History final exam
• China and the New Imperialism: reasons for European interest in China? How is China's experience similar to and different from India's?
China entered a period of decline. Second, the Industrial Revolution created a need for expanded markets for European goods. At the same time, it gave the West superior military power.
Forms of Imperial Rule
The leading imperial powers developed several kinds of colonial rule. o Direct and Indirect Rule The French practice direct rule, sending officials and soldiers from France to administer their colonies. Their goal was to impose French culture on their colonies and turn them into French provinces. The British, by contrast relied on a system of indirect rule. To govern their colonies, they used sultans, chiefs, or other local rulers. They then encouraged the children of the local ruling class to get an education in Britain. In that way, the groomed a new "Westernized" generation of leaders to continue indirect imperial rule and to spread British civilization. Like France and other imperialist nations, however, Britain could still resort to Military force if its control over a colony was threatened. o Sphere of Influence A third form of Western control was the sphrere of influence, an area in which an outside power claimed exclusive investment or trading privileges. Europeans carved out these spheres in China and elsewhere to prevent conflicts among themselves.
Social Darwinism
They applied Darwin's ideas about natural selection and survival of the fittest to human societies. European racism they argued, were superior to all others, and imperial domination of weaker races were simply nature's way of improving the human species.
Technological innovations of Tang dynasty
woodblock printing, timekeeping, mechanical engineering, medicine, structural engineering, cartography, and alchemy. (ask)
• Chinese reforms: self-strengthening, Hundred Days of Reform, Birth of a Republic
In the 1860s, reformers launched the "self-strenghtning movement". They imported Western technology setting up factories to make modern weapons. They developed shipyards, railroads, mining, and light industry. The Chinese translated Western works on science, government , and the economy. The movement made limited progress because the government did not rally behind it. Hundred Days of Reform- Defeated by Japan and humiliated by Westerners, Chinese reformers blamed conservatives official for not modernizing China. They urged conservative leaders to stop looking back at China's past and to modernize as Japan had. In 1898, a young emperor, Guang Xu, launched the Hundred days of reform. New laws set out to modernize the civil service exams, streamline government, and encourage new industries. Reforms affected schools, the military, and the bureaucracy. Conservatives soon rallied against the reform effort. The emperor was imprisoners, and the aging empress Ci Xi reasserted control. Reformers fled for their lives. Birth of a Republic- - Nationalism spread. Reformers wanted to strengthen China's government. By the end 1900s, they had introduced a constitutional monarchy. Some reformers called for a republic. In early 1900s, Sun Yixian organized Revolutionary Alliance to rebuild China on "Three Principles of the People." The first principle was nationalism, or freeing China from foreign dominant. The second was democracy, or representative government. The third was livelihood, or economic security for all Chinese. After Ci Xi died, China was in chaos. Uprising were there and the Qing dynasty fell. The republic had many problems with Sun Yixian as president and was almost constantly at war with itself or foreign invaders.
Imperialism in China: Spheres of Influence, Boxer Rebellion
Spheres of Influence: The crushing defeat of the Sino-Japanese War revealed China's weakness. Western powers move swiftly to carve out spheres of influence along the Chinese coast. The British took the Chang river valley. The French acquired the territory near their colony of Indochina. Germany and Russia gained territory in northern China. US, a longtime trader with the Chinese, did not take part in the carin up of China. It feared that European powers might shut out American merchants. In 1899, it called for a policy to keep Chinese trade open to everyone on an equal basis. The imperial accept the idea of an Open Door policy. An Open Door Policy is american approach to China around 1900, favoring open trade relations between China and other nations.
Shi Huangdi
Brutal methods. Spent 20 years conquering most of the warring (fighting) states. He built the strong, authoritarian Qin government. Centralized power with the help of Legalist advisers. Strength was a ruler's greatest virtue. He tortured, killed, or enslaved many who opposed his rule. To end dissent (disagreement), Shi Huangdi approved a ruthless campaign of book burning, ordering the destruction of all writings other than medicine and agriculture. Abolished feudalism, which required little allegiance (loyalty) from local rulers to the central government. He distributed the lands of the displaced noble to peasants. He made more roads and canals to strengthen the transportation system. Not everything he did was bad.
Early religious beliefs in China
By Shang times, developed complex religious beliefs, many of which continued to be practiced for thousands of years. The early Chinese prayed to many gods and nature spirits. Chief among them was the supreme god, Shang Di. The king was seen as link between people and Shang Di. Shang Di would not respond to mere mortals. On spirits of greatest people (ancestors of kings) would have ears of the gods. At first only royalty and other nobles had ancestors important enough to influence the gods. Other classes shared in these rituals. Called on spirits of their ancestors to bring good fortune to the family. To honor ancestors' spirits they offered sacrifices of foods and other necessities. Westerners mistakenly called this practice "ancestor worship".
• Taiping Rebellion - reasons for the rebellion? How did it weaken the Qing?
By the 1800s, the Qing dynasty was in decline. Irrigation systems and canals were poorly maintained, leading to massive flooding of the Huang valley. The population explosion that had begun a century earlier created hardship for China's peasants. An extravangant imperial court, tax evasion by the rich, and widespeard official corruption added to the peasants' burden. As poverty and misery increased, peasants rebelled. The Taiping Rebellion, which lastedfrom 1850 to 1864, was probably the most devastating peasant revolt in history. The leader, Hong Xiuquan, called for an end to the hated Qing dynasty. The Taiping rebels won control of large parts of China and held out for 14 years. However, with the help of loyal regional governeors and generals, the government crushed the rebellion. The rebellion almost toppled the Qing dynasty. It is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 20 million and 30 million Chinese. The Qind government survived, but it had to share power with regional commanders. During the rebellion, Europeans kept up pressure on China, and Russia seized lands in the north.
The Manchu Conquest
By the early 1600s, the aging Ming dynasty was decaying. Revolts erupted, and Manchu invaders from the north pushed through the Great Wall. o Geographic origins of theManchu The Manchus ruled a region in the northeast, mnachuria, that had been long been influenced by Chinese civilization. In 1644, victorious Manchu armies seized Beijing and made it their capital. o Qing dynasty The Manchus set up the Qing dynasty. The Manchus won the support of Chinese scholar-officials because they adopted the Confucian system of government. For each top job, the Qing chose two people, one Manchu, and Manchu troops stationed across the empire ensured loyalty. Economy under the Qing The Chinese expanded under both Kangxi and Qianlong. New crops form the Americas, such as potatoes and corn, had been introduced into China. These crops boosted farm output, which in turn contributed to a population boom. China's population about doubled in 60 years. The silk, cotton, and porcelain industries expanded. Internal trade grew, as did the demand for Chinese goods from all over the world. o Lord Macartney The Qing maintained the Ming policy of restricting foreign traders. Still, Europeans kept pressing to expand trade to cities other than Guangzhou. In 1793, Lord Macartney arrived in China at the head of a British diplomatic mission. He brought samples of British-made goods to show the Chinese the advantages of trade with Westerners. The Chinese, who looked on the good as rather crude products, thought they were gifts offered as tribute to the emperor. Further misunderstandings followed. Macartned insisted on an audience with the emperor. The Chinese told Macartney insisted on an audience with the emperor. The Chinese told Macartney he would to perform the traditional kowtow, touching his head to the ground to show respect to the emperor. Macartney refused. He also offended the Chinese by speaking of the natural superiority of the English, The negotiations faltered (became unsure and hesitant (to begin to fail). In the 1800s, China would learnt that its policy of ignoring Westerners and their technology would have undesired consequences. o Emperor Qianlong Kangxi was an able administrator and military leader. He extended Chinese power into Central Asia and promoted Chinese culture. Kangxi's grandson Qianlong had an equally successful reign from 1736 t 1796. He expanded China's borders to rule the largest area in the nation's history. Qianlong retired after 60 years because he did not want to rule longer than his grandfather had.
Boxer Rebellion-
Causes: • Anger grew against Christian missionaries who threatened traditional Chinese Confucianism. The presence of foreign troops was another source of discontent. Protected by extraterritoriality, foreigners ignored Chinese laws and lived in their own communities. • Anti-foreign feeling finally exploded in the Boxer Uprising. In 1899, a group of Chinese had formed a secret society, the Righteous Harmonious Fists. Westerners watching them train in the martial arts dubbed them Boxers. Their goal was to drive out the "foreign devils" who were polluting the land with their un-Chinese ways, strange buildings, machines, and telegraph lines. In the 1900, the Boxers attacked foreigners across China. Effects: • In response, the Western powers and Japan organized a multinational force. This force crushed the Boxers and rescued foreigners besieged in Beijing. • China once again had to make concessions (reluctant allowance) to foreigners. The defeat, however, forced even China conservatives to support Westernization. In a rush of reforms, China admitted women to schools and stressed science and mathematics in place of Confucian though. More students were sent abroad to study. China also expanded economically. Mining, shipping, railroads, banking, and exports of cash crops grew. Small-scale Chinese industry developed with the help of foreign capital. A Chinese business class emerged, and a new urban working class began to press for rights. • Key figures in the period: Guang Xu, Sun Yat-sen (Yixian) Guang Xu: In 1898, a young emperor, Guang Xu, launched the Hundred days of reform. Sun Yat-sen (Yixian): . In early 1900s, Sun Yixian organized Revolutionary Alliance to rebuild China on "Three Principles of the People." The first principle was nationalism, or freeing China from foreign dominant. The second was democracy, or representative government. The third was livelihood, or economic security for all Chinese. After Ci Xi died, China was in chaos. Uprising were there and the Qing dynasty fell. The republic had many problems with Sun Yixian as president and was almost constantly at war with itself or foreign invaders. • Sino-Japanese War: The Western powers and nearby Japan moved rapidly ahead. Japan began to modernize after 1868. It then joined the Western imperialists in the competition for a global empire. In 1894, Japanese pressure on China led to the Sino-Japanese War. It ended in disaster for China, with Japan gaining the island of Taiwan.
Analects
Collection of sayings and ideas of Confucius
Protectorate
In a protectorate, local rulers were left in place but were expected to follow the advice of European advisors on issues such as trade or missionary activity. A protectorate cost less to run than a colony did, and usually did not require a large commitment of military forces.
Filial piety
Put filial piety (respect for parents) above all other duties. Other values were honesty, hard work, concern for others.
Mahmud of Ghazni
Sultan Mahmud of Ghanzi pillaged much of the north, but he did not settle there. In the late 1100s, though, the sultan, or Muslim ruler, of Ghur defeated Hindu armies across the northern plain and made Delhi his capital. From there, his successors organized a sultanate, or land ruled by a sultan.
Land Reform policies
Tang emperors instituted a system of land reform in which they broke up large agriculture holdings and redistributed the land o peasants. This policy strenghted the central government by weakening the power of large landowners. Increased government revenues, since peasants who farmed their own land would be able to pay taxes.
Fall of the Song
The Mongolians come in and ruin the Song dynasty.
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou rewarded their supporters by granting them control over different regions. So under Zhou, China developed into a feudal srare, Feudalism was a system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other form of support to the ruler. In Zhou dynasty, they gained the knowledge of iron working in 600s B.C. Iron Axes and ox-drawn iron plows were being made to produce more food. New crops were there. More irrigation works, to make farming even more productive. Commerce (trade in goods and services) expanded too (The Chinese began to use money for the first time. Economic expansion led to an increase in China's population. Downfall- Zhou Dynasty was too weak to control feudal lords who ignored the emperor and battled one another in savage wars. Out of these wars rose a ruthless leader who was determined to impose (enforce) political unity. His triumphs ended Zhou Dynasty and made the Qin (chin) dynasty.
How British and Indians viewed each other
Western views of Indian culture The British disagreed among themselves about India. A few adrmired Indian theology and philosophy, As Western scholars translated Indian classics, they acquired respect for India's ancient heritage. However, most British people knew little about Indian achievements and dismissed Indian culture with contempt. In an essay on whether Indians should be taught in English or their own languages, British historian Thomas Macaulay arrogantly wrote that "a single shelf of a good European library is worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia. Indian views of Westerners Ram Mohun Roy combined borth views. Roy felt that India could learn from the West. While Roy saw the value of Western education, he also wanted to reform traditional Indian culture. Roy condemned some traditions, such as the rigid caste distinctions, child marriage, sati, and purdah, the isolation of women in separate quarters. He set up educational societies that helped revive pride in Indian culture. Roy often considered as the founder of Indian nationalism.
Know the chronological order of the Chinese dynasties
dynasties Shang (1766-1122) BC, Zhou (1046-256 BC), Chin (Qin) (221-207 BCE), Han (206 BCE- 220 CE), Tang (618-907 CE), Song (960-1279), Yuan dynasty (1206-1368), Ming(1368-1644), Qing (1644-1911/12(is 1911 correct)
Shang Dynasty
-government formations Their walled capital city at Anyang, the Shang emerged to drive off nomads from the northern steppes and deserts. Shang kings probably controlled only a small area. Shang kings probably controlled only a small area. Loyal princes and local nobles governed most of this land. They were likely the heads of important clans, or groups of families who claim a common ancestor. Noblewomen, like Fu Hao (wife of Shang king Wu Ding), may have had considerable status during the Shang period. Fu Hao owned land and helped to lead a large army against invaders. -social classes Top level of Shang society included the royal family and a class of noble warriors. They may have learned of chariots from other Asian peoples with whom they interacted. Early Chinese cities supported a class of artisans and merchants. Artisans produced goods for nobles, including bronze weapons, silk robes, and jade jewelry. Merchants exchanged food and crafts made by local artisans for salt, certain types of shells, and other goods not found in northeastern China. The majority of people in Shang China were peasants. Peasant lived grueling lived. If war broke out between noble families, the men had to fight alongside their lords.
o Advances in Math & Science
Achievements of the Han Golden Age Advancing Science and medicine- Han scientists wrote texts on chemistry, zoology, botany, and other subjects. They improved earlier calendars and invent better timekeeping devices with observation and movements of starts and planets. One scientist invented a simple seismograph to detect and measure earthquakes. Wang Chong argued that no scientific theories should be accepted unless they were supported by proof. Chinese physicians diagnosed diseases, developed anesthetics, and experimented with herbal remedies and other drugs. Many doctors promoted the use of acupuncture (needles in skin to relieve pain or treat illness). Technology and Engineering- In its time, Han China was the most technologically advanced civilization in the world. Cai Lun invented a method for making paper out of wood pulp. His basic method is still used to manufacture paper today. The Chinese also pioneered advanced methods of shipbuilding and invented the rudder to steer. They also made bronze, iron stirrups, fishing reels, wheelbarrows, and suspension bridges. Some of these ideas moved west slowly(to Europe hundreds of years later) Arts- The walled cities of Han China boasted spleding tempes and palaces amid elegant parks. Artisans produced delicate jade and ivory carvings and fine ceramic figures. Bronze-workers and silk-makers improved on earlier techniques and set high standards for future generations.
The Delhi Sultanate
Around 1000, Muslim Turks and Afghans pushed into India. They were fierce warriors with a tradition of conquest. Sultan Mahmud of Ghanzi pillaged much of the north, but he did not settle there. In the late 1100s, though, the sultan, or Muslim ruler, of Ghur defeated Hindu armies across the northern plain and made Delhi his capital. From there, his successors organized a sultanate, or land ruled by a sultan. The Delhi sultanate, which lasted from 1206 to 1526, marked the start of Muslim rule in northern India. Muslim invaders triumph because they one of the battlefield in part because Muslims mounted archers had far greater mobility than Hindu forcers, who rode slow-moving war elephants. Also, Hindu princes wasted resources battling one another instead of uniting against a common enemy. In some places, large numbers of Hindus, especially from low castes, converted to Islam.
Hinduism and the Caste System - how connected? How do they influence the development of Indian culture and society?
Aryans divided society into 4 groups. Rules forbade marrying outside one's caste or eating with members of another caste. The untouchables are called dalits. Untouchable had to live apart and to sound a wooden instrument called a clapper to warn of their approach. Caste members helped one another. Different castes depended on each other for basic needs (a low-caste carpenter built the home of a high-caste scholar). Over time, new castes have been made. (highest to lowest): Brahmins, Kshkatriyas (warriors), Vaisyas (herders, farmers, artisans, and merchants, Sudres (farmworkers, servants, laborers), dalits (did work that others wouldn't like leather form animal skin). Despite its inequalities, caste ensured a stable social order. People believed that the law of karm determined their cast. While they could not change their status in this life, they could reach a higher state in a future life by faithfully fulfilling the duties of their present caste. Each caste depend on one another for basic needs. A low-caste carpenter built the home a higher-caste scholar (example).
Achievements in Early Chinese Society
Astronomers studied planets and making an accurate calendar. Improved art and technology of bronze-making. o Silk Making By 2640B.C., they learned how to make silk thread from cocoons of silkworms. Women did the laborious work of tending the silkworms and processing the cocoons into thread. They then wove silk threads into a smooth cloth that was colored with brilliant dyes. Silk was their most valuable export. Only royalty and nobles could afford robes from this luxurious silk. Silk-making was a secret. o Stages of development of writing Some examples are found on oracle bones. These are animal bones or turtle shells on which Shang priests wrote questions addressed to the gods or to the spirit of an ancestor. Priests then heated each bone or shell until it cracked. Interpretation of the pattern of crack provided answers or advice from ancestors. Writing system- included tens of thousands of characters, or written symbols. This written language fostered unity in early China. The couldn't understand each other verbally but they all used the same system of writing. Working with brush and ink, Chinese scholars later turned writing into an elegant form called calligraphy. Under the Zhou, the Chinese made the first books.
Song Social structure Well-ordered society.
At its head was the emperor, whose court was filled with aristocratic families. China's two main social classes were the gentry and the peasantry. The scholar-official class formed the top stratum of society. Most scholar-officials at court cam from the gentry, or wealthy landowning class. They alone could afford to spend years studying the Confucian classics in order to pass the grueling civl service exam. They supported Confucianism. Ideal Confucian official was a wise, virtuous scholar who knew how to ensure harmony in society. Peasants work the land. Most Chinese were peasants who worked the land, living on what they produced. To add to their income, they sold baskets or other items. They lived in small, largely self-sufficient villages that managed their own affairs. Peasants relied on one another than the government. In China, even peasants could move up in society through education and government service. If a bright peasant boy received an education and passed the civil service examinations, both he and his family rose in status. Slaves don't have these opportunities. Merchants have lowest status- Merchants acquired wealth. According to Confucian tradition, merchants had an even lower social status than peasants since their riches came from the labor of others. Still, Chinese trade flourished during Song times. Status of Women- Women had higher status in Tang and early Song times than they did later. Women were called upon to run family affairs. Families valued boys more than girls. When a young woman married, she became a part of her husband's family. She could not keep her dowry, the payment that a women brings to a marriage, and could never remarry. Foot binding, tiny feet were a sumbol of nobility and beauty. Foot binding was extremely painful. Large feet means no husband. Peasants couldn't do this because they needed to work in the fields. Foot binding reinforced the Confucian tradition that women should remain inside the home.
• Mughal India: Babur, Akbar, and successors - changes and developments they brought to India
Babur- Turkish and Mongol armies again poured through mountain passes into India. At their head rode Babur (author, genius), who claimed descent from Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Babur swept away the remnants of the Delhi sultanate and set up the Mughal dynasty. Akbar- The chief builder of the Mughal empire was Babur's grandson Akbar (liked all religions). During his long reign, he created a strong central government, earning the title Akbar the Great. Tolerant. Opened jobs to Hindus of all castes and treated Hindu princes as his partners in ruling the vast empire. Ended tax on non-Muslims. Akbar couldn't read or write. Like Asoka, he hoped to promote religious harmony through tolerance. To improve government, he used paid officials in place of hereditary officeholders. He modernized army, encouraged international trade, standardized weight and measures, and introduced land reforms. Janagir (Akbar's son): weaker ruler than his father. He left most details of government in the hands of his wife, Nur Jahan. Fortunately, she was an able leader whose shrewd political judgment was matched only by her love of poetry and royal sports. She was the most powerful woman in Indian history until the twentieth century. Shah Jahan (Akbar's Grandson): he was extremely upset so he built a stunning tomb for her called the Ta Mahal. Greatest monument of the Mughal empire.
• Challenges faced by the Qing Dynasty
Britain made China accept the Treaty of Nanjng. Britain received a huge indemnity, or payment for losses in the war. China hadf to open five ports to foreign trade and Britain gained the island of Hong Kong. China had to make concessions to western powers. The Taiping rebellion almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. China lost in Sino-Japanese War. Had to deal with Carving Spheres of influences. Finally Qing Dynasty died when republic died (ask about red and underlined as a different thing)
• The Opium War - causes, significance of outcome
Causes: • By the late 1700s, two developments were underway that would transform China's relations with the Western world. First, China entered a period of decline. Second, the Industrial Revolution created a need for expanded markets for European goods. At the same time, it gave the West superior military power. • During the late 1700s, British merchants began making huge profits by trading opium grown in India for Chinese ea, which was popular in Britain. Soon, many Chinese had become addicted to the drug. Silver flowed out of China in payment for the drug. Silver flowed out of China in payment for the drug, disrupting the economy. • The Chinese government outlawed opium and executed Chinese drug dealers. They called on Britain to stop the trade. The British refused, insisting on the right of free trade. • In 1839, Chinese warships clashed with British merchants, triggering the Opium War. Effects: • With outdated weapons and fighting methods, the Chinese were easily defeated. In 1842, Britain made China accept the Treaty of Nanjing. Britain received a huge indemnity, or payment for losses in the war. The British also gained the island of Hong Kong. China had to open five ports to foreign trade and grant British citizens in China extraterritoriality, the right to live under their own jaws and be tried in their own courts. They treaty was the first of series of "unequal treaties" that forced China to make concessions to Western powers. A second war, lasting from 1856 to 1858, ended with France, Russia, and the United States pressuring China to sign treaties demanded in an agreement (stipulating) the opening of more ports to foreign trade and letting Christian missionaries preach in China.
Sepoys and the Sepoy Rebellion
Causes: • In the 1850s, the East India company made several unpopular moves. First, it required sepoys or Indian soldiers in its service, to serve anywhere, either in India or overseas. For high-caste Hindus, however, overseas travel was an offense against their religion. • Second, the east India Company passed a law that allowed Hindu widows to remarry. Hindus viewed both moves as a Christian conspiracy to undermine their beliefs. • Then, in 1857, the British issued new rifles to the sepoys. Troops were told to bite off the tips of cartridges before loading them into the rifles. The cartridges, however, were greased with animal fat- either from cows, which Hindus considered sacred, or from pigs, which were forbidden to Muslims. When the troops refused the order to "load rifles", they were imprisoned. Effects: • Angry sepoys rose up against their British officers. The Sepoy Rebellion swept across northern and central India. Several sepoy regiments marched off to Delhi, the old Mughal capital. There, they hailed the last Mughal ruler as their leader. In some places, the spoys brutally massacred British men, women, and children. • But the British soon rallied and crushed the revolt. They then took terrible revenge for their earlier losses, torching villages, and slaughtering thousands of unarmed Indians. • The Sepoy rebellion left a bitter legacy of fear, hatred, and mistrust on both dies. In 1858, Parliament ended the rule of the East India Company and put India directly under the British crown. It sent more troops to India, taxings Indians to pay the cost of these occupying forces. While ti slowed the "reforms" that had angered Hindus and Muslims, it continued to develop Indian for Britain's own economic benefit.
Confucius
Confucius, a brilliant scholar, developed a philosophy (system of ideas) that was concerned with worldly goals, especially those of ensuring social order and good government. Harmony resulted when people accepted in society. Five key relationships: ruler to subject, parent to child, husband to wife, elder brother, to younger brother, and friend to friends. Except for friendship, none of these relationships were equal. Everyone had duties and responsibilities (elder brother should set a good example for younger brother). Correct behavior would bring order and stability. Put filial piety (respect for parents) above all other duties. Other values were honesty, hard work, concern for others. "Do not do to other, what you do not wish yourself."Ruler's responsibility to provide good government. In return, people would be respectful and loyal subjects. Best ruler was a one with moral goodness who led people by good example. Government leaders and officials should be well-educated. Told rulers to take advice of wise, educated men. Belief that the universe reflected a delicate balance between two forces, yin and yang. Yin was Earth, darkness, and female forces while yang was heaven, light, and male forces. Well-being of universe depended on maintain balance between yin and yang. For example, the king should make the proper sacrifices to heaven while also taking practical steps to rule well. Many outside countries also took the belief of Confucianism.
• Development of Indian Nationalism - how connected to British Imperial policy and actions?
During the years of British rule, a class of Western-educated Indians emerged. In the view of Macaulay and others, this elite class would bolster British power. As it turned out, exposure to European ideas had the opposite effect. By the late 1800s, Western-educated Indians were spearheading (to act as a leader of event) a national movement. Schooled in Western ideals such as democracy and equality, they dreamed of ending imperial rule. Indian National Congress: In 1885, nationalist leaders organized the Indian National Congress, which became known as the Congress party. Its members believed in peaceful protest to gain their ends. They called for greater democracy, which they felt would bring more power to Indians like themselves. The Indian National Congress looked forward to eventual self-rule, but supported Western-style modernization.
Silk Road
Emperor Wudi opened up a network of trade routes, later called the Silk Road, that would link China and the west for centuries. During the Han period, new foods such as grapes, figs, cucumbers, and walnuts flowed into China from western Asia. The Chinese send large quantites of silk westward to fill a growing demand for the prized fabric. Eventually, the Silk Road stretched for 4,000 miles, linking China to the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East. Few traders covered the entire distance, however; instead, goods were relayed in stages from one set of traders to another. At the western end, trade was controlled by various peoples, including the Persians.
Why is Akbar remembered as Akbar the Great?
He created a strong central government (ask)
The British East India Company - its role in British imperial policy
In the early 1600s, the British East India Company won trading rights on the fringe of the Mughal empire. The East India Company's main goal in India was to make money and leading officials often grew rich.
Imperialism
Industrial Revolution has transformed the west. o Definition dominant of one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region. o Motives/advantages • Industrial Revolution created needs and desires that encouraged overseas expansion. Manufactures wanted access to natural resources such as rubber, petroleum, manganese for steel, and palm oil for machinery. Wanted new markets of consumers to who they could sell heir factor goods. Bankers wanted to invest profits. Colonies offered a valuable outlet for Europe's growing population. • Steam-powered merchant ships and naval vessels needed bases around the world to take on coal and supplies. Industrial powers seized islands or harbors to satisfy these needs. Western leaders claimed that colonies were needed for national security. They also felt that ruling a global empire increased a nation's security. They also felt that ruling a global empire increased a nation's prestige around the world. • Many westerners felt a genuine concern for their "little brothers" beyond the seas. Missionaries, doctors, and colonial officials believed they had a duty to spread what they saw as the blessings of Western civilization, including its medicine, law, and Christian religion. • They applied Darwin's ideas about natural selection and survival of the fittest to human societies. European racism they argued, were superior to all others, and imperial domination of weaker races were simply nature's way of improving the human species. • While European nations had grown stronger in the 1800s, several older civilizations were in decline, especially the Ottoman Middle East, Mughal India, and Qing China. • European powers had advantages of strong economies, well-organized governments, and powerful armies and navies. Superior technology, including riverboats and the telegraph, as well as improved medical knowledge also played a role. Quinine and other new medicines helped Europeans survive deadly tropical diseases. Advances such as Maxim machine guns, and steam-driven warships were very strong arguments in persuading Africans and Asians to accept Western control.
Daoism
Laozi wrote "Dao De Jing" and "The Way of Virture"(a book that had an enormous influence on the Chinese life. Daoism was not concerned with bringing order to human affairs unlike Confucianism. Daoists sought to live in harmony with nature. Laozi stressed that people should look beyond every day cares to focus on the Dao, or "the way" of the universe. The Dao was hard to understand fully or put into words. "Those who know the Dao do not speak of it. Those who speak of it do not know it." To know, you reject conflict and strife. Stressed simple ways of nature. Daoists tunred from the "unnatural" ways of society. Some were hermits (lives alone), artists, or poets. Government is unnatural and the cause of many problems. "If the people are difficult to govern, it is because those in authority are too fond of action." Best government was one that governed the least. o Laozi Laozi, live at the time of Confucius, founded a philosophy called Daoism.
Qin Dynasty
Legalism establishes harsh rule. Unity imposed. Made Great Wall. To promote unity, the First Emperor standerized weights and measures and replaced the diverse coins o the Zhou states with Qin coins.
Tang Dynasty
Li Yuan and his son, Li Shimin. They crushed all rivals. Li Shimin took father's throne and was called Tang Taizong. Great government. Forced neighboring countries to by tributary states. Wu Zhao resoted Han system on uniform government through China. Civil service exams again. Land reform. Tributary states- Tang dynasty- Chinese ameries forced neighboring lands of Vietnam, Tibet, and Korea to be become tributary states. That is, while these states remained self-governing, their rulers had to acknowledge Chinese supremacy and send regular tribute to Tang emperor. At the same time, student from Korea and Japan traveled to the Tang capital to learn about Chinese government, law, and arts.
How did Islam influence shape Indian government and society?
Muslim rule brought changes to Indian government and society. Sultans introduced Muslim traditions of government. Many Turks, Persians, and Arabs migrated to India to serve as soldiers or officials. Trade between India and Muslim lands increased. During the Mongol raids of the 1200s, many scholars and adventurers fled from Baghdad to India, bringing Persian and Greek learning. The newcomers helped create a brilliant civilization at Delhi, where Persian art and architecture flourished.
How geography influenced civilization in China
Long distances and physical barriers separated China from Egypt, the Middle East, and India. This isolation contributed the Chinese belief that China was the center of the earth and the sole source of civilization. These beliefs in turn led the ancient Chinese to call their land Zhongguo, or the Middle Kingdom. Despite these formidable barriers, the Chinese did have contact with the outside world. They traded with neighboring people and, in time, Chinese goods reached the Middle East and beyond. As the Chinese expanded over an enormous area, their empire came to include many regions. In ancient times, the rivers provided water for irrigation (supply area with water) and served as transportation routes. Chinese history began in the Huang river valley, where Neolithic people learned to farm. As in other places, the need to control the flow of the river through large water founding of what is sometimes called the Yellow River civilization. o Loess The Huang river got its name from the loess (find windblown yellow soil), that it carries eastward from Siberia and Mongolia. Long ago, the Huang River earned the name "River of Sorrows". Loess raised the water level. They built dikes to prevent river from overflowing. If the dikes broke, flood waters burst over the land. Such disasters destroyed crops and mass starvation. o River of Sorrows
• The Mauryan Dynasty: Chandragupta, Asoka, and the first empires in India o How organized? Similarities and differences?
Maintained order through a well-organized bureaucracy. Supervised building of roads and harbors to benefit trade. Rule was effective but harsh. A brutal secret police force reported on corruption, crime, and ideas that opposed those of government (dissent). After Asoka's death, Maurya power declined. Unity of Maury empire was shattered as rival princes again battled for power across Gangetic Plain. India was rarely remained united for long. Mauryan Empire dates (probably I.D.)- From 321 B.C. to 185 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya- Forged first Indian empire (Maurya Empire). First gained power in Ganges valley. Then, conquered northern India. Then pushed south, adding much of the Deccan. Asoka- Most honored Maurya emperor was Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka. Asoka fought a long, bloody war to conquer the Deccan region of Kalinga. Horrified at slaughter, he turned his back on further conquests. He converted to Buddhism, rejected violence, and resolved to rule by moral example. He sent missionaries, or people sent on a religious mission, to spread Buddhism throughout Asia. Asoka Pillars- Asoka had stone pillars set up across India, offering moral advice and promising a just government. Asoka's rule brought peace and properity and helped unite the diverse peoples within his empire. Tried to help everyone (planted mango groves and made dugs and shelters vertical along the roads) • Golden Age of the Guptas - significant achievements? Schools taught more than just religion and philosophy like the subjects I take now. Advances in mathematics had a wide impact on rest of world. Mathematics also originated the concept of zero and developed decimal system based on 10 digits. Physicians used herbs and other medicines to treat illness. Surgeons were skilled ins setting bones and in simple surgery to repair injuries. Doctors also began vaccinating. Many fine writers added to right heritage of Indian literature.
Great Wall
Most remarkable achievement by Shi Huangdi was the Great Wall. In the past, individual feudal states had built walls to defend their lands against raiders. Shi Huangdi ordered the walls to be joined. Many workers died by making the Great Wall. It snaked for thousands of miles across North China. Even though it did not keep invaders out of China, it demonstrated the emperors' ability to mobilize China's vast resources. Han Dynasty economy (canal and roads, granaries, monopoly on iron and salt, sale of iron and salt gave government a source of income other than axes on peasants. Expansion(expanding a country's territory, by increasing the amount of land under Chinese rule. fought battles to expand China's borders and to drive nomadic people beyond Great Wall. China armies added outposts in surrounding countries. Soldiers, traders, and settlers slowly spread Chinese influence across these areas.)Silk Road. Scholar Officials. Civil Service System. Science and medicine. Technology an engineering. Expanding arts. Wudi followed a policy of expansionism by increasing the amount of land under Chinese rule. He fought many battles to expand China's borders and to drive nomadic peoples beyond the Great Wall. Chinese armies added outposts in Manchuria, Korea, northern Vietnam, Tibet, and Central Asia. Soldiers, traders, and settlers slowly spread Chinese influence across these areas. o Emperor Wudi strengthened government and economy of Han Dynasty. He had granaries set up across the empire so the government could buy grain when it was abundant and sell it at stable prices when it was scarce. o Civil Service System Confucianism was the official belief system of state in Han Dynasty. A scholar-official was expected to match the Confucian ideal of a gentlemen. Han emperors adopted the idea that civil servants should win their positions by merit, rather than through family ties as had occurred in past. In the Han civil service system, a young man would tsart in a clerical job. Once he proved his abilities, he would move up in local government. If he continued to excel, he would eventually be recruited into the civil service and might be tested on his knowledge of government policy. Essential t his studies were the Five Classics, a collection of history, poems, and handbooks complied by Confucius and others that served as a guide to conduct for about 2,000 years. Later, in the 580s, the Sui dynasty set up a formal system of civil service exams, which were given at the local, provincial, and national levels. Any man could take the exams but only those who could afford years of study could hope to succeed. Women didn't take civil serive exam because of Confucian teachings about filal peity and superiority of men so women were excluded from government jobs. The civil service system remained in use until 1912.
Matteo Ricci
Portugues missionaries arrived in China along with the traders. In the later years theJesuit- from Spain, Italy, and Portugal- arrived. Most Jesuits had a broad knowledge of many subjects, and the Chinese welcomed the chance to learn about Renaissance Europe from these scholars. The brilliant Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci made a particularly strong impression on the Chinese. Still, Ricce and other priests had little success spreading their religious beliefs in China. They did, however, become important sources of information for Europeans who knew little about China.
Know the chronological order of the early Chinese dynasties
Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Sui, Tang, Song, Ming, Qing. She zhouted "Qin, hey see tang singing ming qing".
Legalism (Strict obeying to a literal interpretation of a law or rule)
Shi Huangdi centralized power with the help of Legalist advisers. Legalism was based on the teachings of Hanfeizi. According to Hanfeizi, "the nature of man is evil. His goodness is acquired." "Greed was the motive for most actions and the cause of most conflicts." Hanfeizi insisted that the only way to achieve order was to pass strict laws and impose harsh punishments for crimes. To Legalists, strength, not goodness, was a ruler's greatest virtue. "The ruler alone possessed power, wielding it like lightning or like thunder." Many feudal rulers chose legalism as the most effective way to keep order. Shi Huangdi made it the official policy of the Qin government. He tortured, killed, or enslaved many who opposed his rule. To end dissent, Shi Huangdi approved a ruthless campaign of book burning, ordering, the destruction of all writings other than manuals on topics such as medicine and agriculture. Laws such as these were so cruel that later generations despised Legalism. Legalist ideas survived for hundreds of years. o Hanfeizi Legalism was based on the teachings of Hanfeizi. According to Hanfeizie, "the nature of man is evil". The only way to achieve order wat to pass strict laws and impose harsh punishments for crimes. "The ruler alone possesses power".
Interactions between Hindu and Muslim cultures - clashes between and blending of cultures
The Muslim conquest of northern India inflicted disaster on Hindus and Buddhists. Hindu • Old • Texts • Gods • Music Islam • New • Text • God • No caste • No music Some lower-caste Hindus preferred Islam because it rejected the caste system. Other converts camer from higher castes. They chose to adopt the caste system. Other converts came from high castes. They chose to adopt Islam either because it beliefs or because they served in the Muslim government. Indian Merchants were attracted to Islam in part because of the strong trade network across Muslim lands. Sikhism- combination of Hinduism and Islam.
Macao
The Portuguese wanted Chinese silks and porcelains, but had little to offer in exchange European textiles and metalwork were inferior to Chinese products. The Chinese therefore demanded payment in gold or silver. The Ming eventually allowed the Portuguese a trading post at Macao near Canto, present-day Guanagzhou. Later they let Dutch, English, and other Europeans trade with Chinese merchants.
Dynastic Cycle
The justify their rebellion against the Shang, the Zhou promoted the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, or the divine right to rule. The cruelty of the last Shang king, they declared, had so outraged the gods that they had sent ruin on him. The gods then passed the Mandate of Heaven to the Zhou, who "treated the multitudes of the people well." They Chinese later expanded the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to explain the dynastic cycle (the rise and fall of dynasties). When a dynasty provided good government, it enjoyed the Mandate of Heaven. If the rulers became weak or corrupt, the Chinese believed that heaven would withdraw its support. Floods, famine, or other catastrophes were signs that a dynasty has lost the favor of heaven. In the resulting chaos, an ambitious leader might seize power and set up a new dynasty. His success and strong government showed the people that the new dynasty had won the Mandate of Heaven. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.
Mandate of Heaven
The justify their rebellion against the Shang, the Zhou promoted the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, or the divine right to rule. The cruelty of the last Shang king, they declared, had so outraged the gods that they had sent ruin on him. The gods then passed the Mandate of Heaven to the Zhou, who "treated the multitudes of the people well." They Chinese later expanded the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to explain the dynastic cycle (the rise and fall of dynasties). When a dynasty provided good government, it enjoyed the Mandate of Heaven. If the rulers became weak or corrupt, the Chinese believed that heaven would withdraw its support. Floods, famine, or other catastrophes were signs that a dynasty has lost the favor of heaven. In the resulting chaos, an ambitious leader might seize power and set up a new dynasty. His success and strong government showed the people that the new dynasty had won the Mandate of Heaven. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.
Impact of British colonial rule on India - agricultural, economic, political changes
Viceroy One who governed in India in the name of the British monarch. A British viceroy in India governed in the name of the queen, and British officials held the top positions in the civil service and army. Benefits of British Rule- brought some degree of peace and order to the countryside. The British revised the legal system to promote justice for Indians regardless of class or caste. Railroads helped Indians move around the country, while the telegraph and postal system improved communication. Greater contact helped bridge regional differences and develop ad sense of national unity. The upper classes, especially, benefitted from some British policies. They sent their sons to British schools, where they were trained for posts in the civil service and military. India landowners and princes, who still ruled their own territories, grew rich from exporting cash crops. Drawbacks (disadvantages) of British Rule- Indians didn't have top jobs. British trade with India was an unequal partnership, favoring the British. The British flodded India with inexpensive, machine-made textiles, ruining India's once-prosperous hand-weaving industry. Britain encouraged nomadic herders to settle into farming and pushed farmers to grow cash crops (crops grow to sell and not for person consumption), such as cotton and jute, that could be sold on the world market. Clearing new farmlands led to massive deforestation, or cutting of trees. Better healthcare and numbers, however, put a strain on the food supply, especially as farmland was turned over to growing cash crops instead of food. In the late 1800s, terrible famines swept India.
Status of women
Women had higher status in Tang and early Song times than they did later. Women were called upon to run family affairs. Families valued boys more than girls. When a young woman married, she became a part of her husband's family. She could not keep her dowry, the payment that a women brings to a marriage, and could never remarry. Footbinding Foot binding, tiny feet were a sumbol of nobility and beauty. Foot binding was extremely painful. Large feet means no husband. Peasants couldn't do this because they needed to work in the fields. Foot binding reinforced the Confucian tradition that women should remain inside the home.
Song Dynasty
Zhao Kuangyin founded Song dyansty. The Song also faced the constant threat of invaders in the north. o Economic improvements Improved farming methods and open border policy. This allowed a new type of faster-growing rice to be imported from Southeast Asia. Farmers now could produce two crops a year, one of rice and one of a cash crop to sell. The rise in productivity created surpluses (excess amount), allowing more people to pursue commerce, learning, or the arts. Canals have been built for internal trade and transportation. (not made in Song dynasty but reached its peak in song dynasty) Grand Canal let food grown in the south to be shipped to the capital in the north. Grand Canal Reached its peak during the Song dynasty, when thousands of tons of grain were shipped to northern China each year. Trade flourished. o Daoism and it influence Painters sought to capture the spiritual essence of the natural world. "To created a harmonious relationship between heaven and earth when you plan to paint")
Ming Dynasty
Zhu Yuanzhang, peasant leader, founded Ming dynasty, meaning brilliant. Restored the civil service system and Confucian learning again became the road to success. o Primary goal of Ming emperors To reassert Chinese greatness after years of foreign rule. o Zheng He Early Ming rulers proudly sent Chinese fleets into distant waters to show the glory of their government. Starting in 1405, Zheng He commanded the first of seven expeditions. He departed at the head of a fleet of 62 huge ships and over 2000 smaller ones, carrying a crew of about 28,000 sailors. The largest ships measured 400 feet long. The goal of each expedition was to promote trade and collect tribute from lesser powers across the western seas. Exotice animals, such as giraffes, were imported rom foreign lands as well. The voyages also showed local rulers the power and strength of the Chinese empire. o Chinese economy under the Ming Economically, the Ming dynasty was immensely productive. The fertile, well-irrigated plain of eastern China supported a population of more than 100 million. Peasants produced huge rice crops. Bettwe methods of fertilizing helped to improve farming. Repaired the extensive canal system that linked various regions, made trade easier, and allowed cities to grow. Ming China also saw a revival of arts and literature. Ming artists developed their own systoles of landscape painting and created brilliant blue and white porcelain. Poetry and literature also was good. o Later Ming policies toward exploration- After Zheng He dided, the Ming emperor suddenly banned the building of seagoing ships. Historians are not sure why China ended their overseas exploration with their advanced naval technology.
Mongols
nomadic people who grazed their horses and sheep on the steppes, or vast, treeless plains of central asia. o Ghengis Khan "Universal Rulers" Genghis Khan united warring (fighting) Mongolian tribes who were fighting with other Mongolian tribes. Strict military discipline and demanded absolute loyalty. His mobile armies had some of the most skilled horsemen in the world. Fierceness. When they wanted to face China, they encountered the problem of attacking walled cities. Did not live to complete the conquest of China. o Kublai Khan Genghis Khan's grandson, finally toppled that last Song emperor in 1279. He tried to prevent the Mongols from being absorbed into Chinese civilization. He said that only Mongols could serve in military and reserved top-government spots for Mongols. Still, he allowed Chinese officials to rule in the provinces. Made his dynasty Yuan dynasty. He welcomed many foreigners to his court. o Pax Mongolica The sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan established peace and order within their domains. This period of order in Pax Mongolica which means Mongol Peace. o Mongols in China (Yuan Dynasty) Genghis Khan's grandson, finally toppled that last Song emperor in 1279. He tried to prevent the Mongols from being absorbed into Chinese civilization. He said that only Mongols could serve in military and reserved top-government spots for Mongols. Still, he allowed Chinese officials to rule in the provinces. Made his dynasty Yuan dynasty. He welcomed many foreigners to his court. o Marco Polo Marco Polo's journey lasted 24 years. From Venice. 17 when they left for Cathay. They visited Yarkand, Khotan, Cherchen, and Lop-Nor. It took 3.5 years to get to Shangtu. Marco Polo stayed at Khan's court for 17 years (he stayed in Kublai's service). Many people believed in Macro Polo's telling and went to the places he went. He told of the wealth and the splendor (magnificence) of China. He described the royal palace of Kublai Khan, and also described China's efficient royal mail systemHe crossed Persia and Central Asia to reach China. He told of the wealth, magnificence, royal palace, royal mail system of China. In 1298, Marco Polo was imprisoned during a war with city-state of Genoa. It was at this time that he dictated his tales to a fellow prisoner, and they were published as The Travels of Marco Polo. Polo's reports sparked European interest in the riches of Asia.
Decline of Mughal dynasty
• By the mid-1700s, the Mughal empire was collapsing from a lack of strong rulers. Britain then turned its commercial interests in the region into political ones. In the early 1600s, the British East India Company won trading rights on the fringe of the Mughal empire. As Mughal power declined, the company's influence grew. By the mid-1800s, it controlled three fifths of India. The British were able to conquer India by exploiting its diversity. Even when Mughal empire was at its height, India was home to many people and cultures. As Mughal power crumbled, India became fragmented. Indians with different traditions and dozens of different languages were not able to unite against the newcomers. The British took advantage of Indian divisions by encouraging competition and disunity among rival princes. Where diplomacy or intrigue did not work, the British used their superior weapons to overpower local rulers. The East India Company's main goal in India was to make money and leading officials often grew rich. By the early 1800s, British officials introduced Western education and legal procedures. MIssionaried tried to convert Indians to Christianity, which they felt was superior to Indian religions. The British also pressed for social change. They worked to end slavery and the caste system and to improve the position of women within the family. One law banned sat, a Hindu custom practiced mainly by the upper classes. It called for a widow to join her husband in death by throwing herself on his funeral fire.
