Munich has become a catchphrase among Hawks in almost any circumstance since, meaning that problems are better nipped in the bud early on before they get out of control later -The much-reviled Munich Pact is often either the reason for war or at least the reason provided to the public to justify war if there are other reasons -In the 1938 Munich Pact, Hitler agreed to not expand any further beyond what he'd already taken, including the Sudetenland, but the Allies got nothing in return other than temporary peace and that empty promise. Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia five months later and Poland and France within two years.

Critique the theory that stimulus spending doesn't work — that only WWII lifted the U.S. out of the Great Depression

-What really pulled the economy out of the doldrums was increased defense spending after 1939, when World War II started in Europe. -While critics commonly use WWII as their basis for discrediting the New Deal and stimulus spending, they're ignoring the obvious fact that defense spending was government spending. -When the U.S. entered WWII at the end of 1941, federal spending quickly ballooned to 10x more than the 1930s. If anything, the war's role in ending the Depression is an argument on behalf of stimulus spending

Analyze what interests compelled the U.S. to embargo the oil and steel trade to Japan.

-When Japan invaded northern Indochina and signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany in September 1940, the U.S. cut off aviation fuel and steel/scrap metal to both countries and froze Japanese assets in American banks. -American oil companies had seen enough, especially Socony Vacuum/Jersey Standard, a subsidiary of Standard, the company now known as ExxonMobil and Chevron. They had wells, refineries, and stations in Dutch Indonesia, and felt threatened by Japan's invasion of Indochina to the west. -FDR "put the noose around Japan's neck" just enough they'd feel the tug, by embargoing all crude oil unless Japan retreated out of Southeast Asia and China -Japan either had to give up their imperial ambitions and retreat or go for broke and try to knock the U.S. and Britain out of the Pacific so they could take the oil for themselves

What advantage did the Allies have in Europe regarding air power that they lacked initially in Asia?

-While the Allies hadn't yet invaded German-held France or Germany, they had an advantage in Europe they lacked in Asia insofar as they could fly round-trip bombing missions over Germany in B-17 Flying Fortresses. -that was one reason it was critical to keep Germany from overtaking Britain since American, British, and Free French planes took off from England.

Explain why the New Deal wasn't progressive on racial, civil rights issues for the most part.

-Why would FDR and Congress go out of their way to marginalize Blacks and Mexicans? In order to get Southern Democrats like Ellison "Cotton Ed" Smith of South Carolina and KKK-member Theodore Bilbo of Mississippi on board with the New Deal. -*Keep in mind how divisive Democrats had been in the 1920s, torn between northern ethnic immigrants and rural, white Southerners. Roosevelt being a "party unifier" in the 1930s was code for civil rights would have to wait and minorities bore the worst brunt of the Depression+ -the New Deal was initially built on the foundation of Jim Crow. FDR didn't support a key anti-lynching bill in order to keep the Democrats united. -But civil rights were not part of the New Deal agenda despite the wishes of FDR's wife, Eleanor (his 5th cousin), at least for the most part. But she successfully insisted that African Americans be included in the National Youth Administration (NYA) that focused on job creation for 16-25 year-olds. -*FDR couldn't support civil rights without destroying the Democratic coalition and that coalition still had huge challenges in front of it*

Identify the Roosevelt Recession of 1937.

-With the economy improving by the time of his 1936 reelection, he pulled the plug on most of the public works projects in order to balance the budget -In other words, Roosevelt pulled the plug too soon, not keeping the foot on the Keynesian pedal long enough -The recession of 1937-1938 was an economic downturn that occurred during the Great Depression in the United States. -As in the 1920s, the Fed's seesawing policy confused investors, bankers, and employers that needed to plan ahead. Many economists see that monetary contraction as the primary cause of the recession. -All we know for certain is that the simultaneous contractionary policies of spending cuts, a tax increase, and tight money put a bump in the road to recovery.

How did the economic role of women change during World War II?

-Women worked in transportation, agriculture, and factories -The song "Rosie the Riveter," while about one woman, came to represent this entire part of the workforce. Latinas were called Rosita Riveters. While these workers were the biggest and most memorable face of female involvement in the war, others were directly involved in the military as nurses, spies, entertainers (USO), pilots, and mathematicians -Army psychologists figured that having women in the cockpit soothed men's nerves and made the challenge seem more attainable, especially with large bombers. Female pilots also ferried planes between non-combat zones. The purported soothing effect of women in the air led to more stewardesses than stewards as flight attendants on commercial flights after the war. -The Navy also had an all-female volunteer unit called WAVES (Women Accepted For Volunteer Emergency Service). -Other mathematically inclined women, nicknamed "computers," crunched tens of thousands of equations in the Los Alamos calculation wards, searching for the best ways to set off a nuclear reaction -Some men were threatened or put off by Rosie Riveters and WASPs and feared the war would embolden a feminist movement. Consequently, the government was tasked with a balancing act in its promotional films, often featuring the Riveters assuring anxious viewers that they looked forward to returning to the domestic sphere after the war

Explain how the USSR factored into the decision to drop the bombs and Japan's decision to surrender.

-by Potsdam in late July 1945, the U.S. feared the Soviets were getting in on the spoils at the end after the U.S. had done the heavy lifting. The U.S. had, by now, tested one of "the gadgets" in New Mexico (a plutonium bomb that exceeded expectations three-fold) — all the more reason they didn't need Soviet help. -Moreover, bombing Japan could demonstrate the new weapon for the Soviets' benefit, or even preclude them from taking more territory in East Asia than they already had, perhaps even Japan itself. -the Soviets had a larger army, but the U.S. now had a new "master card" to offset that and they wanted the Soviets to know they were willing to use it → willingness to use it on humans

Outline some of the ideological bases for German fascism (religious, economic, historical, scientific).

-fascism — a jingoistic form of dictatorship that compels allegiance to a militaristic state -Fascism promotes order, racial superiority, and militarism. Since fascist states promise to get rid of the inefficiency, argumentation, and messiness of democracies, they're appealing to countries undergoing the sort of trauma Germany was suffering in the late 1920s and early 30's -He remained a Catholic until the end of his life but he privately expressed animosity toward the Church -school children learned and recited that Hitler himself was the savior in their pledge of allegiance. Some Catholics defiantly rejected the Nazis and never cooperated. They, along with Protestants who spoke out, were sent to concentration camps with Jews -From Christianity, they took anti-Semitism. -"Positive Christianity," they displayed copies of Protestant reformer Martin Luther's On the Lies of the Jews (1543) at their rallies -Mostly, though, Nazis played on modern racial and economic anti-Semitism. They tapped into modern Gentiles' resentment that Jews were disproportionately represented in high-profile fields like banking, journalism, entertainment, and retail ownership. -Hitler stressed that Jews, along with communists, were responsible for Germany's downfall in WWI, though neither played any demonstrable role that historians can see, and neither constituted a large percentage of the population. -From philosophy, Nazis drew on a key misinterpretation of Friedrich Nietzsche; They also took Nietzsche's idea of the Übermensch who rises above the common herd and its old-fashioned black-and-white notions of morality and applied it to Aryanism -From science and history, Nazis espoused a crude version of survival-of-the-fittest evolutionary theory and grafted it onto society, reducing history to a biological struggle -lesser minds transformed Darwin's real science of natural selection into racist social science and back into pseudo-science -Known as eugenics -was to study why everyone else in the world was inferior to blond-haired, blue-eyed Nordic Europeans and then use that science to justify ethnic cleansing.

Was the U.S. fair in court-martialing Husband Kimmel and Walter Short?

-finger-pointing commenced immediately, with officers on the ground in Hawaii (rightfully) blaming military brass in Washington for not keeping them fully informed and brass blaming the Hawaiian bases for being unprepared. -Court martials followed that wasted time and money while unfairly scapegoating the leaders in charge of Pearl Harbor: Pacific Fleet Commander Husband Kimmel and Army Field Command Walter Short, ruining both of their careers and reputations. -information came in on the night of December 6th-7th indicating an attack and by early in the morning even the location. However, by the time everyone at Operation Magic got out of bed and Stark, FDR, and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall pieced the cobbled messages together, figured out what was going on, and transcribed each other's messy handwriting, they sent a telegram via Western Union that ended up being delivered by a bicycle courier to Kimmel eight hours after the attack -Kimmel was cleared of charges after the war but never regained his rank. No, FDR didn't deliberately withhold information about Pearl Harbor, but the dereliction of duty charges that besmirched Kimmel and Short's reputations should've been aimed at their superiors, if anyone.

Describe the fundamental disagreement between Douglas MacArthur and Harry Truman that led Truman to fire MacArthur early in the Korean War.

-led by Douglas MacArthur, they launched a surprise attack on the west coast port of Inchon. Building momentum from the Inchon Landing, they took control of nearly the entire country, chasing communists across the Korean-Chinese border along the Yalu River. That, however, scared the Chinese into sending 300k troops to confront them. -At that point, MacArthur wanted to roll into China and overthrow Mao Zedong, but President Truman held him back because that exceeded the U.N. mandate to just secure South Korea. -Truman also disapproved of the general's plan to use a string of 26 atomic bombs to create an impenetrable radiation belt to fence in the communists. -For Truman, "Mac" was a "pompous ass" that disrespected him, once saying he wasn't about to take orders from a "failed haberdasher" (Truman went bankrupt running a hat store as a young man, whereas Mac was born to military blue-bloods dating to the Civil War -Truman pulled rank and fired MacArthur "so there would be no doubt or confusion as to the real purpose and aim of our policy...the cause of world peace is much more important than any individual." -While the public backed Mac, the move ultimately destroyed both men's careers. MacArthur got a ticker-tape parade in New York and overwhelming support while Truman's approval ratings plummeted.

Huey Long

-louisiana governor -FDR's most notorious leftist critic and a potential rival for the presidency -His Share Our Wealth program diverted oil company profits to building roads, bridges, and schools in that mostly impoverished state → never used the words socialism or communism -He simply asked the poor majorities if they thought the time had come to redistribute some of the oil wealth, couching his policies in Christian themes Assassinated

Dissect the breakdown in the relationship between the U.S. and Japan in the early 1940s.

-the U.S. helped China fight Japan with the flying tigers -But the lobbies that stood to gain selling oil and metal to Japan were still dictating American policy, even as the U.S. sided with China -During the Moscow Trials of 1936-38 concerning a Trotskyist plot to overthrow Joseph Stalin, it came to light that Japan was working with the rebels and hoped to sign an oil deal with the new Russian leaders -That would relieve them of their dependence on American oil and allow them to stockpile reserves in the event of a future U.S. wa -oil was indeed the indirect cause of war between Japan and the U.S.

Consider from the introduction to this chapter (and portions of the previous chapter) how the Normandy Invasion was connected to the Eastern War between the Soviets and Germans.

By 1944, the U.S. and its allies had swung momentum in their favor, but were still a long way from victory, especially if they defined victory as completely vanquishing Germany and Japan. In the Pacific, the U.S. was almost close enough to run round-trip bombing missions over Japan, while in Europe Soviets were winning a grinding tank war of attrition against the German Wehrmacht across Eastern Europe. The Western Allies, rightfully fearing that the USSR (Soviet Union) would keep whatever it conquered, resolved to invade France and begin their own push toward Germany. Supreme Allied Commander Dwight Eisenhower organized the invasion along with British Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery

Describe how the federal government intervened in housing during the New Deal

the Government also reformed housing during this second phase of the New Deal. -The government thought Americans would feel a greater stake in their country and capitalism as owners than renters, so it intervened in the economy to encourage buying. -The Federal Housing Administration (1934), or FHA, parent to loaners such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, made low-interest loans to qualified borrowers, creating America's unique system of long 15- and 30-year mortgages with just 10% for down payment (now often 20%, post-2008). -by making homes more affordable, they transformed America's geography and spurred growth in insurance, construction, retail, and real estate -Impact wasnt felt until after WW2 -qualified borrower = white -One of the more racist aspects of the New Deal was that redlined districts with no minority or Jewish homeowners received preferential (lower) rates while minorities were stuck with subprime mortgages (higher interest rates) -The early FHA essentially enshrined racism and segregation as public policy.