History Final Abroad

Rudolf Slanksy

-Czech Communist politician. Held post of General Secretary after WII, leading creator of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia -After split between Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and Stalin, Stalin instigated wave of purges of respective Comm. Party leaders to prevent more split between USSR and eastern bloc. Slansky was one of 14 leaders arrested in 1952 and put on show trial. -he was executed -Gottwald sacrificed him (1948 coup??) -encroached on Gottwald's position as president after resignation of Benes -Stalin backed Gottwald because he was believed to have better chance of building up Czechoslovak economy to produce goods for USSR -Jewish, accused of Zionism

Communist takeovers

-During Yalta conference: agreed that USSR would be seen as "soviet sphere of influence". Albania 1944: Communists gained power immediately after the war, little opposition Poland 1945: coalition govt took power after war, but Stalin arrested hte non-communist leaders in 1945 and all other non-comm. were forced into exile Bulgaria 1946: Left wing coalition govt took power after war. Then comm. members executed leaders of other parties Romania 1947: in 1945 comm. became Romanian prime minister. In 1947, Comm. removed monarchy Czechoslovakia 1948: left wing coalition govt won elections in 1945. Comm. began single largest party but still a coalition. IN 1948 banned all other parties Hungary 1949: Captured capital in 1945. In 1947 Comm. became majority in politics. Opposition politicians were arrested and Church leaders were attacked East Germany 1949: Russia already owned east part of Germany given to them during Yalta. Oct. 1949 turned East Germany into its own state

Prague 1968

-Prague Spring: period of political liberation in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after WWII -started when Dubcek was elected First Sect. of KSC party -stopped when USSR invaded country to halt reforms -strong attempt by Dubcek to grant additional rights to the citizens of Czechoslovakia in an act of partial decentralization of the economy and democratization -loosening of restrictions of media, speech, travel -split country into Czech Republic and Slovak Republic: only decision that survived end of Prague Spring -followed by period of "normalization" where leaders attempted to restore political and economic values that prevailed before Dubcek (Husak)

Solidarity

-Solidarity: independent trade union that emerged from the strike. Labor movement representing workers, union assumed role of national reform lobby to change politics in Poland. -first trade union in Warsaw pact country that was not controlled by comm. party -broad anti-bureaucratic social movement: advance workers' rights -govt attempted to destroy union by imposing martial law in Poland from 1981-1983 -round table talks between govt and Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989 -Solidarity-led coalition government formed: Walesa elected president of Poland -supported by the Pope

Samizdat

-a key form of dissident activity across Soviet bloc in which individuals reproduced censored and underground publications by hand and passed the documents from reader to reader -grassroots practice to evade official Soviet censorship was fraught with danger, harsh punishments risked -Havel's essay The Power of the Powerless -originated from dissident movement of Russian intelligentsia

Warsaw Pact

-collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw among Soviet Union and 7 Soviet satellite states during Cold war -military complement to Comecon -created in reaction to integration of West Germany into NATO -largest military engagement was Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 (Albania did not engage) -pact unravelled with spread of revolutions in 1989

Visegrad four

-cultural and political alliance of four CEE states: Czech, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia -purpose of furthering European integration and advancing cooperatino -started in 1991 -

Titoism

-described as post WWII policies and practices associated with Tito during Cold War -characterized by an opposition to Soviet Union -policies based on principle that in each country, the means of attaining ultimate communist goals must be dictated by the conditions of that particular country, rather than by a pattern set in another country -advocated cooperation through Non-aligned movement -

Poznan, Poland 1956

-first of several massive protests against communist govt of People's Republic of Poland. -demonstrations by workers demanding better working conditions, met with violent repression -death toll was between 50-100 people. -important milestone on way to installation of less Soviet-controlled government in Poland in October

Stalinism

-included rapid industrialization, theory of socialism in one country, centralized state, collectivization and agriculture, cult of personality , subordinatino of interests of foreign communist parties to those of USSR Communist Party -promoted escalation of class conflict, utilizing state violence to forcibly purge society of claimed supporters of bourgeoisie, regarding them as threats to pursuit of comm. revolution -political violence -set up joint venture contracts with major American private enterprises like Ford Motor Company -1922-1953

Public Against Violence

-political movement established in Bratislava, Slovakia in Nov. 1989: Slovak counterpart to Czech Civic Forum -VPN: founded during Velvet Revolution which overthrew comunist party rule. -after student demonstration in PRague in 1989 ended by riot police, Civic Forum started, also VPN: coalition of opposition groups demanding removal of COmmunist leadership -movement included cultural figures, religious and intellectual dissidents -Vladimir Meciar: helped to lead the group as well as Dubcek -called for dominant role of Comm. party to be ended, with provisional govt formed composed both of Communist and the opposition, leading to free election -also called for new democratic federation between Czechs and Slovaks -those who were a part of VPN left to found Christian Democratic movement -Slovak nationalism during 1990 elections, gained during campaign: finished first in Slovakia in federal and Slovakia elections. -split in 1991 when Prime Minister of Slovakia Vladimir Meciar formed rival wing of party called PAV: platform for Democratic Slovakia (accused of wanting independent Slovakia and joining with Communists..really just wanted less vigorous economic reforms to better Slovakia standing) -percieved as composed of elite, lost trust of the people, couldn't establish popular constituency

Ronald Reagan

-president from 1981 to 1989 -cut taxes, increased defense spending, negotiated a nuclear arms reduction agreement with Soviets and is credited with bringing end to Cold War -first term marked by massive buildup of US weapons and troops and escalation of Cold War (which didn't end until 1991). -Reagan Doctrine: America provided aid to anticommunist movements in Africa, Asia, Latin America -1983: Strategic Defense Initiative : plan to develop space based weapons to protect America from attacks by Soviet nuclear missiles -sent Marines to Lebanon as part of peacekeeping effort after Israel invaded. -invaded Grenada after Marxist rebels overthrew govt. -During 2nd term: formed relationship with Gorbachev. Signed historic agreement to eliminate intermediate range nuclear missiles -Reagan spoke at Berlin Wall and challenged Gorbachev to tear it down -

Securitae, Romania

-secret police agency of Socialist Republic of Romania -founded in 1948 with help from Soviet NKVD -following overthrow of Ceausescu in 1989, lived on until 1991 when Parliament approved law reorganizing it -one of the largest secret police forces in Eastern bloc -arrests, torture, and deaths of thousands of people

Show Trials

-signficant part of Stalin's regime. Moscow Trials of Great Purge period (1937), within the Eastern bloc -public trail in which judicial authorities have already determined the guilt of the defendant -actual trial only goal is to present verdict so public will see it as warning to other transgressors -

Dwight Eisenhower

-supreme commander of Allied forces in Western Eur. during WWII: led invasion of NAzi occupied Eur. on D-Day. -President of US from 1953 to 1961. Main goal in office was to contain expansion of Soviet Union (reduce tensions through military negotiations after death of Stalin in 1953) and reduce federal deficits. In 1953, threatened use of nuclear weapons until China agreed to terms regarding POWs in Korean War... ended war in Korea -Authorized establishment of NASA, led to Space Race -farewell address: warned nation against dangers of Cold War "military industrial complex" -authorized CIA to undertake operations against communism around the world (Guatemala and Iran) -Eisenhower with Dulles strengthened NATO and SEATO

Nationalism

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Berlin blockade

1948-49: Stalin was taking over eastern Europe and America had just adopted Truman Doctrine. Blockade was part of Cold War. Stalin wanted to destroy Germany and strip East Germany of its wealth. Britain and America wanted to rebuild Germany's industry. March 1948, Congress voted for Marshall Aid, which Stalin saw as undermining Russian influence. Russians started stopping all road and rail traffic into Berlin. After Britain and America introduced new currency into Bizonia (united zone of Germany), Stalin stopped all traffic. Stalin claimed new currenc was an attempt to wreck the East German economy. USSR had already disagreed with Britain/US at Potsdam (July 1945) about Germany.

Glasnost

1968 -slogan for increased government transparency (popularized by Gorbachev) -a commitment to getting Soviet citizens to discuss publicly their problems of their system and seek solutions -encouraged scrutiny of leaders and airing of mass media -vague /limited alternative to more basic liberties: not quite freedom of speech -linked to ideas of USSR reform: democratization. Attempts by Gorbachev to reduce corruption at top of Communist Party -the brief distinct period from 1986-1991 : time of decreasing censorship and greater freedom of information but there was still central control of info until end of USSR in 91 -led to greater nationalist calls, calls for greater independence. Enabled greater contact between Soviet citizens and Western world: restrictions on travel loosened, clearer picture of better living standards in the West -exposed extremely weak Soviet economic system

Franjo Tujdman

A Croatian politician. Following country's independence from Yugoslavia he became first President of Croatia and seved from 1990 to 1999. -founded Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in 1989 -pressed for creation of independent Croatia -Areas with Serb majority revolted against independence: cease fire signed in 1992, but war spread to Boznia where Croats fought in alliance with Bosniaks

Leonid Brezhnev

A Soviet politician who led the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982 as general secretary of Communist Party of Soviet Union (CPSU). Global influence of USSR grew under his lead, expansion of Soviet military. Beginning of economic and social stagnation of Soviet Union. -conservatism and carefulness to decide things with consensus of rest of Politburo: political stability within country. But had hostility towards reform and created corruption and socioeconomic decline in the country. Internal problems were compounded by arms buildup. Had aggressive foreign policy (Prague Spring), wanted detente during Cold War

East Germany

A communist state in Central Europe during Cold War period. It was a socialist workers and peasants' stae. From 1949-1990: administered the portion of Germany that was occupied by Soviet forces at end of WWII. Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin but did not include it. -Soviet occupation authorities transferred administrative responsibility to German Communist leaders in 1948, governed by Socialist Unity Party (SED). -centrally planned economy, state-owned. Prices were set by central govt planners. Emigration to West was problem. -1989: social, economic, political problems in GDR led to fall of Berlin wall -dissolved in 1990

Yugoslav Partisans

A communist-led resistance to the Axis power in occupied Yugoslavia during WWII. Considered to be most effective Anti-axis resistance movement. Led by Communist party of Yugoslavia headed by Tito. -

imperial overreach

A hypothesis that suggests that an empire can extend itself beyond its ability to maintain or expand its military and economic commitments. -occurred with Soviet Union

Perestroika

A political movement for reform within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during 1980s until 1991 associated with Gorbachev. -cause of dissoution of USSR -allowed more market like reforms, not to end command economy but to make socialism work more efficiently to better meet needs of Soviet citizens -exacerbated tensions, furthered nationalism

percentages deal

A secret agreement between Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and British prime minister Winston Churchill during 4th Moscow Conference on OCt. 1944: discussed how to divide Eastern European countries into spheres of influence. The agreement was made public by Churchill 12 years later in his memoir. -Churchill suggested that SU have 90% influence in Romania and 75% in Bulgaria while UK would have Greece, and each would have 50% of Hungary and Yugoslavia. -Churchill so committed to agreement that he condoned harsh policies in Eastern Europe. -By 1946, denounced SU

Brezhnev Doctrine

A soviet foreign policy outline in 1968. Retroactively justified invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 that ended Prague Spring and other Soviet military interventions like in Hungary in 1956. Interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that could compromise Eastern Bloc, which was considered by Soviets to be necessary buffer in case hostilities with NATO broke out. Policy meant that only limited independence of satellite states' communist parties allowed, no country could compromise Eastern Bloc. No country could leave Warsaw Pact. -principles were so broad, justified military intervention in non-Warsaw PAct nation of Afghanistan in 1979. Stayed in effect until 1981 when Gorbachev refused to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989.

Enver Hoxha

Albanian communist politician who served as head of state of Albania from 1944 to 1985. -committed series of political repressions: forced labor camps, executions, evictions of families -use of Stalinist methods to destroy associates who threatened his power -Yugoslav Partisans assisted Albanians but Hoxha disagreed with their goal of preventing creation of Greater Albania. After liberation of the country, monarchy abolished, Hoxha rose to power -Tito thought that Albania was too weak to stand on its own and should be made part of Yugoslavia -after Soviet break with Yugoslavia, Hoxha aligned himself with Soviet Union. -Albania moved closer to China

Marshall Plan/ERP (European Recovery Plan)

Also known as European Recovery Program, channeled over 13 billion dollars to finance economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951. Americans perceived the plan as generous subvention to Europe. USSR saw it as attempt to interfere in internal affairs of other states and refuse to participate. Soviets prevented Poland and Czech. from taking part -kept US from backsliding into depression by providing market for US capital goods -allowed US to remake European economy in image of American economy -plan promoted European integration and federalism, created better environment for American investment -also helped prevent spread of communism (UK, France, West Germany) -created by President Truman

George Kennan

American diplomat and historian. Advocate of policy of containment of Soviet expansion during Cold War and later reversed himself. During late 1940s, writings inspired Truman Doctrine and foreign policy of containing USSR. His "long telegram" from Moscow in 1946 argued that Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be contained in areas of vital strategic importance to US. -played role in development of Cold War programs and Marshall Pkan -after his concepts became US policy started to argue that positive dialogue could happen with Soviets. Kennan's influence was marginalized.

John Foster Dulles

American diplomat. Served as United States Secretary under Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. Significant figure during Cold War: advocated aggressive stance against communism. Concentrated on building Cold War alliances, mainly NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), created Southeast Asia Treaty Organization which was an anti-Communist defensive alliance between US and several nations in and near Southeast Asia. Helped instigate 1953 Iranian coup d'etat and 1954 Guatemalan coup d'etat... favored strategy of massive retaliation in response to Soviet aggression -pioneer of "brinkmanship"

Truman Doctrine

An American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. First announced in 1947. Pledged to contain threats to Greece and Turkey. -Congress appropriated financial aid to support -implied Americans support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism -became foundation of NATO -use Truman as start of Cold War -Kennan's policy of containment

People's Democracy

An ideological concept conceived by communist parties in the aftermath of WWII -allowed in theory for multiclass, multiparty democracy on the pathway to socialism. - idea of Socalism in One Country of Stalin: "theoretically" worked with coalition govt towards socialism

Turkish Straits

At conclusion of WWII, Turkey was pressured by Soviets to allow Russian shipping to flow freely through the Turkish Straits, which connected Black Sea to Mediterranean -Turkish govt would not submit to USSR's requests, tensions rose. Led to show of naval force on side of Soviets -British assistance to Turkey ended but US dispatched military aid to ensure Turkey would retain control of the passage • Internationally significant waterways in northwestern Turkey that connect Aegean and Mediterranean seas to the Black Sea. • Turkey joined NATO to seek protection from Soviet Union through Truman Doctrine

Berlin Wall

August 1961: Communist government of German Democratic Republic (East Germany) started to build wall: antifascist bulwark between East and West Berlin. Purpose was to keep Western fascists from entering East Germany and undermining socialist state, served to stop defection from East to West. Berlin Wall stood until November 9, 1989. At end of WWII in 1945, pair of Allied peace conferences at Yalta and Potsdam determined fate of Germany's territories. Split Germany into 4 zones: eastern part went to USSR, western part went to US/Britain/France -Berlin was split as well. USSR took eastern half, Allies took western half. -USSR wanted to drive Western allies out of Berlin. 1948 blockade. -Tensions flared again in 1958: Soviets launched Sputnik before, embarrassed by refugees from east to west, decided to build wall. -Premier Krushnev gave East German govt permission to close border: could only go through three checkpoints: Helmstedt, Dreilinden, Checkpoint Charlie. -171 people killed trying to get over wall. Escape from East Germany was not impossible, more than 5,000 East Germans managed to cross border discreetly -1989: cold war thawed

Berlin airlift

Berlin Blockade (June 1948-May 1949) was the first major international crisis of Cold War. During occupation of post-WWII Germany, Soviets blocked Western Allies' railway, road, canal access to sectors of Berlin under Western control since Berlin was located within Soviet zone of occupation in Germany. Soviets offered to drop blockade if Western Allies withdrew Deutsche Mark from West Berlin, wanted more say in economic future in Germany. -blockade made USSR look like bullies starving its people and showed the technological superiority of the US Western allies organized Berlin airlift (June 1948-Sept. 1949) in response: carried supplies to people of West Berlin, hard because of large population. Aircrews from the US, Britain, French, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa flew 200,000 flights in one year to provide West Berliners with necessities. Soviets didn't disrupt airlift out of fear of conflict. By spring 1949, airlift delivering more than railways had before. USSR lifted blockade of West Berlin.

Georgi Dimitrov

Bulgarian communist politician. First communist leader of Bulgaria from 1946 to 1949. -Leipzig Trial: arrested for setting Reichstag on fire, decided to refuse counsel and defend himself against his Nazi accusers and defend ideology of communism. Stalin afterwards appointed him head of the Cominterm. -negotiated with Tito on creation of Federation of Southern Slavs. Idea based on idea that Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were the only two homelands of Southern Slavs. -but Tito saw Bulgaria as part of Yugoslavia domination, Stalin tensions with Tito allowed Dimitrov to denounce Yugoslav policy in Macedonia as expansionistic

Cheka, NKVD, KGB

Cheka: first succession of Soviet Secret Police organizations. Established in 1917. Policed labor camps, ran Gulag system, conducted requisitions of food, subjected political opponents to secret arrest and torture, put down rebellions and riots by workers. NKVD: leading Soviet secret police organization from 1934 to 1946. Known for its role in political repression and carrying out Great Purge under Joseph Stalin. Responsible for repression of Kulaks, mass deportations of nationalities, oversaw protection of Soviet borders and espionage and enforced Stalinist policy in communist movements and puppet governments in other countries (repression and massacres in Poland) KGB: Committee for State Secuity: main security agency for USSR from 1954 until its breakup in 1991. Acted as internal security, intelligence, secret police. Military service governed by army laws and regulations. Acted for counterintelligence, guarding USSR, combating nationalism and dissent.

Cominform

Communist Information Bureau: first official forum of international communist movement since dissolution of Cominterm, confirmed realities after WWII, created Eastern Bloc. -Intended to coordinate actions between Communist parties under Soviet direction. Had its own publication. -used to repel anticommunist expansion. -tasked with obstruction of implementation of Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine. -Soviet dominated, founded in 1947. Initially located in Belgrade (in Yugoslavia). -Dissolved in 1956 -Four recorded meetings

Todor Zhivkov

Communist leader of People's Republic of Bulgaria from 1954 to 1989 -political and economic stability in Bulgaria: submission of BUlgaria to Soviet directives

Tito-Stalin Split

Conflict between Tito and Stalkin which resulted in yugoslavia's expulsion from Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in 1948 -beginning of Informbiro period marked by poor relations with USSR, came to end in 1955 -Stalin's rejection of Tito's plans to absorb Albania and Greece in cooperation with Bulgaria (would set up powerful Eastern Eur. bloc outside Moscow's control)

COMECON/ CMEA

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under leadership of Soviet Union that comprised countries of Eastern Bloc. Meant to prevent countries in Soviet's sphere of influence from moving towards that of the Americans. Eastern Bloc's reply to the formation in Western Europe of the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) *promoted coordination in economic planning, trade, research and development.

Jan Masaryk

Czech diplomat and politician who served as Foreign minister from 1940 to 1948: made broadcasts over BBC to occupied Czechoslovakia when czechoslovak government in exile was established in Britain in 1940 (during Nazis takeover) -killed (?) by Soviets

Gustav Husak

Czech politician who led after Prague Spring in period of "Normalization" Slovak politician and long term Secretary General of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (1969-1987). Rule was known as period of Normalization after Prague Spring -As part of Destalinization period of Czechoslovakia, Husak was released from prison and his party membership was restored. By 1967 he was critic of KSC neo-stalinist leadership. During Prague Spring in 1968 he and Dubcek became responsible for overseeing reforms in Slovakia. -called for caution after Soviet's invaded after Prague Spring: wanted to reverse Dubcek's reforms.. weak country -supported by Moscow: appointed leader of Communist Party of Slovakia in 1968: succeeded Dubcek. Reversed Dubcek reforms and p urged party of liberal members. -appeased civil population by providing satisfactory living standard and avoiding any overt reprisals. -regime was not complete return to Stalinism but people's rights were somewhat more restricted than in Hungary under Kadar. -permanent campaign of repression by secret police -announced reluctantly reforms with Gorbachev in 1991 -says he was just trying to stop Soviet invasion but he also contributed to the character of the regime

Thomas Masaryk

Czech politician, sociologist, philosopher. Died 1937. Tried to reform Austro-Hungarian monarchy into federal state , succeeded in gaining Czechoslovak independence after WWI. Founded and was first president of Czechoslovakia.

Jan Palach

Czech student in Prague (1969). Self-immolation was protest against end of Prague Spring resulting from 1968 invasion by Warsaw Pact armies. -set himself on fire in Wenceslas Square -wanted resignation of pro-Soviet politicians -funeral was major protest against occupation -others followed him in years after

Klement Gottwald

Czechoslovak Communist politician, General Secretary of Communist Party from 1929 to 1945. Became president of second republic four months after 1948 coup d'etat in which Communist Party of Czechoslovakia seized power with the backing of the Soviet Union -imposed Soviet model of government on the country. Nationalized country's industry and collectivized farms. -Gottwald instigated purges to remove noncommunists -some communists also dismissed for "bourgeois nationalism"

Salami tactics

Divide and conquer process of threats and alliances used to overcome opposition -opposition is eliminated piece by piece -creation of several factions within opposing political party and then dismantling party from inside -coined by orthodox communist leader Rakosi to describe the actions of the Hungarian Communist Party -Rakosi claimed he destroyed the non-Communist parties by "cutting them off like salami". By portraying his opponents as fascists he was able to get the opposition to slice off its right wing, then centrists, then the more courageous left wingers until only those willing to collaborate with Communists remained in power -

Cold War

During WWII Soviets and US fought together against Axis. But tense relationship. American's wary of Soviet communism and concerned about Stalin's rule. Soviets resented US's refusal to treat USSR as legit part of international community and their delayed entrance into WWII (caused mass casualties of russians). After war grievances grew: mutual distrust. Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe fueled US fears that Russia wanted to control the world. USSR perceived US as bellicose and arms buildup and interventionist. -at end of WWII US wanted containment. Truman agreed. Created start of arms buildup. 1950: National Security Report said that country should use military force to contain communist expansion. American officials encouraged development of atomic weapons. 1949: Soviets tested their own atom bomb. Truman announced US would build hydrogen bomb. -Stakes of Cold War were high (50s-60s) -1957: Russians launched Sputnik: first artificial satellite. Space Race started. Pres. Eisenhower started NASA, Soviets launched first man into space in 1961. -JFK said US would put man on the moon by end of decade. Came true with Apollo 11 in 1969. Red Scare: House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) : Hollywood forced hundreds of people to renounce left wing political beliefs and testify against one another. 500 people lost their jobs. Anticommunist politicians: Senator Joseph McCarthy spread probe into government. June 1950: Soviet backed North Korean People's Army invaded pro-western neighbor to the south. Truman sent American military into Korea. war eneded in 1953. -Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and Cuban missile crisis: real communist threat lay in unstable postcolonial Third World nations Nixon: use diplomacy instead of military action. Encouraged UN to recognize communist Chinese govt and went there in 1972: adopted detente position towards USSR. Signed Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) with Brezhnev, prohibited manufacture of nuclear missiles by both sides -Cold War started up again under Reagan: believed that communism anywhere was a threat to freedom everywhere: worked to provide financial/military aid to anticommunist govts: El Salvador, etc: Reagan Doctrine -USSR disintegrating: severe economic problems: Gorbachev took office in 1985: introduced political opennes (glasnost) in Russia. 1991 Soviet Union fell apart

Mikhail Gorbachev

Former Soviet politician. 8th and last leader of Soviet Union,General Secretary of Communist Party of Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. -policies of glasnost and restructuring contributed to end of Cold War -role of Communist Party in governing state was removed from constitution, which led to crisis level political instability and surge of regional nationalist and anti-communist activisim culminating in dissolution of Soviet Union -sought to reduce tensions with Western powers -strategy of eliminating all of Soviet nuclear arsenal by 2000 -abandon Brezhnev Doctrine and allowed Eastern bloc nations to freely determine their own internal affairs -good social and political initiatives, but poor economic affairs: by 1980s severe shortages of food.

Gdansk

Gdansk agreement: accord reached as a result of strikes in Gdansk, Poland. Workers along the Baltic went on strike in August 1980 ...led to creation of Solidarity -Poland economy in disarray under Gomulka. To counter this, govt increased food prices. Workers began strike insisting on formation of independent trade unions. Allowed for Gomulka to leave office, Gierek replaced him and then Gierek was replaced as well. -allowed citizens to bring democratic changes within the communist political strucure -Solidarity: independent trade union that emerged from the strike. Labor movement representing workers, union assumed role of national reform lobby to change politics in Poland.

Holocaust

Genocide during WWII by Nazis systematically killed about 6 million European Jews. From 1941 to 1945, followed Hitler's rise to power in 1933, passing of Nuremberg Laws in 1934. -due to ethnonationalism, aryan race and antisemitism -Germans did not accept WWI defeat, insinuated that it was due to disloyal politicians, Jews and Communists -Hitler idea of expansion and lebensraum (living space) for Germans.

Walter Ulbricht

German Communist politician -helped in early development and establishment of East Germany. -First Secretary of Socialist Unity Party (SED) 1950-1971 -Followed Stalin's guidelines closely -" it must look democratic but we must control everything" -after 1953 uprisings, led purges -

Central Europe

Going through phase of strategic awakening with CEI, Centrope, Visegrad Four. Behind Iron Curtain. East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary: communist states that were still tied to culture in Western Europe. Continued after Warsaw Pact ended.

Yalta Conference

Held in 1945 -WWII meeting of heads of government of US, UK, Soviet Union for purpose of discussing Germany and Europe's postwar organization -aim was to shape post war peace with a plan to give self determination to liberated peoples of post-nazi Europe -followed by Potsdam conference -Stalin agreed to permit free elections in Eastern Europe and to enter Asian war against Japan. -

János Kádár

Hungarian communist leader and General Secretary of Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party from 1956 to 1988. Covered most of the period of the People's Republic of Hungary -attempt to liberalize economy and build up industries aimed at consumers -rule marked by Goulash Communism: increase in consumer expenditures, economic reform -high standard of living: favorable human rights policy, more relaxed travel restrictions -engaged in increased international trade with noncommunist countries -differed from rule of Hoxha who favored authoritarian govt and punishment -but his policies didn't overcome inherent limitations of communist system -"he who is not against us is with us" : lifted Rakosi's draconian measures against free speech and movement and eased restrictinos on cultural activities. -took over after 1956 revolution from Irme Nagy

Oder-Neisse line

International border between Germany and Poland. Drawn at Potsdam Conference after WWII and is delineated along Oder and Neisse rivers. Marked border between East Germany and Poland from 1950 to 1990. In 1990 newly reunified Germany and Republic of Poland signed treaty recognizing it as new border -unfairly displaced many Germans, large scale population transfers -border presented as just consequence for Nazi German's initiation of WWII and genocide of Poles

Budapest, Hungary 1956

Nationwide revolt against government of Hungarian People's Republic and Soviet imposed policies lasting from OCt 23 to Nov 10. First major threat to Soviet control since USSR forces drove out Nazis. Began as student demonstration, attracted thousands to Budapest to Parliament building, student demands. Fired upon by State Security Police (AVH). Militias battled AVH and Soviet troops.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty ORganization, 1949 Created by US, Canada, several Western European nations to provide collective security against Soviet Union -first peacetime military alliance USA entered outside of Western Hemisphere -1947-48: nations of Western Europe concerned over security: ongoing civil war in Greece, tensions in Turkey. Truman asserted that US would provide aid to countries struggling against attempt at subjugation -representatives of several countries signed Brussels Treaty in 1948: provided collective defense. -1948: security treaty idea that would adhere to UN charter but exist outside of Security Council where the USSR held veto power. = NATO -find language that would reassure European states but not obligate US to act in way that violated laws of Congress (declaring war) -US, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, UK: attack against one as attack against all -mutual defense assistance program started -outbreak of Korean war led to members to integrate and coordinate defense forces. -opposite Warsaw Treaty Organization: USSR and Soviet satellite states -NATO helped create military deterrent against USSR (nuclear attack)

Rev. Jerzy Popieluszko

Polish Roman Catholic priest who became associated with the opposition Solidarity trade union in communist Poland. Murdered in 1984 by agents of secret service who were tried and convicted of murder after. He has been recognized as martyr. -staunch anti-communist -his sermons were broadcast on Radio Free Europe -beaten to death -

Boleslaw Bierut

Polish communist leader, NKVD agent, hard line Stalinist who became President of Poland after Soviet takeover in aftermath of WWII. Avoided Great Purge of Communist party of Poland by USSR. Served as president from 1847 to 1952 and then Prime Minister. Died under mysterious circumstances in Moscow in 1956 after attending 20th Congress of Communist Party during which Khrushchev delivered speech denouncing Stalin's cult of personality.

Wladyslaw Gomulka

Polish, joined Communist party. Became general secretary of outlawed Communist Party during WWII. 1945: after Yalta conference, Gomulka became vice president in the new Communist govt but he resisted attempts to impose Stalinist govt on Poland. Dismissed from office in 1948 when he gave his support to Josip Tito in Yugoslavia. Arrested 3 years later but wasn't executed because Stalin died (Stalin convinced powers that USSR needed Poland to protect Soviet Union) -Khruschchev: deStalinization led to people demonstrating against Soviets (due to more freedom) in Poznan. Khruschev visited Poland and in 1956 agreed that Gomulka should be first secretary of Communist party. Gomulka was told that as long as Polish govt supported USSR in foreign affairs they could establish their own domestic policies -Gomulka liberalized communist system: only 10% farmland collectivized and country traded extensively with capitalist countries -1970: Poland had economic crisis, riots took place and Gierek replaced Gomulka

Nationalization

Process of transforming private assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state

East Europe

Region lying in Europe with characteristics consisting of Greek, Byzantine, Eastern Orthodox, Russian, and Ottoman culture influences -Cold War: Eastern Bloc: formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union. -now this is a debated idea

Rev Lászlo Tőkés

Romanian born Hungarian pastor and politician -member of European Parliament for Hungary -head of Hungarian National Council of Trans. -effort to transfer him from his post as an assistant pastor in Timisoara and to evict him from his church flat triggered Romanian Revolution which overthrew Ceausescu and spelled the end of the communist era in Romania -persistent critic of Ceausescu regime. gave sermons that opposed Romanian natinoal govt's program of radical restructuring of infrastructure of Romanian towns and villages -harrassed by Securitae -bishop began civil proceedings to evict him from his flat after he gave secret interview against regime. -backed today by Fidesz

Ion Antonescu

Romanian soldier and authoritarian politician who was Prime minister during WWII. After war he was convicted of war crimes. He was antisemitic and sympathized with fascist National Christian and Iron Guard groups during interwar period. He entered Romania into alliance with Nazi Germany and killed many Jews.

Alexander Dubcek

Slovak politician and briefly the leader of Czechoslovakia. Attempted to reform the communist government during the Prague Spring but he was forced to resign following Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. -planned economy in 1960s was in decline and imposition of central control from Prague upset local Communists: wanted reforms without completely withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact. -wanted liberation within Communism, championed Velvet Revolution as victory for his humanistic socialist outlook. -1992: became leader of Social Democratic Party of Slovakia : supported Czecho-Slovak federation

Vladimir Meciar

Slovak politician who served three times as Prime Minister of Slovakia from 1990 to 1991, 1992-1994, 1994-1998 Leader of People's Party (L'S-HZDS): led Slovakia during dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1992. Criticized for having autocratic style of administration and for his connections to organized crime -after first democratic elections in Czechoslovakia in 1990 named Slovak prime minister of coalition govt of VPN and Christian Democratic Movement. Advocated economic reform and continued federation with the Czechs

Nikita Kruschev

Soviet statesman who led Soviet Union during part of Cold War from 1953 to 1964. Responsible for de-Stalinization of Soviet Union, backing progress of early Soviet space program, liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy -he was removed from power in 1964 and replaced by Brezhnev -delivered Secret Speech: ushered in less repressive era in Soviet Union. Domestic policies aimed at bettering lives of ordinary citizens (ineffective) -tense years of Cold War: Cuban Missile Crisis -

Ruthenia

Strong cultural tie to hungary -1946 USSR annexed it to Ukraine. -also part of Czechoslovakia

BBC

TV broadcasting suspended from 1939 to 1946, left to BBC radio to keep nation's spirits up. George Orwell was a broadcaster at the time.

Voice of America

US government funded international news source that serves as USA fed. govt's official institution for non-military external broadcasting -influence on public opinion abroad regarding USA and its leaders -established in 1942 -form of propaganda During Cold War: -started broadcasting to Soviet citizens in Russia under pretext of countering Soviet propaganda -USSR responded by electronic jamming -

East Berlin 1953

Uprising of 1953 in East Germany: started with strike by East Berlin construction workers. Turned into widespread uprising against German Democratic Republic government. -People's Uprising: surpressed by tanks of Soviet Forces. -trade unions and anti fascist groups played key role in uprising -July 1952: Stalin ordered increased implementation of Socialism, assault on remaining middle stratum of East Germany (farmers, small business owners) forced to give up independence, at same time as catastrophic economic situation in the country. -high number of political prisoners -decision to create more work for same salary: provocation, increase by Central Committee of work quotas

Oil Crisis 1973

When members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries proclaimed embargo. Embargo was targeted at nations perceived as supporting Israel during Yom Kippur War. Initial nations targeted were Canada, Japan, Netherlands, UK, USA -price of oil rose drastically. -cause oil crisis -Response to American involvement in war in Israel. US supplied ISrael with arms after Egypt and Syria attacked -created rift in NATO: some European nations and Japan wanted to disassociate themselves from US foreign policy in the Middle East -reforms to reduce consumption in US: new national maximum speed limit, daylight savings, conserve energy, smaller cars, renewable energy, -switch of Western European countries to pro-Arab from pro-Israeli strained NATO

Pilsen, 1953

Workers in this city in CZechoslovakia revolted in violent protest against currency reform and politics of COmmunist party. 220 injured. After comm. party took power, concentrated production on heavy industry (armament production): policies led to shortages of food and inflation. Govt reacted by increasing prices of state supplied goods. Led to disaffection among people and strikes. -next step was currency reform, devaluation of savings. Work quotas increased. -Factory management of Skoda Works deliberately paid wages one week early: reducing their values by 80% after currency reform announced -strike and march to city center

Slobodan Milosevic

Yugoslav and Serbian Politician and President of Serbia from 1989 to 1997. President of Yugoslavia from 1997 to 2000. -Led Socialist Party of Serbia from its foundation in 1990. -Rose to power as Serbian President after he and his supporters claimed the need to reform the 1974 Const. of Yugoslavia due to marginalization in Serbia and its political incapacity to deter Albanian separatist unrest in Kosovo -reforms that reduced powers of autonomous provinces in Serbia and transitioned Serbia from Titoist one-party system to multi-party system -breakup of Yugoslavia during his regime. -charged with war crimes in connectino to wars in Bosnia, Croatia, Kosovo -

Jozip Broz Tito

Yugoslav communist revolutionary and statesman, serving in various roles from 1943 to 1990. -During WWII leader of Partisans, effective resistance movement in Occupied Europe -presidency considered authoritarian, also benevolent dictator -chief architect of second Yugoslavia (socialist federation that lasted from 1942 to 1992). -He became first Cominform member to defy Soviet hegemony and only on in Stalin's time to manage to leave COminform and begin with his own socialist program with elements of Market Socialism -liberated itself from Axis domination without much support from Red Army, Tito's leading role in Yugo. strengthened his position in his party and with the people but also caused him to become insistent that Yugo. had more room to follow its own interests than other Bloc leaders -Tito was formally ally of Stalin after WWII but it was uneasy: Soviets set up spy ring in Yugoslav party -Yugo. leadership wanted to incorporate Trieste which was opposed by Western Allies (Yugo attached US transport and aircrafts), Stalin opposed these provocations as he felt USSR unready to face the West in open war so soon after losses of WWII -Tito was also supportive of Communist side in Greek Civil War while Stalin kept his distance -1948: Tito modeled his economic development plan independently of Moscow, escalated tension -Stalin amassed Hungarian and Soviet forces on northern Yugoslav frontier -Stalin tried to assassinate Tito -played East-West antagonism to his advantage.. Non aligned movement -neutrality during Cold War

Radio Free Europe

a USA government funded broadcasting organization that broadcasts and reports new, information, and analysis to countries in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Middle East where it says that "the free flow of information is either banned by govt authorities or not fully developed" -during cold war: RFE was broadcast to Soviet satellite countries. Founded as anti-communist propaganda source in 1949 by National Committee for Free Europe -Communist govts sent agents to infiltrate RFE headquarters -recieved funds from CIA until 1972 -Headquartered in West Germany and then in 1995 moved to Prague -supported by Eisenhower -counter Communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe -developed out of belief that Cold War would be fought by poltical rather than military means -Kennan and Dulles acknowledged that Cold War was war of ideas

Ethnic group

based on common ancestry, language, society, culture or nation.

Lech Walesa

cofounded and headed Solidarity in Poland. -instrumental in political negotiations that led to Gdansk agreement between striking workers and government -presided over Poland's transition from communist to post communist state -recent allegations that he had collaborated w communist secret police

Iron Curtain

he term symbolizes the efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the West and non-Soviet-controlled areas. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union. Separate international economic and military alliances were developed on each side of the Iron Curtain: Member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact, with the Soviet Union as the leading state Member countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and with the United States as the pre-eminent power Physically, the Iron Curtain took the form of border defences between the countries of Europe in the middle of the continent. The most notable border was marked by the Berlin Wall and its Checkpoint Charlie, which served as a symbol of the Curtain as a whole.[1]

Treaty of Versailles

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Umbrella Movements

political movement that emerged during Hong Kong democracy protests of 2014. Umbrellas as tool for passive resistance to Hong Kong Police during occupation which was sparked by decision of govt to prescribe selective pre-screening of candidates for election of region's leader -reforms to electoral system: restrictive, Chinese Communist Party prescreening candidates for leader of Hong Kong

Collectivization of Agriculture

type of agricultural production where multiple farmers run holdings in joint enterprise. -state-run and cooperative run variants -peasants coerced to join cooperatives -idea that replacing individual peasant farms by collective ones would increase the food supply for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports -solution to crisis of agricultuarl distribution Hungary: attempted a number of times in late 1940s finally successful in early 1960s. Government legislation redistributed territory, regulations allowed seizure of larger landholdings from kulaks. -farms were subject to harsh compulsory deliveries (production quotas) and low agricultural producer prices -after revolution: collectives could purchase their own farm machines

Nazi Germany

• 1933-1945: Germany was governed by dictatorship under control of Hitler and Nazi Party. Transformed Germany into totalitarian state. Also known as Third Reich. Came to an end after Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945. • Hitler was appointed Chancellor by president Weimar. Nazis then eliminated political opposition. Hitler became sole leader in 1934. Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using military spending and mixed economy. Public works were undertaken. • Racism was main component. Allied with Italy

Munich conference 1938

• A settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia long the country's borders mainly inhabited by german speakers for which a new territory called Sudetenland was coined. Failed act of appeasement towards Germany. Agreement was signed by Germany, France, UK, Italy. Czechoslovakia felt betrayed by UK, France, etc since they weren't included in conference.

Curzon Line

• At end of WWI 1919: Allies drafted Treaty of Versailles. Demarcation line between newly emerging states, the Second Polish Republic and the Soviet Union. Put forward by British foreign secretary George Curzon to serve as diplomatic basis for future border agreement... never fully realized • Became major geopolitical factor in WWII when Stalin invaded eastern Poland and split its territory along Curzon Line with Hitler. Became eastern border between Poland and Soviet Union. • Current border between Belarus, Ukraine, Poland

Vojvodina

• Autonomous province of Serbia. • Multiethnic, multicultural, ruled by many Empires -lost autonomous state under Slobodan Milosevic in 1990

Vilnius

• Capital of Lithuanian. Large Jewish center prior to WWII. -taken from Germans by Soviet Army and Polish armt -town was incorporated into Soviet Union as capital of Lithuanian SSR -remaining pop. compelled to relocate to Communist Poland by 1946

Balkan Wars

• Consisted of two conflicts that took place in Balkan peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913. Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman empire in the first war. One of the four (Bulgaria) suffered defeat in second war. Ottoman Empire lost bulk of territory in Europe. Austria-Hungary became relatively weaker as enlarged Serbia pushed for union of South Slavic peoples. Prelude to first World War. • Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia independence from Ottomans but ethnic populations still under Ottoman rule: formed Balkan League in 1912 • Causes of first Balkan war: ottoman empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, deal with rising ethnic nationalism of its diverse people, Great Powers quarreled and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out needed reforms (led Balkan states to impose own solution), Balkan League was formed and members were confident they could defeat the Turks. • Wars delineated Turkey's present day western border. • Second war: broke out in Bulgaria which was dissatisfied with its share of spoils from the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies. Serbia and Greece were attacked, and then they counterattacked by entering Bulgaria

Ustasha

• Croatian fascisit, racist, ultranationalist, terrorist organization 1929-1945. Murdered Serbs, Jews, Roma. Fiercely Roman Catholic. -went dormant with defeat of Independent state of Croatia after WWII

Eduard Benes

• Czech politician who was president of Czechoslovakia 1935-1948: also minister of foreign affairs. Member of Czechoslovak National Social Party. During WWI: leading organizer of independent Czechoslovakia from abroad. Organized anti-Austrian secret resistance movement, Maffia. Went into exile in Paris, tried to get France and UK to recognize Czechoslovakia independence. • Member of League of Nations Council. Opposed Nazi Germany's claim to Sudetenland. Resigned under German pressure. Went into exile. Planned assassination of high ranking German official responsible for suppressing Czech culture (Reinhard Heydrich) . On friendly terms with Stalin. His government was eventually taken over by communists after WWII

Bolsheviks

• Faction of Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart in 1903: revolutionary socialist political party to unite various revolutaionary organizations of Russian Empire into one party. Became Communist Party of Soviet Union. Came to power during October Revolution in 1917, founded by Lenin were by 1905 major organization consisting of workers under democratic internal hierarchy governed by principle of democratic centralism, leaders of revolutionary working class.

German Empire

• German nation state that existed from Unification of Germany 1871 to 1918. Founded when Wilhem I, King of Prussia, was proclaimed German Emperor. • Became great power, world's strongest army, fast growing industrial base. Nearing WWI: more bellicose, consolidated with Austria-Hungary and then formed Triple Alliance with Italy. Retained diplomatic ties to Ottoman Empire.

Dobrudja

• Historical region divided since 19th cent between Bulgaria and Romania. Situated between lower Danube and the Black Sea. Split up after treaty of 1878: part to Russia and part to Romania. -regained by Bulgaria during WWII with help of Axis powers. Romanian inhabitants were forced to leave

Croats

• Nation and South Slavic ethnic group. Live in Croatia, Bosnia: officially a recognized minority in all of central Europe. Mostly Roman Catholic -After WWI, lived in Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes--> became Kingdom of Yugoslavia. IN WWII Axis forces created Independent State of Croatia led by Ustasha movement which sought to create an ethnically pure Croatian state. Post WWII Yugoslavia became a federation consisting of 6 repbulics and Croats lived in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. -In post-Tito era, Republic of Croatia declared its independence which was followed by war with its Serb minority backed by Serbia controlled Yugoslav People's Army. Croats were displaced.

Slovaks

• Nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Slovakia who share common ancestry, culture, history, and speak Slovak language. After Ottoman Empire retreated, thousands of Slovaks settled in Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Croatia.

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

• Nazi-Soviet non aggression pact. A neutrality pact between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union signed in 1939. Delineated spheres of interest between the two powers. Remained until Hitler ended it by attacked Soviet positions in Eastern Poland. • It was a declared commitment that neither government would ally itself or aid the enemy of the other party. Also divided territories of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Romania into spheres of influence

Danzig/ Gdansk

• Semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939: consisted of Baltic Sea port of Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland) and 200 towns/villages. Created in accordance with Treaty of Versailes. Region was to remain separated from post-WWI Germany and from the newly independent nation of Polish Republic (interwar Poland), but it was not. Under League of Nations protection and put into biding customs union with Poland. Created in order to give Poland access to seaport. City's population was majority German but it had Polish minority. German population resented being separated from Germany. Tensions increased when Nazi Party gained control. After Germany invaded Poland in 1939: Nazis abolished the Free City. Many jews sent to death camps • Soviets took over in 1945: surviving Germans were expelled to West or East Germany as Polish settlers retook lands. Suffered severe underpopulation until late 1950s. Became part of Poland after Potsdam Agreement (agreement between three of the Allies of WWII (UK, USA, Soviets) about eastern territories after the war.

Bosniaks

• South Slavic nation and ethnic group. Majority are Muslim. • Bosnian Crisis= 1908-1909: announced when Austria-Hungary announced annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina territories formally in Ottoman Empire. Sparked protestations from Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors Serbia and Montenegro. Crisis damaged relationship between Austria Hungary and Serbia. .. started by agreement between Russia and Dual Monarchy. Serbia was pissed, wanted to be free. -During WWII: Bosniak elite and notables issued resolutions or memorandums in various cities that denounced Croat-Nazi collaboration. Condemned Ustasha treatment of Muslims. -during Yugoslav socialist period: Bosniaks recognized as ethnic group but not as a natinoality. -Bosnian war: Bosniaks suffered genocide, Serb attacks,

Macedonia

• Successor state of former Yugoslavia. In Balkan Peninsula. Landlocked and borders Kosovo, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania. Came under Ottoman Empire after being in Byzantine empire. Came under Serbia rule after Balkan Wars. After WWI became part of Yugoslavia and then became socialist republic until secession in 1991.

Bosnia

• Was annexed into Ottoman Empire. Brought Islam to region. Followed by annexation into Austro-Hungarian Monarchy until WWI. In interwar period, became part of Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after WWII, granted full republic status in Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Proclaimed independence in 1992. • Anti-austrian government emerged in pre-WWI time, political tensions in 1914: Yugoslav nationalist, member of secret Serbian-supported movement (young bosnia) assassinated Franz Ferdinand.

Katyn massacre

• a series of mass executions of Polish nationals carried out by the NKVD (Soviet secret police) in 1940. Named for Katyn Forest where some of the mass graves were discovered. Massacre prompted by NKVD proposal to execute all captive members of Polish officer corps. Approved by Politburo of Communist Soviet Union and Stalin. USSR claimed it was Nazi doing. And denied responsibility until 1990.

Ukraine

• gained independence from Soviet Union in 1991 at the end of the Cold War. -after independence: formed limited military partnership with Russian Federation and NATO in 1994

Kosovo

• landlocked in central Balkan Peninsula. Important connection between central and southern Europe, the Adriatic Sea, and the Black Sea. Part of Ottoman Empire until early 20th cent, joined Yugoslavia after WWI. • Kosovo war= tension between Albanians and Serbians. Resulted in withdrawal of Serbian armed forces. Serbian president, Slobodan milosevic, employed mix of intimidation and political tactics to reduce Kosovo's autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of ethnic Albanian population. Kosovo Albanians resisted with goal of achieving independence of Kosovo. -Part of Yugoslavia ****add more?