History final part 2

Academic-surgeons

referred to as surgeons of the long robe

Mystery cults

religious/philosophical belief of the ancient Greeks and Oriental East emphasizing spiritual aspects of the afterlife and the hope of joining the cult god in a wonderful existence in eternity

Queen Victoria

remained in seclusion for ten years and in mourning for the next thirty. In doing so she created a fascination with funerals and mourning practices which then became a huge business in England for whom no expense was spared. Even the poorest people saved their pennies to be able to provide their dead with a proper send-off. Sadly, all too often, their dead were their young children

Libitina

the ancient Roman goddess of corpses and funerals

Barber-surgeon

the sole trade permitted to embalm and perform anatomical dissections in the city of London.

Elysian fields

the version of heaven in Greek mythology.

Casket

usually have 4 sides and are rectangular in shape.

Osiris

was a benevolent Egyptian king who was murdered by his brother Seth, the body sealed in a coffin and floated down the Nile where it eventually landed near the Phoenician city of Byblos.

Paradise

was a land of joy, peace and plenty, where existence passed happily and easily beneath the sacred tree warriors killed in battle, women who died in childbirth, sacrificial victims and suicides by hanging went straight to _________ where they lived in the highest heaven. The underworld was no bargain; there the death gods would burn, torture or otherwise punish evil doers (Maya)

Hirpex

was a triangular implement made of wood or iron with raking spikes attached to one side.

Book of the Dead

was an ancient Egyptian funeral text used from the beginning of the New Kingdom 1549 BCE to around 50 BCE. It was known to the Egyptians as Rue Nu Pert Em Hru. It contained magical spells, readings, songs and instructions on how a deceased could navigate the Underworld.

Dr. Thomas Holmes

was born in New York in 1817. He attended public schools and New York University Medical College though there are no records of him graduating. However, in the 1850s he practiced medicine and was a coroner's physician in New York. In the 1850s he perfected what we know today as modern embalming techniques and is generally acknowledged as the "Father of Modern Embalming."

Mesopotamia

was located where modern-day Iraq, Syria, Kuwait, including regions along the Syria, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq borders, can be found. It is considered one of the cradles of civilization.

Horas

was the Egyptian God of Healing and Protection.

Libitina

was the ancient Roman goddess of corpses and funerals.

Chinese

Another custom the __________ followed to show their respect for the dead was to plant a tree on the grave so that the soul of the dead might be strengthened and guarded from corruption. Evergreen, cypress and pine were often preferred because they were thought to have greater vitality than other trees. Some species of the yew tree were used in certain areas and other parts of the world for decorating burial places because they were poisonous and had a decidedly melancholy appearance, in modem practice, the evergreen is used in cemeteries because it symbolizes immortality through its unchanging color and freshness

Sirius

Another description of the Egyptian embalming process is given for the creation of mummies by A.K. Alchin: "The process and rituals practiced by the embalmers for the creation of mummies for their final burial rites lasted for a period of seventy days. The seventy day period corresponded to the length of time during which ________ , the 'Dog Star', appeared to die by dipping below the horizon.

Last kiss

As a Roman citizen was approaching death, relatives and close friends gathered to comfort the dying person and also to display their own grief. The nearest relative would give a _____ ______ which, it was believed, would catch the soul when it departed the body with the final breath.

Puritan

As time passed on, the idea of funeral passed on with it. After 1649, ________ funerals became increasingly elaborate and expensive. By the end of the 1650s, large gatherings of people attended funerals and then appeared at the deceased's home for meals that incorporated social drinking and eating. Short prayers of early tradition turned into eulogies, the recitation of prayers and the occasional psalm.

Hebrews

At the cemetery, an oration would be delivered and the body would be deposited into the tomb. Frequently these were caves or rock-hewn receptacles. Coffins were unknown to early ___________ so bodies would be laid face upward on rock shelves provided on three sides of the chamber, or on the floor, and as generations of the same family used the tomb, skeletons and grave goods might be heaped up along the sides or put into a side chamber to make room for new burials.

Embalming surgeons

At the time the civil war started, chemical embalming by injection was performed by men with medical training since they were familiar with anatomy, chemistry and the embalming process. They were known as _________ _________.

Wax

Babylonians, Persians and Syrians preserved their dead by placing them in large containers of honey or ______, depriving the bacteria in the body of air.

Cole's Hill

Based on a statement from Elder, tradition had it that the settlers secretly buried their dead in unmarked graves at night on what is now _______ __________, next to the settlement. (New England)

Constantine

Before 380 CE, Christianity was taking a stronghold in the Roman Empire due to the conversion of Emperor ______________ to the Christian religion in 311 CE, after he had a vision of Christ and a cross that told him he would win an upcoming battle.

Ibu

Before beginning the embalming process, the Egyptians took the body to the ____, the "Place of Purification." In this house they washed the body in water gathered from the Nile. This represented a sort of rebirth, as the person passed from one world into the next.

Mastaba

Before the building of the pyramid, the "____________" was a typical structure that was built of brick or limestone and acted as a house of the dead and as a fortress to protect the dead from tomb robbers.

Middle Ages

Before the plagues, the life span of people in the _________ _______ was short, around the early thirties and when a person died the body was prepared for burial by women. They washed the naked body and wrapped it in a shroud of linen if the family could afford such clothes; otherwise, whatever material was available was used. It was tied at the head and the feet.

1861-1865

Between the years ______________, the United States engaged in a civil war, one of the most significant military confrontations in the young republic's life. The conflict dramatically altered the course of American society, eradicating the institution of slavery from the land and accelerating a number of social, economic, and political trends originating in other regions of the country. It also made lasting cultural impressions across imaginative and material American landscapes.

Spanish

Bodies of the __________ colonists were interred in consecrated ground within or adjacent to a church They followed a pattern with the body facing east, arms crossed over the chest and the presence of brass shroud pins. This pattern was used as a means of distinguishing Christian burials from pre-colonial Native American burials sometimes located in the same area.

Joseph Naples

Body snatching was not safe, and almost always done under the cover of night. A "Resurrectionist" named _______ ________ was one of the rare body-snatchers to keep a diary of his work.

Maya

Both inhumation and cremation were practiced by the _______, with the final resting place determined by social status. Burial, in many instances, took place where one lived. The rich were buried in their temples, palaces or in pyramids. When interred, poorer people were sometimes grouped together within a house mound or simply placed in the ground.

Hebrew

Burial places were located outside of the cities as required by Roman law. In the procession to the tomb, the deceased was generally carried on a wooden slab. Along the way, the bier might be carried by various family members and friends. Women were required to lead the procession since ________ men felt women were responsible for introducing death into the world. Musicians, along with hired mourners who shrieked and pounded their breasts, might accompany the funeral procession.

Formalin

By 1897, formaldehyde production had streamlined, and its cost drastically reduced. In that year, some companies began to advertise its use under the name __________, a 35-40% solution of formaldehyde in water containing some methanol, formic acid, and other organic compounds. After 1900, chemical companies turned to ___________ as a cheap, effective preservative when the use of other poisonous, embalming chemicals, such as arsenic and mercury, became prohibited by state law

Formaldehyde

By 1900, embalmers began to rally around a recently discovered and powerful preservative: _______________. It has become the most common preservative ingredient for embalming fluids.

Pious

Certain Jewish customs were adopted by the church as "________ practices," as distinguished from articles of faith, because of their association with the burial of Christ, such as the cleansing of the body after death. To the Christians, this signified that the dead freed from the stain of sin by the sacraments, might be received into heaven "where no unclean soul may enter."

Victorian

Certain items became traditional favorites at _________ funerals, namely ostrich feathers and white or black kid gloves which were given to family members, the clergy and close friends. The ostrich feathers, whether real or only imitation could be black mourning fans and were also utilized on the hearse itself, and on the horses that pulled the hearse. Small spoons known as monkey spoons were also given to attendees.

Theodosius

Christian View: In 380 CE, after ___________ declared Christianity the state religion, the Christian view of what happened after death replaced other views. This would be the end of the need to conduct sacrifices and offerings under the Animistic view. (Rome)

Miasma

Clearance of long-buried bones had always taken place; but the growing demand for burials in crowded grounds meant the work became ever more grisly. Moreover, by the 1830s London overcrowded churchyards and the older, small commercial grounds in the center of London, were not only seen as posing a logistical challenge but damned as a source of "_______." Sanitary reformers quite mistakenly believed that the stench (_________) from poorly interred decaying bodies was poisoning the metropolis. The practice of urban burial was touted as a menace to public health

Plymouth

Colonists who came to __________ were a mixed group of Separatists, Puritans and Anglicans with a variety of beliefs concerning the rites of passage. Although there is little documentation concerning their burial practices in the early years, much can be derived from English practices and later colonial customs and examples.

Druids

Common to both theories, however, was the belief that heaven was truly heavenly - a paradise where sickness and trouble were unknown, where all men and women were beautiful and never grow old, where food and drink appeared by magic, and where enchanting music filled the air. Even fighting, that most pleasurable sum of earthly pursuits was permitted in the afterworld.

Anglicans

Commonly in this period, burials were held in churchyards; for ___________ a church bell was rung to notify the community of the death of an individual. This custom dated back to the ancient "soul-bell" or "passing-bell," rung both to terrify any evil spirits hovering about the deathbed and to call for prayers of all Christians for the swift deliverance of the departed soul from purgatory into heaven

Reformation

Funeral customs in early seventeenth century England were in a state of transition. The __________ had destroyed the theological basis of many standard burial practices such as praying for the soul of the dead during the funeral procession Separatists, who were religious purists, criticized the Church of England for not carrying religious philosophy to its logical end, and charged...that though we (the English) deny the doctrine of purgatory, and teach the contrary, yet how well our practice suits with it.

Catholic

Funerals were seen as ________ and a vice of showy ceremony and empty blessings Puritans had fled England in an attempt to leave behind the pomp and show of the Anglican ritual and religion and initially funerals served as a keeping in that principle.

Hopewell

Graves, often lined with wood bark or stone were usually shallow and dug in rectangular, circular or irregular shapes. The body was wrapped in clothing, matting or skins, and deposited simply on a bed of bark. In these mound burials, the deceased could be placed under or on the surface of the ground, or in different levels or tiers above ground.

Ma'at

In Egypt, the second part of the judgement process was the "Weighing of the Heart Ceremony." It was believed that the heart contained a record of all the deceased's actions in life, and this was weighed against the feather of the goddess ______.

Inca

Not only did the dead Inca survive in an invisible world, but also a "double" spirit continued to roam the earth. For both these reasons, the body had to be kept in a perfect state, prompting the practice of preservation and contributing to ancestor worship.

Women

In Greece, relatives of the deceased, primarily ___________, conducted the elaborate burial rituals that were customary for each of the three parts: the prothesis (laying out of the body), the ekphora (funeral procession and interment of the body or cremated remains of the deceased), and the perideipnon (funerary banquet.)

Sire

In London and elsewhere it was customary to hire a "_____", or sin eater, a person who specialized in removing the sins from a person's soul.

Coin

In Rome, A ______ was placed in the deceased's mouth or hand to fulfill the traditional belief that a person known as Charon must be given a fee to pay for his guidance of the soul across e river Styx to Hades, the place of the after-life.

Conclamatio Mortis

In Rome, Prior to lighting the fire, a funeral oration was delivered by the nearest relative after which everyone in attendance circled the pyre three times and called out the name of the deceased. This was known as ____________ ____________, the climax of death. Next, the fire was lit by the nearest relative with the addition of perfumes and spices thrown on the blaze.

Wake

In Rome, The _______ could last up to seven days depending on the status of the deceased. During that time family and friends, possibly the entire town, visited the home to pay their respects to the deceased and to comfort the family, much like what happens at today's ______ and visitations. A big difference in the function from then and now is that it was not unheard of for a person to be declared dead mistakenly. The _________ provided time to ensure the person was really dead.

Cremation

In Rome, _________ was used until the 2nd century, and then burial came into use.

Praeco

In Rome, a ________, a special funeral functionary, would summon participants to a public funeral. A private funeral, however, had no public invitation extended. Today the death notice in the paper notifies the public if a funeral is open to the public or is to be held in private.

Praeficae

In Rome, after the musicians, came mourning women, called ___________ who were hired as professional mourners to lament, shriek, tear their hair, rend their garments and sing the funeral song in praise of the deceased.

Waxen masks

In Rome, after the slaves and ahead of the deceased walked individuals wearing _______ _______ made to represent the deceased, and clothed in the official garments of those whom they represented. Crowns or military rewards which the deceased had earned in life were also carried in the procession.

Extramural

In Rome, from the forum, the procession proceeded to the place of burning or burial, which according to a law, was outside the city, also known as an __________ burial or cremation.

Cena novendialis

In Rome, nine days after the disposal of the body, by burial or cremation, a feast was given (_____ __________).

Dominus Funeris

In Rome, the order of the funeral procession was regulated by the Designator also known as ___________ __________. It was headed by musicians of various kinds who played mournful songs.

England

In Virginia, funerals of the well-to-do in the later part of the colonial period began in some ways to resemble the funeral customs of ________ at the time. They involved religious services, feasting and drinking. Burial usually took place on the plantation or near the family home.

Greece

In _______, Interment was delayed three days to prevent premature burial. Cremation came into practice in about 300 BCE.

Virginia

In ________, Funerals usually took place at home, and there was considerable resistance to the idea of holding them in church. Likewise, the church graveyards were largely for the burial of transients or persons who lived very close to the church. A family burying around in the garden or at some other convenient location on the plantation was much more popular.

Greece

In ________, six days after the funeral, additional ceremonies took place, and the end of the mourning period, which was not a set time, was also marked with ceremony. Other ceremonies were held on an annual basis thereafter.

Russia

In ___________, the custom was to place a parchment Certificate of Good Conduct in the hands of the deceased to be used as admittance into the Realm of Bliss.

Victorian

In _____________ England, 1837-1901, a death in the family, followed by the elaborate funeral was a period marked with emotion and the physical display of grief. Signs of mourning were in evidence everywhere, from the often fashionable (and altogether obligatory funeral clothing to the embossed memorial cards supplied by the undertaker. Women wore black, bustled, heavily craped dresses with mourning bonnets or widow's cap. Men were also suitably attired in black, with black top hats and mourning hat-bands.

Purgatory

In accordance with Catholic teaching, _____________ is: "a place or condition of temporal punishment for those, who departing this life in God's grace, but not entirely free from venial faults or have not fully paid the satisfaction due to his transgressions."

Vikings

In addition, sometimes the man's wife would be buried - alive- with him, so that the entrance to a mound grave could be properly closed off. Ten days after the death of the man, the deceased was placed on his funeral ship, seated on a mattress and propped with cushions. Food and weapons were deposited at his side, along with a number of animals. Eventually, after having ritual sexual relations with the male members of the deceased's family, the slave girl was raised onto the ship. Certain dialog was carried on see the slave girl and the members of the funeral party, until at the final ceremony began.

Undertaker

In medieval times, the word __________ was used vaguely for anyone undertaking a task, whether house building or funeral work. It doesn't derive from taking the deceased six feet under but, by the 17th century, the term "funeral ____________" was being abbreviated to this. As this association became widespread, folks other trades stopped calling themselves this because they feared death by association.

Vikings

In order to aid the spirit in its journey to the world of the dead, _________ were sometimes interred in boats or ships, in some cases, the boat and the body were burned or buried together. Most funerals did not involve a burning ship launched out to sea unless it was for a person of high nobility. The boat was actually symbolic of the afterlife journey, graves that were outlined with stones in the shape of a boat were prevalent.

Middle Ages

Occasionally some of these wealthy people were given a rudimentary type of embalming. The internal organs were removed and soaked in some type of alcohol; cuts were made in the body and were packed with herbal preservatives.

Two

Of course, the committal ceremony did not bring to a conclusion the outward manifestations of honor for the deceased. A rigidly-defined and strictly-enforced period of mourning followed, which could last over ____ years for widows! (Victorian)

1909

On June 15, _____, Crane and Breed Co, introduced the first motorized funeral vehicle called the Auto Hearse. Their vehicle purred along at a brisk 30mph which was fairly fast in those days for a car of any kind. It had a four-cylinder engine.

Per Nefer

Once the body was cleaned, the embalmers carried it to the _____ ______, the "House of Beauty," where they began the mummification process.

Body snatching

One of the more gruesome activities in the development of embalming and medicine was that of _______ _________. This involved the stealing of dead human bodies from a grave or other location such as a morgue, and in some instances right out of a funeral procession.

Collegium

Organizations or guilds called _________ were created to help fund funerals. Each week a member would contribute a small amount of money and upon death the guild would contribute to the cost of the funeral. Very little has been written about funerals of the poor; so much of what has been written describes funerals of the wealthy. (Roman)

Isis

Osiris' sister and wife, _______, sought and recovered the body returning it to Egypt. Unfortunately, brother Seth uncovered the body and dismembered it, scattering the remains. Persistent, she discovered the dismembered pieces, burying them where she found them.

Plague Bearers

Physicians wore macabre masks to shield them from what may have been airborne pathogens. Many of the dead were collected at night by '________ __________,' often destitute apprentices who would announce their presence with a bell and take the bodies away for burial by morning. This was a dangerous job, many of these workers falling to illness themselves. In Stepney it was said that within a year they lost 116 sextons, grave-diggers and their assistants.

Wedgwood

Potters like ____________ produced tea services in black basalt with teapots with weeping women on their lids.

Gamaliel

Purportedly there was a great burial ostentation in this era. The wealthier families competed with one another as to who could inter their dead more elaborately. Later, the Jewish rabbi _________ introduced a reform of this extravagance. Subsequently, most Hebrews were buried in inexpensive linen garments.

Middle Ages

Religion and the church played an important role in the life of the rich and poor during this time. At its pinnacle, the church was more powerful than the government and its influence extended to the areas of death and funerals. An after-death belief that was also a reality to the Christians of this era was the existence of purgatory

Wake

In the 1800s, the body was watched over every minute until burial. The ______ also served as a safeguard from burying someone who was not dead, but in a coma. Most lasted 3-4 days to allow relatives to arrive from far away. The use of flowers and candles helped to mask unpleasant odors in the room before embalming became common in 19th century Europe and America the dead were carried out of the house feet first, in order to prevent the spirit from looking back into the house and beckoning another member of the family to follow him.

Good death

Romance, sentiment, and strict moral conscience characterized much of expressive life in New England during the 19th century. Attitudes toward death and mourning practices were particularly important elements in this Victorian age. A central belief was the concept of a "______ ________," that is, to die in the home, among family, and with a clear Christian conscience. For the dying, it was a time to give advice to family members, be absolved of sins, say goodbye, and peacefully transition to the hereafter. This time was equally important for the living it allowed them to wake and mourn the deceased in the home with other family members.

Sarcophagi

Romans began to preserve dead bodies intact, in full-size __________ (referring to the stone used for coffins thought to eat the flesh of a body), or in similar metal or plaster containers. Greater amounts of space became necessary for these larger burials.

Netherlands

Since arterial embalming first began in the ____________ in the 17th century, anatomists, physicians, chemists, and embalmers constantly experimented with a variety of solutions and chemicals to produce an effective liquid preservative that would retard decomposition and, later, produce a life-like tint in the body's skin. Practitioners used salts, metals, alcohols, acids, alkalis, and varied substances such as oils turpentine, and powdered spices.

Burking

In the 1820s Burke and Hare branched out in an even more sinister direction. Over the course of a year they developed their own special brand of murder, a form of smoothening by compressing the victim's chest by sitting on it, which was later known as _________. Twenty bodies murdered in this fashion were sold before local doctors started recognizing them as local missing persons.

Coffin

Since its long use in the funeral industry, the meaning evolved and softened over time. In today's modern French language, the word more appropriately means "cradle."

Furnishing undertakers

Some of these enterprising entrepreneurs began warehousing an inventory of funeral-related products as they became common to the customs of the time, such as chairs, drapes, coffins, rugs, door badges and carriages. They were known as _______________ ______________.

Sarcophagus

The Ancient Egyptian ______ is a limestone container that usually housed a coffin and an Egyptian mummy.

Druids

The Celts were led by the magical mysterious ______________- a clan of "priests" who terrified opposing Roman soldiers by frenziedly stirring Celtic men to heroism in the upcoming battles.

Priests

The Church had blamed the plague on the sexual impropriety of men with women. When large numbers of ________ came with the plague many people began to lose faith with the Church. Also, many abandoned the terrified people and other became more involved with the wealthy, in doing so, this general corruption was influential in the reformation of the Church in England.

600,000

The Civil War, bringing a total of more than ___________________ deaths from 1861 to 1865, marked changes in the way Americans treated death, as it was often impossible to follow conventional burial practices during wartime.

Maya

The Classic ______ civilization flourished on a stretch of land between North and South America called the Yucatan Peninsula. During this relatively brief period of time, they built great cities, produced magnificent paintings, developed a form of writing and a complex mathematical system, and even created their own calendar.

Sarcophagus

The Egyptian interpretation of the word was the 'processor of life' whereas we would believe the interpretation should be more akin to possessor of death.

Coffin

The French were the first to coin the word "________" taken from the ancient Greek term Kofinos, meaning "basket."

Pneuma

The Greeks believed that at the moment of death the human spirit, known as the __________, left the body as a little breath or puff of wind. The ancient Greek conception of the afterlife and the ceremonies associated with burial were already well established by 6th century BCE.

River Styx

The Greeks believed that the deceased had to make a journey across the ______ ______ to the land of eternity.

Lithos

The Greeks called these limestone coffins, sarcophagi ____. The name sarcophagus was eventually applied to stone coffins in general, which were not sunk underground.

Burial

The Jews considered _______ the only proper method for disposing of a dead body; even while the Romans and Greeks, as well as most other ancient cultures practiced cremation. Even God himself is depicted in the Torah as performing a ______ for Moses.

James Gray

- patented the first metallic coffin in 1836

Leonardo da Vinci

-(1452-1519) studied over 50 cadavers, drew 750 anatomical plates for study, studied venous injection techniques and injected wax that hardened in vessels.

Paradise

The Maya believed in an afterlife: the good journeyed to a __________ in the heavens while the evil were sent to the underworld.

Klicker

In the 1890s, companies such as ________ Furniture Store and Undertaker in Clarence, New York, came into existence. This furniture and undertaker business combination lasted well into the 1900s whereas livery and undertaking were phased out. As time progressed and funeral homes became the accepted name for the death care part of the combination, owners separated the buildings and signage into two distinct businesses.

Underworld

In the Odyssey, Homer describes the ______________, deep beneath the earth where Hades, the brother of Zeus and Poseidon, and his wife, Persephone, '" reigned over countless drifting crowds of shadowy figures - the "shades" of all those who had died.

Civil War

In the US, it was not until the _______ _____ that embalming became popular. After the ______ ________ War undertakers learned the art of embalming and offered it to their communities.

Plastination

In the complicated __________ process, all of the water and lipids in the body's cells are replaced with polymers. The body takes on the properties of plastic. It is durable, flexible, doesn't have a strong odor and, most importantly, doesn't decompose.

Roman

In the late _______ Empire, funerary sculpture on sarcophagi served as a sort of eulogy in stone, a memorial of the status, position, and individualism of the deceased. The living demonstrated a concern for portraying the deceased in his adult prime, in his profession, or as a character in a mythological scene where the deceased played the role of an enduring often heroic figure.

Mourners

Isis and Nephthys were the chief ________ in ancient Egyptian religion

Virginia

It is evident that in seventeenth-century ___________ the dead were not regarded with the reverence that would be theirs in more recent times.

AKH

It was believed that when a person died, his spirt, ____ would be lead to the Hall of Two Truths by Anubis.

Burial

Jewish and early Christian customs insisted on prompt _________ as a matter of respect for the dead.

Funeralis

Latin for torchlight procession;

Feudal

Life in the middle ages was structured around the _______ system. The King granted land to barons who in turn rented part of his land to peasants. The peasants were expected to work the land and give most of the harvest to the barons and the King.

Plague Pits

Mass graves had been used before for poorer burials Whereas early mass graves could be ascribed a certain level of dignity with bodies laid out neatly, during the plague any ceremony was often abandoned in favor of speedy disposal. In big cities where plague often struck worse, these '______ _______' often lay forgotten beneath huge swathes of the land.

1908

May 1, ______ the General Vehicle Co. of New York rolled out the first electric hearse

Middle Ages

Most deceased were buried in the ground without a coffin. If a coffin was used it was for transportation to the cemetery only, where the body was removed and buried. Some of the wealthier were actually buried in coffins.

One

Mourning attire for women evolved over a period of stages, growing progressively less stringent. "Deep" or "heavy" mourning, which lasted _____ year, required a widow to wear an all-black dress and accessories including a heavy black crepe veil. Jewelry was forbidden unless it was made of polished coal, a lock of hair from the deceased, or a small picture of the deceased.

China

Mummies found in _______'s Taklimakan Desert have provided several clues to the lineage of modern natives of this region. These mummies were created by the hot sand surrounding them in their graves. When bodies are buried in hot sand, without any protective structure, the sand can absorb the body's fluids, completely desiccating it.

9-12

Next came "second mourning" which lasted _____ months, during which her black dress and veil could be accented by lighter shades of lace and cuffs.

St. Cuthbert

The actual start of public burial grounds as we know them today, started during the sixth century when ____ _________ obtained permission to use the church yards for the burial of the dead. The consecrated ground was calculated to provide protections against corruption of the soul, plus giving a measurable amount of protection against witches, vampires, or beasties that went bump in the night.

Mesopotamians

The ancient ________ usually buried their dead either beneath their houses or in graveyards. The bodies were often laid to rest in stone or clay sarcophagi or, most frequently, in one or two large pots. Above-ground grave markers were rare: memorial monuments inside temples have been found. Cremation was uncommon, not because of a perceived need to preserve the body intact but because of the forbidding costs of building large fires in a virtually woodless environment.

Romans

The ancient _________ also used paid functionaries to prepare the body and take charge of the funeral and procession.

Egyptians

The ancient ____________ believed that the physical body was inhabited by three spirits, the Ka, Ba, and the Akh.

Swedish

A _______ custom was to put a mirror in the casket with unmarried women so they could arrange their hair on Resurrection Day. Married women did not need a mirror because they wore braids.

Cerberus

A cake of honey was placed next to the body to appease the three-headed dog, ______, who guarded the entrance to Hades.

Charon

A coin was placed in the mouth of the deceased to pay the Ferry-man _________ for passage over the river. (Greek)

Coffin

A container to hold human remains that was originally made of wood in a rectangular shape. Later it was changed to a 6 or 8 sided anthropoid shape.

Etruscan

A curious __________ funeral custom-funeral games in honor of the deceased, was adopted by the Romans and eventually led to the fierce fights among gladiators for the amusement of crowds in ancient Rome. These games were serious, symbolic affairs usually performed by slaves, and included such athletic sports as wrestling, acrobatics and juggling. Music and dancing were also featured.

Maya

A curious custom was uncovered by archeologists when they explored certain tombs and discovered incomplete skeletons - it was concluded that parts of the body were removed by surviving relatives for relics. Eventually wives and children who had not obtained wealth themselves were allowed to be buried with the adult male thereby benefitting from his wealth.

Bier

A hand-pulled cart was the first specialized device used to move a deceased human and was called a ________r. Made up of a flat wooden form the body wrapped in a shroud or in a coffin, was placed upon this wheeled framework and pulled by hand to the burial place.

Jamestown

A majority of the dead were buried in shrouds secured with brass pins; a minority were interred in simple wooden coffins. Graves were most often unmarked or marked with permanent markers. Churchyards, private cemeteries and pauper grave yards were established for the poor whites and slaves.

Casket

A rigid container usually constructed of wood or metal and was designed to encase human remains. It has ornamentation and is lined with fabric

Intentionally

About 2600 BCE, during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, Egyptians began to mummify the dead _________. The practice continued and developed for well over 2,000 years into the Roman Period (c. 30 BCE - 364 CE).

Purgatory

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the word _________ comes from the Latin word purgare or make clean or purify.

Natron

After filling the canopic jars this they filled the cavity with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of spice except frankincense, and sewed up the opening. The body was then cured with __________ for approximately 70 days.

Undertakers

After the civil war the occupation of embalming surgeon slowly vanished. However, the occupation of the _________ flourished. By 1890 there were approximately 9890 ___________ in the U.S. Business men, such as livery owners, cabinet makers and carpenters who once supplied caskets or carriages to bereaved families, combined their business with the undertaking trade.

Hopewell

Also, frequently found in ____________ burial mounds are human skulls. Because death was a major factor in their existence, the skulls of captured enemies or other family members having been preserved as family relics, were prized symbolic possessions. Sometimes only a part of the skull such as the jaw would be included is the burial. Skulls were also used as headdresses during the burial ritual ceremonies

Urna

The ashes were collected and put in an urn known as ______, was kept in the family mausoleum. There were various kinds of ______s including lead canisters, chests, glass vessels and earthenware pots. Some of these containers left standing in the tomb, others were buried. Before the relatives and friends left cremation site, they would step over the fire site as a part of a purification process. To complete the purification, water was thrown upon the mourners by a priest. Food and offerings were left at the sight. (Roman)

Barber-Surgeon

The association between _______________________ goes back to the early Middle Ages when the practice of surgery and medicine was carried out by the clergy. But in 1163 a papal decree ruled that priests could no longer partake in any shedding of blood.

Inca

The basis of the _______ religion was in the worship of the Sun, the deity who gave light and warmth to the earth. Peruvians believed wholeheartedly in the existence of the hereafter for the soul: the "dead" survived in one of two worlds. Heaven was the Sun where food and drink were plentiful and life was good, while hell was a cold, subterranean place. The nobility, of course, were always without an went straight to heaven!

Undertaker

The family would inform their doctor first to certify a death, and then the local "layer out". usually a woman would help carry out the "last offices" attending to the needs of both bereaved and deceased. They would call on the parish priest to perform the Last Rites and summon the __________ to take measurements for a coffin, made in haste from sanded and polished hardwood and sealed inside with wax and bitumen to avoid leakage.

6

The final stage, "half mourning," which lasted ____ months, allowed shades of lavender and gray. Godey's Ladies Book, recommended a black silk and French grenadine ensemble topped off with a Leghorn hat, trimmed with black velvet and black plums.

10

The first calls of condolence should have been made by friends within _____ days of the death, but mere acquaintances would not call until the family had appeared at the place of worship. When those who were in mourning felt able to receive visitors, they announced the fact by sending out black-edged cards enclosed in envelopes to those who had called upon them previously.

Rainborowe

The first instance of a hearse on wheels is found in the burial of Colonel ________________ in 1648. By 1690, the herse had become a necessity in England where the London Gazette advertised "Horses for hire."

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in America was in ____________, Virginia. It was colonized as a business and trade venture whereas the later New England colonies were established as a social and religious reform settlement. There is not much written in historical records about funeral customs in the earliest years of the colony.

Functionaries

The functions of the Roman funeral were carried out by paid ________. The head functionary was known as a Libitinarius, an undertaker who met with the grieving family to determine their wishes and needs and once this was established, procured the personnel, known as the Pollinctores.

Rake

The hearse was not originally a vehicle to transport the dead but was in fact a _______. The evolution of the hearse, from a primitive farm tool to today's vehicle for transporting the dead is anything but straightforward.

Neanderthals

The idea that _________ living over 60,000 yrs ago buried their dead fits with recent findings that they were capable of symbolic thought and of developing rich cultures. For example, findings show they likely decorated themselves using pigments, and wore jewelry made of feathers and colored shells

Resurrectionists

The men who stole bodies were known as ________________.

Herse

The name changed once again in the 11th century when the Normans invaded Britain and pronounced "harrow" as "_______"

Colonizing

The original attempts at _________ America were made in Florida, the Carolinas and Virginia.

Corpses

The practice of surgery was still in its primitive stage, but new discoveries were being made often. Barber-surgeons and academic-surgeons regularly performed anatomical dissections on ___________________ to further their knowledge and master their craft

Opening of the Mouth

The practices involved in this ceremony included purification, anointing and the reciting of prayers and spells, as well as touching the mummy with ritual objects to restore the senses. After this, food and clothing were offered to the dead person and mourners participated in the funerary banquet. The mummy was then placed in the burial chamber of the tomb.

Embalming

The reason Egypt is credited with being the land where __________ began is that during the period from 6000 BCE to 600 CE, approximately 400,000,000 bodies were mummified. However, the Egyptians were not the only people to practice some type of preservation of the dead.

Celtic

The religious symbol of the ancient ____________ people was a head depicted in stone, metal, wood, and on coins, pots, weapons, and jewelry. This led to the name "Out of the Head." It was characterized by savage warriors who decapitated their enemies in battle and later displayed their prized heads on the tics of spears or nailed them to the walls of their dwellings.

Mesopotamians

The rulers of the underworld- the goddess Ereshkigal and god Nergal - lived in a palace guarded by the seven gates. Various minor gods who served as judges resided in the underworld along with a troop of devils called Galla who policed the subterranean word.

Indians

The settlers reportedly leveled off the graves and planted corn in an effort to hide their losses from the _______ because they did not know how they would respond to the knowledge that so many people had died. Surprisingly, after the first winter, there are few recorded deaths in Plymouth colony, although the absence of complete records makes it impossible to determine with any certainty how many deaths actually occurred. (New England)

Embalming

The sophisticated __________ system of the Egyptians went into decline and became almost non-existent due to cultural, social, and religious upheaval. Egypt was invaded and overtaken during the conquest by the Arabs. The Roman Empire, which developed an occupational group of funeral functionaries, declined almost into obscurity after the Mongolian invasion. The emergence of Christianity and Islam as dominant religions led to further decline of ____________ as both religions rejected the practice as unclean.

Hirpex

The story begins with Roman farmers who would plow their fields with an implement called a _____ (Latin for "rake").

Basic

The third method and least expensive of embalming is the one used by the poorer classes. The embalmers just wash out the inside with a solvent then pickled it for seventy days and return it to the relatives.

Mesopotamians

The underworld community was called the Arallu a land of no return; a dark dreary and dusty place entered upon death through a passageway that began from the person's final resting place and included a journey across the great river.

Lord Botetourt

When Virginia's Lieutenant Governor, _______ ____________ died in Williamsburg in 1770, he got the two-layer treatment, a pine inner coffin & one of lead Covered with Crimson Velvet, with a plain plate upon it of silver bearing his Name, age & death. His funeral, however, afforded him the full treatment. Streets were lined with the militias of the town and the counties of York and James City. Eight professional mourners, two ahead, and three on either side of the hearse, led the procession of dignitaries, clergy college professors, servants, and students, all wearing white hat bands and gloves. Behind the formal procession walked the townspeople, two by two.

Functionaries

When an ancient Egyptian died, his/her family would take the deceased body to the Necropolis where paid _____________ would explain the options available to the family and the embalmer would embalm and prepare the body according to the family wishes.

Heart

Throughout the underworld journey, the deceased's spirit would have to contend with gods, strange creatures and gatekeepers to reach Osiris and the Hall of Two Truths. Here the deceased would explain the type of person he was in life. The better or more righteous the person was, the lighter his _______ was at the time of death.

Catacombs

To avoid persecution by the Romans, early Christians began to bury their dead secretly in _________, a system of underground tombs.

Flesh-eating

When bodies were placed in these sarcophagi, the limestone had the property of consuming the body's tissues, thus the phrase "____________."

Thomas Holmes

When the Civil War started in 1861 not a single member of the United States government, and that included the President knew anything at all about embalming. When Colonel Elmer E Ellsworth, a well-known military officer and personal friend of President Lincoln was killed, _______ _________, a physician and embalming surgeon went to President Lincoln and offered to embalm the Colonel for free. He was given consent by the military.

General Ulysses S. Grant

Until 1864, ___________________ was lenient about permitting civilians to enter battlefields to retrieve their dead to bring them home for burial. As long as this practice did not hinder troop movement, families were allowed to search for their lost loved ones.

1800s

Until the mid-_____ most families cared for their own dead. They prepared dressed, and displayed their loved ones within the confines of their own home. Each community had a group of women who came in to help known as the "layers out of the dead." The deceased was dressed in his/her Sunday best and laid out for viewing on a board held up by two saw horses. (America)

Barber-Surgeons

Up until the 19th century, barbers were generally referred to as ______________ and were called upon to perform a wide variety of surgical tasks. They extracted teeth, branded slaves, created tattoos, cut out gallstones set fractures, gave enemas, lanced abscesses, and performed blood-letting.

Rings

Wearing mourning jewelry was thought to connect a relative with the deceased family member. _____ symbolized eternity.

Jamestown

When the boats of the first English colonists landed at ___________ in August 1609, the situation was dire. brought few provisions and their supply ships had run aground in Bermuda Native American Indians were hostile towards these newcomers. Food supplies were exhausted, but the settlers feared to leave their fort to fish and hunt. By spring, more than half of the colony had perished from famine and disease.

Coffins

________ came in grades and complexities reflecting real or supposed wealth or social status. The poorest families rented the reusable parish ___________ and went to their Maker in no more than a winding sheet. The simplest wooden coffins were of pine, often covered with fabric secured with black-painted brass tacks. (Virginia)

Wakes

________ held today come from ancient customs of keeping watch over the deceased to ensure he/she was not buried alive as well as an act of respect and devotion. The ancient Greeks and Romans held vigils to ensure the person was really dead.

Funeral processions

_________ ___________ for wealthy Egyptians would have been an elaborate event to display their status to onlookers. Relatives were positioned at either end of the coffin (which was usually drawn along by oxen), with two of the female relatives or priestesses acting the roles of goddesses, Isis and Nephthys.

Elder Flaunce

_________ ___________ was a settler born in 1646 who knew many of the original villagers and was the man responsible for naming Plymouth Rock as the first landing place.

Awakening

_________ brought forth four major changes: An increase in religious enthusiasm by the believers, death changed from a horrible means to an end to an event truly looked forward to as a release from life's struggles. Sermons celebrated the individual rather than focusing on the loss to the community, and death's heads on gravestones were gradually replaced by more pleasant, angelic figures, complete with wings.

Embalming

_________ in ancient Egypt was done for two reasons: preservation and sanitation

Mourning

__________ clothes were something you needed quickly when there was a death in your family, and as a result _________ garments became the first off-the-rack clothing you could buy.

Ladies' Memorial Associations

___________ ___________ ___________, such as the Hollywood Memorial Association and the Winchester Memorial Association, were locally organized groups of southern white women who, following the Civil War, tracked down the scattered remains of Confederate soldiers and interred them in Confederate cemeteries. By 1868 there were twenty associations.

Table

___________ tombs were not containers for the deceased, as treasure-seeking grave robbers have supposed, but covered the grave four to five feet below. (Virginia)

Etruscans

___________, or Northern Romans, believed in life after death. They believed the journey to the world of the dead must be made on foot, horseback or by riding in a horse-drawn carriage. However, the trip had to be spent in the subterranean world of the tomb on earth. Therefore, these earthly tombs were made as comfortable as possible for the departed

Formaldehyde

____________, or HCHO, is produced by catalytic oxidation of methanol. August Wilhelm von Hofmann and Alexander Butlerov first discovered formaldehyde gas in 1868 when they passed a mixture of methanol vapor and air over a heated platinum spiral. They and others would not discover its disinfectant properties until 1888. But the cost of its production prohibited its use as an embalming ingredient

Alexander Butlerov and Wilhelm von Hofmann

_______________ (1828-1886) and ______________ (1818-1892) are credited with the discovery of formaldehyde in 1867 and its subsequent use as embalming fluid.

Coffins

________________ were unknown to early Israelites so the body was carried on a board or bier.

William Burke and William Hare

_________________________ were the most famous of the Resurrectionists in the 1820s.

Chevra Kadisha

` When a Hebrew died the duty of burial, although primarily an obligation incumbent on the heirs, ultimately rested with the whole community. In Talmudic times, a fraternal society took over the preparation of the body. Known as the ___________ ___________ evolved out of an appreciation of this duty.

Pollinctores

a class of men who may have been slaves from Temple of Libitina, who performed the laying out of the body and necessary equipment. (Rome)

Natron

a combination of salts found in dry lake beds of the desert and used by early Egyptians in preparation of bodies. Deceased covered in the product (sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, and potassium nitrate) were dehydrated thus preventing decay.

Cro-Magnon

a name used to describe the first early modern humans who populated the earth around approximately 10,000 BCE, were found to bury their dead in the fetal position. They were wrapped in skins and positioned on reed mats on the bottom of the grave.

Life signals

due to the fear of premature burial, many early American coffins were designed and patented with a method to alert the living if someone was buried alive.

Sarcophagus

early Egyptians cut massive coffins from a single mass of stone to protect from grave robbers. Same term is applied today to massive copper and bronze caskets.

Animistic view

early Roman view of the afterlife which emphasizes the soul as the vital principle. The soul at death hovered around the place of burial and required constant attention of the descendants to be happy. Neglect would bring evil upon them.

Almond Fisk

experienced a high demand for the coffins, but he did not live long enough to capitalize on the success of his product. He lost his entire company and all equipment in an 1849 fire. Declining health forced him to transfer ownership and patents to his business partners (Crane, Breed, and Co.) in 1850 just before he died.

Bier

forerunner of today's hearse; a hand stretcher on which the uncoffined body was carried to the grave.

Leagues of Prayer

formed in Middle Ages by laypersons to bury the dead and to pray for the souls of the faithful departed.

Egyptians

frequently buried wheat with their dead because it was plentiful and considered the staff of life.

Coffin

from the Greek word 'kofinos'; utilitarian container designed to hold human remains, often anthropoidal in shape.

Obsequies

funeral rites or burial ceremonies

Funerary masks

had more than one purpose. They were a part of the elaborate precautions taken by the ancient Egyptians to preserve the body after death. The protection of the head was of primary concern during this process, so a covering was used to preserve the head. This also provided a permanent substitute in a idealized form which presented the deceased in the likeness of an immortal being in case of physical damage.

Constantine

he legalized the Christian religion

Libitinarius

head undertaker in ancient Rome; the secular role model for today's funeral director; conducted his business at the temple of Libitina where death were also registered

Parentalia

held February 13 through 21, to honor the family's ancestors

Lemuria

held on May 9,11, and 13, in which ghosts were feared to be active, and the pater familias sought to appease them with offerings of beans.

Anubis

is the Greek name for the jackal-headed God who was considered the God of Embalming. He was once considered the most important God of the Dead, but was replaced by Osiris.

Canopic jars

jars made of alabaster, limestone, basalt, clay and other materials used by the early Egyptians to store viscera of the deceased.

Necropolis

literally means "city of the dead"; cemeteries located on the west bank of the Nile River, they included mortuary temples and residences of mortuary workers

Theodosius I

made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Designator

master of ceremonies and director of the ancient Roman funeral procession

Pollinctores

name of the ancient Roman embalmers. They were either slaves or employees of Libitinarius

Undertaker

original term applied to those whose occupation included responsibility to organize and facilitate funeral activities; used by some for the term funeral director.

Wake

originated as an ancient Hebrew practice, family and friends sit with the deceased as a precaution against premature burial; continued as an act of piety in Middle Ages (aka vigil for the dead)

Catacombs

originated in ancient Rome as excavated cemeteries cut out of soft rock for the tombs of wealthy Christians; later became a place for religious rites to avoid persecution

Undertakers

performed various tasks of removing, transporting and preparing the dead for funerals but most did not perform embalming. (Civil War) The Medical Embalmers associated themselves with the ___________ and offered their special techniques for a fee.

Homo naledi

pre-human ancestor whose special place for the dead was a cave.

Loculi

"Each side of the catacomb had rows of rectangular niches, called _______, cut into the walls. They typically contained only one body, occasionally two... perhaps in the case of a husband and wife who died together. ( Christian)

Gabriel Clauderus

(1633-1691) published the first arterial embalming technique because Ruysch didn't

Dr. Frederik Ruysch

(1665-1717) is generally considered the father of embalming with his discovery of the first system of arterial embalming but he left no records describing his procedures.

Jean Gannal

(1794-1852) wrote the first embalming manual in 1838. It was translated from French to English by R. Harlan, MD in 1840. It was called the History of Embalming and Preparation in Anatomy, Pathology and Natural History. It included an account of a new process for embalming.

Dr. Thomas Holmes

(1817-1899) is considered the father of modern embalming He experimented with preservative chemicals while working as a coroner in New York. He claims to have embalmed over 4000 soldiers in the civil war. He taught embalming to other medical doctors and undertakers and manufactured and sold embalming fluids

Formula NO 3

(1906) Formaldehyde 11.0 lbs. 14%, Glycerin 4.0 lbs. 5%, Sodium borate 2.5 lbs. 3%, Boric acid 1.0 lb 1%, Sodium nitrate 2.5 lbs. 3%, Eosin 1% solution 1 fl. Oz, Water - to yield 10 gallons

Hopewell

(200 - 500 CE) Mound Builders, known as the _________ Culture, were Native Americans whose territory ranged from Mississippi to Minnesota and from Nebraska to Virginia with its greatest concentration in the Ohio valley

Middle Ages

(476 BCE - 1500 CE) lasted approximately from the 5 to the 15 centuries. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance.

Post-mortem photography

(also known as memento mori, memorial portraiture or a mourning portrait) is the practice of photographing the recently deceased. It became popular with the invention of the daguerreotype in 1834. These photographs of deceased loved ones were a normal part of American and European culture in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

ekphora

(funeral procession and interment of the body or cremated remains of the deceased)

perideipnon

(funerary banquet.)

prothesis

(laying out of the body)

Purgatorial Doctrine

: A Catholic belief that souls that are not perfectly cleansed must undergo a process of cleansing before they can enter heaven.

Requiem Mass

: A Catholic mass for the dead. During the mass the priest would use the burning of incense to mask the odor of decomposition. It was during the Middle Ages that the custom of bringing the deceased into the church for the service was first begun.

Soul Shot

: A fee paid to the church to ensure the rise of the decedent's soul into heaven.

Steward of the Guild

: A person appointed by the priest to function as a church administrator to schedule funeral masses, collect fees for soul shots and see to any details that needed to be completed.

Leagues of Prayer

: A society of lay-persons who prayed for the souls of the faithfully departed.

Sexton

: The church caretaker who had the responsibility for church property, ringing of the bells and digging of graves in the churchyard cemeteries.

Tolling of Church Bells

: The sexton of the cemetery rang the church bell to announce a death in the community and a funeral.

Epicurean View

: These Romans believed that both the body and soul would decompose at the same time. The soul would be in existence as long as the body was still in existence. Once the body decomposed, the soul did as well.

Animistic View

: These Romans believed that the soul was a vital principle. The soul at death hovered around the place of burial and required constant attention by the descendants to be happy. Neglect would bring evil upon them.

Torpedo Coffin

: designed as a booby-trap to explode when moved to dissuade body-snatchers.

Mesopotamians

Although the souls of royalty occupy a special place in the underworld, everyone's existence was pretty similar. For instance, the main sustenance consisted of dirty water and dust. This situation could be alleviated by the offerings made by loved ones still on the earth. Those who were neglected were forced to return to earth in the form of spirits to seek whatever food they could find. For the most part, this group constituted the demons that gave living Mesopotamians much trouble.

Prince Greer

America's First African American Embalmer

Chinese

Among the ______________, the egg had peculiar significance because it was held to be symbolic of resurrection. They placed a hard-boiled egg near the dead to help in the attainment of immortality. As a further aid they buried a large red envelope with the body, in which the soul was supposed to take refuge. The name, rank and moral standing of the deceased was then inscribed on the outside of the envelope.

Maya

Among the numerous ______ gods was a death god, a bringer of evil often depicted with a skull for a head, the body displayed with bare ribs and spotted with yellow, a symbol of death. Another god related to death was the god of human sacrifice.

Vikings

An old woman, appropriately called the "Angel of Death" performed the sacrifice with a cancer a rope was tied around the slave's neck and pulled from opposite directions by two men. Other members of the funeral party would beat sticks upon their shields so that the cries of the dying girl could not be heard by her fellow slaves. This was done so they would not be frightened in the future to seek death with their owner masters. Finally, the man's nearest relative set the ship on fire. It was believed that the faster the flames spread, the sooner the deceased would enter paradise.

Romans

Ancient _______ located their special places for the dead outside their cities to insure there would be no contamination of its citizens from the dead.

Ethiopian

Ancient _______ tribes preserved their dead in a manner similar to the Egyptians.

Edict of Milan

Constantine is also credited with establishing the _________ ___ __________, which officially ended persecution of Christians. He also established Sumptuary Laws which affected the type of clothing citizens could wear. It also directed that less money should be spent on lavish funerals.

Vikings

Cremation was the standard practice in Scandinavia until the Iron Age (800 BCE to 500 BCE) at which point burial became more common. Both practices were allowed during the same time, with cremation being more common in Norway. Pagan and Christian faiths co-existed in the ____________ world for many years

Celtic

Cult of the Head

Chinese

Different grades of caskets represented the wealth of the __________ family, they believed that they would be judged in the next world by the quality of the caskets in which they were buried. Sons were known to sell themselves into slavery in order to purchase an expensive casket for their fathers

Serf

During Medieval times the life of a peasant, also known as a ________, was hard and the work backbreaking. It followed the seasons - plowing in autumn, sowing in spring harvesting in August.

Universities

During the 12 to 14th centuries, secular ____________ were being created throughout Europe and along with this increased study of medicine and anatomy, an increase in the study of surgery.

Flying Barbers

During the 14h and 15h centuries, the Black Plague wiped out a vast number of academically-trained physicians. Many also left the towns and villages to seek the safety of the countryside resulting in barber-surgeons becoming increasingly relied upon for medical procedures. "_________ ___________ " traveled from town to town, setting up tents and offering their services.

Cat

During the early 19th century, it was not uncommon for the mortal remains of a beloved pet _____ to be buried in the family garden. By the Victorian era, however, the formality of _____ funerals had increased substantially. Bereaved pet owners commissioned undertakers to build elaborate caskets. Clergymen performed burial services, stone masons chiseled names on headstones. Many in society viewed these types of ceremonies as not more than an amusing eccentricity of the wealthy or as yet another odd quirk of the elderly spinster. Others were deeply offended that an animal of any kind should receive a Christian burial.

Valley of the Kings

During the later years of the Egyptian civilization, pharaohs began to be buried in secret underground chambers in a deserted location in the desert known as the _________ _____ _____ ________.

Undertakers

During the mid-1800s, ___________ were beginning to be the functionary to lay out a body and oversee the funeral and procession, but did not do embalming.

Mausoleum

During the time of approximately 377 BCE - 353 BCE, the Persian Queen Artemisia II built a mega tomb for her husband, King Mausolus. It cost $30 million and utilized over 10,000 slaves. It stood 140 feet high and had a circumference of 111 feet, hence the origin of the word __________.

Coffin

Earliest English definition of the word ____________ meant any box used to bury the dead.

Saints

Early Christians were slow to develop specific Christian responses to death and dying. Christians did look forward to death more than previous cultures because they believed heaven was wonderful. One major change in death beliefs early on was that Christians began to revere the remains of those who had suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Romans. These people were known as ________. Between 500 - 1000 CE Christian hierarchy fully developed rituals around death and dying.

Puritan

Early _________ funerals would have no more than a simple graveside prayer and silent procession. "In many places, the dead [are] thrown into the ground like dogs, and not a word said." Similar to early funerals, gravestones were very plain, simply citing the name, age, and date of death of the individual.

Undertakers

Early __________ tended to work as builders, joiners, and carpenters, skills that translated to coffin-making at times of death in the village. This was often the case even in the early 20th century.

Anubis

Egyptian god of embalming said to be of human form with the head of a jackal.

Osiris

Egyptian god of the underworld and judge of the dead.

Chinese

Fear of the dead and the forces controlling death have always had a wide-ranging effect on burial customs. For example, the Ancient __________ had a ceremony to fire away evil spirits and to free the home of the deceased from unwelcome spiritual guests.

Dorence Atwater

Finding those who had been buried far from home also proved difficult for Connecticut soldier __________ __________, taking his cue from the Civil War nurse Clara Barton, succeeded in obtaining copies of Union soldier interments while employed as a hospital worker at Andersonville Prison. He was able to identify the graves of many Union soldiers who fell in the South so that their families could recover them. (He was later arrested and imprisoned for stealing the records) The rolls were not always accurate however, and Connecticut newspapers sometimes had to print retractions.

Puritan

For early _________ society, the idea of funerals was considered absolutely ridiculous.

Chinese

For males, the ceremony began with the funeral procession passing before the home of the deceased and his place of business. A band would precede the procession. Later, if possible, the procession would also cross a bridge, symbolize the crossing of the river of life. The body would be sprinkled with water before the procession began and at the bridge, one of the mourners would toss a live fish into the river so that the fish could spread the news that the water taken for this purpose, was being returned. With the release of a fish, a jar of water would also be emptied into the stream.

Immortality

For the Greeks, __________ lay in the continued remembrance of the dead by the living. From depictions on pottery, we know that the women of Classical Athens made regular visits to the grave with offerings that included small cakes and drinks.

Good death

For the dying, it was a time to give advice to family members, be absolved of sins, say goodbye, and peacefully transition to the hereafter. This time was equally important for the living it allowed them to wake and mourn the deceased in the home with other family members. On the battlefield most soldiers died alone, anonymous, without comfort, their families unaware of their fate.

Garden

For the middle and upper classes, one answer was to remove their dead to commercial "_______ cemeteries", spacious parks built in the semi-rural suburbs, such as Kensal Green (opened in 1832) and Highgate (opened in 1839). Such places, however, were well beyond the means of the urban poor 203 Within the space of a few years, large parochial cemeteries, nestling on the edge of the city were an accepted part of the London landscape. They were spacious, well ventilated, and proper regulations ensured that graves were deep and well maintained any threat from miasma was neutralized.

Designators

For the wealthy however, all the details for the funeral procession were supervised by the __________. This was no simple task since funeral processions could be elaborate and include many people, several of whom were paid actors, musicians, and torch-bearers who were needed because funerals were held in the evening so as not to disrupt the normal functions of the town or city. (Rome)

Undertaking

Historians have offered confusing narratives regarding the occupational routes leading to antebellum ____________. On the one hand, most recognize that carpenters cabinetmakers, liverymen (hack drivers), and sextons were all capable of reorienting their businesses to deal exclusively with funerary arrangements. On the other hand historians repeatedly have tended to emphasize the primacy of one route to ___________.

Ammit

If his heart was heavier than the feather the deceased would be devoured by the demon _______ who was a combination of the three largest "man-eating" animals known to ancient Egyptians - a lion, crocodile and hippopotamus.

Company of Barber-Surgeons

In 1540, Henry VIII united the Company of the Barbers and the Fellowship of Surgeons with a royal decree and created one unified trade guild - the ________ ___ __________ ___________. Barber-surgeons and academic-surgeons remained joined in that way for more than two centuries.

St. Augustine

In 1565, the first lasting European community was established by the Spanish on the east coast of Florida, now known as ____________. An essential feature of this fortified settlement was the Roman Catholic Mission church with its own burial ground. The archeological record shows shroud-wrapped interments which were customary in the city's Spanish colonial period. Traces of coffins or coffin hardware do not appear in Colonial burials before the beginning of English immigration to the area in the 18th century.

Jamestown

In 1661 the colony's General Assembly thought it necessary to formulate a law to discourage "that barbarous custom of exposing the corpse of the dead to the prey of hogs and other vermin." The aim was to prevent people secretly disposing of their dead in shallow and unmarked graves, perhaps hiding the evidence of foul play. The statute required every parish to provide three or four spaces to be fenced for "publique burial."

Almond Fisk

In 1848, ___________ ___________ patented an iron coffin that resembled an Egyptian Sarcophagus and weighed over 300 pounds. He debuted his burial case at the New York State Fair in 1849 in Syracuse New York.

3

In 1854, the Fisk Model ____ was introduced. It was cast iron, torpedo shaped, smooth on the outside and closely resembled something the Star Ship Enterprise might shoot into space. The caskets were made air and water proof by a putty like cement composed of ground white lead, dry red lead and linseed oil. This substance was used as caulking and placed into a groove that ran around the flange edge. The upper section of the casket was then pushed into the lower groove and secured in place. A glass window covered by a moveable face plate was positioned over the face to allow people to view the face of the deceased.

Harrow

In 51 BCE when the Romans conquered Gaul, they introduced the hirpex to Western Europe, and eventually it reached Great Britain as the __________.

Puritans

The New England _______ feared death for three reasons: that of their own depravity; that of the "omnipotence, justness, and inscrutability of God"; and that of the horrors of hell.

Hypogea

The Romans commonly built tombs for themselves during their lifetime. The tombs of the rich were usually constructed of marble, the ground enclosed with walls, and planted with trees. But common sepulchers were usually built below ground, and called ___________, referring to catacombs.

Hearse

The Victorian ______ deserves particular mention because it was a handsome. expertly crafted vehicle. They were horse drawn, but could be used in some cases as hand driven. They were manufactured from fine wood and were painted basic black; however, there was plentiful decoration in silver and gold with iron scroll work. The casket could be viewed through glass side-panels etched with flowers.

Good

The ____ method of embalming for those wanting the middle way, to escape great expense, is as follows. Using syringes, the embalmers fill the stomach and anal cavity with cedar oil, while stopping it from flowing out until the end of the process. They then cover the body in natron for a prescribed number of days.

Akh

The ____ or spirit traveled throughout the underworld until it arrived at the entrance to the afterlife and final judgement.

Ka

The ____ was a double of the person and would remain with the dead body in the tomb and needed offerings of food, drink, personal objects and weapons.

Ba

The _____ or soul was a bird-like spirit that could leave the body, fly out of the tomb and was able to return. The purpose of the ____ was to complete a three-thousand-year journey known as the circle of necessity. During this journey the ____ would experience a variety of forms such as animals, birds, fish, trees and flowers.

Best

The ______ model of embalming involved the most perfect process and the organs were placed in canopic jars.

Maya

The _______ were very religious people with a hierarchy of gods and a formal religion consisting of elaborate rituals and ceremonies governing everything from birth, marriage, death and even to the planting of crops. Religion, in fact, was the primary influence in all life.

Druids

The ________ preached that death on earth was not the end of life but actually the beginning of a superior afterlife. Possibly, they had a less than religious reason for professing this belief because they also inspired the war-prone brave, fierce warriors. To reach the other world, according to one theory, the soul passed from one body to another. A second theory suggested that the soul continued to stay from one world to the next.

Romans

The _________' view of the after-life explains the importance they attached to the ceremonial burial of the dead. The soul, they thought, could find rest only when the body had been duly laid in the grave; until this was done it haunted the home, unhappy itself and bringing unhappiness to others. To perform funeral rites was a solemn religious duty conferred upon surviving members of the family.

Undertaker

The __________ would return to the house to deliver the coffin, sometimes having to remove a window as the door was too narrow.

Separatists

The __________, as can be surmised, disapproved of these practices of the Puritans and Anglicans, and found them, "superstitious and heathenical.

Celtic

The ____________ people had the belief that the headless enemy would not be able to return from the spirit world because the head was the substance of life as well as the soul the head could remain alive even after the death of the body and that many magical properties derived from it. For instance, the display of an enemy's head around the home was certain to ward off evil and would bring good fortune to its owner. Often heads were preserved in cedar oil and placed in chests and other receptacles for safekeeping.

Puritans

The __________who scoffed at the pomp of the Catholic funerals they had behind, saw their dead to the burial plot in a silent procession with little ritual. Their law forbade the use of imagery on headstones so their grave markers were often inscribed with a few simple words. Many felt it was obscene to bury their dead in their churchyard and instead, buried them in community grounds.

Medical schools

The bodies that were snatched were sold to _________ ________ or physicians studying anatomy. One such anatomist of interest to funeral Service was John Hunter, known in the Mortuary Science realm as the man who kept complete records of his embalming system.

Funeral home

The care of the dead steadily changed from the responsibility of the family to that of the undertaker. A part of this custom that continued was the laying out of the deceased in the home. This tradition, although practiced into the mid-1900s, saw a gradual decline and was replaced almost completely by ___________ _________s by the mid to late 1900s. Some interest in reviving the home funeral was noticeable in the early 2000s in states where the family was legally allowed to care for the dead themselves, without having to use the services of a ___________ _________ or a funeral director.

Vikings

The ceremonial sacrifice of animals was not the only sacrifices found in ancient Scandinavia: human sacrifice was also practiced. Written records of Scandinavian funeral rites in the early tenth century describe these rituals in detail. When a rich Scandinavian died, his family members asked his slaves for volunteers, usually the female slaves, who would be willing to die with their master. The one who volunteered was later put to death; there was no backing out of the bargain!

Inca

The civilization of ancient Peru was divided into two classes: the nobility and the common people. The noble or royal order itself was split into two segments, the most important of which were the _______s, tied by blood to the supreme _______, the monarch who ruled over the vast South American empire.

Purification of the dead

The deceased's body was laid on bare ground, sand or salt. The first duty was to close and secure the eyes and mouth of the corpse, after it was absolutely certain death had occurred. The body was then washed with warm water. This custom, called the "_________ ___ _____ _______", still prevails among the Jews. The nails and hair were trimmed, and the body was anointed with ointment in preparation for burial. A shroud was used to cover the entire body.

Undertaker

The deceased, clothed in their best nightdress or Sunday suit would then rest in the front parlor until the funeral, usually held three or four days after death. Sweet smelling flowers were placed around the room to absorb bad odors and the __________ would visit to check on any unpleasantness. Embalming was only performed for wealthy clients, and it wasn't until the 1960's that Chapels of Rest became established in funeral homes.

Plague

The disease, thought to be from the bacteria Yersinia Pestis in either its Bubonic form bacteria spread by the fleas on rats) or Pneumonic form (spread through the air attacks the lymph glands resulting in boils around the neck, groin and armpits. The sufferer would experience fever, gangrene, seizures muscle cramps and many of those infected would die within four days.

Christians

The early __________ derived their burial customs from the Greeks, Romans, and Jews. They followed the Jewish tradition of burial instead of cremation and the sacred status of burial grounds.

Henry P. Cattell

The embalming impressed President Lincoln and his wife so much that when their 11 year old son Willie died on February 20, 1862, the Lincoln's had him embalmed by ____________of the firm, Brown and Alexander Embalming Surgeons.

Awakening

The end of the traditional Puritan notion of death came with the Great Puritan ________ of the 1740s.

England

The evolution of the hearse followed similar paths in the United States, Canada, England, and Australia. Of these four countries, __________ is credited with developing the first horse-drawn ornate hearse that has become somewhat of a symbol of funeral service

Separatists

The extravagant and costly mourning clothes, the hiring of the professional mourners, the memorial effigies of the rich, and the funeral Sermons which ...serve the humors only of rich people for a reward, all came under attack from the ____________ as "vain and had...ended their spiritual warfare...finished their course with joy, and have become conquerors...over hell, sin and death.

Wedjat

The eye of Horas, called a _______, was recreated on a plate that was placed on the embalming incision to magically heal it.

Chinese

These burial rites which were inspired by fear gradually evolved into ceremonies of great pomp and splendor for the benefit of the dead, while retaining a sufficient note of solemnity. Like the Egyptians who entombed everything that their dead king would need (including on occasion, the king's wife!), the _________ buried money with their dead to pay the passage into the celestial kingdom.

Life-signal

These coffins became known as __________________ coffins and were used to notify people above ground that the person in the casket was still alive.

Separatists

They maintained a sharp contrast between the elaborate Papist funerals, and what they referred to as "our silent and dumb obsequies".

Feather

This _______ of Ma'at was the symbol for truth and justice and helped determine whether the deceased person had indeed been virtuous. If the heart was lighter than the _______, the person would move on to a new eternal life.

Ledger

This was not true of the colonial gentry, whose existence was invariably thought worthy of remembrance. By the late 1600s inscribed slabs, called ______ stones were set in the aisles of churches, and when the space below them was full, the dead and their stone markers were sent outside-as was the case in Williamsburg Bruton Parish, where even a deputy governor was entombed outside the church. (Virginia)

40,000

Though the practice of embalming established itself during the Civil War. The actual numbers of people who were embalmed during the war were relatively small compared to the number of deaths. Because of the difficulty in identifying bodies and communicating with families about sending a body home, only about ____________ of approximately 650,000 soldiers who died during the Civil War were embalmed.

Chinese

Today's custom of employing six pallbearers to carry the casket at the funeral may have been started with the _________ because the number six was symbolic of danger and approaching death. In ancient funerals, the peasantry and the poor were obliged to carry their dead to the graves. However, richer ones were carried to their final resting place by relay teams often numbering fifty or more individuals.

Praeco

aka crier, a special funeral functionary in ancient Rome who summoned participants to a public funeral.

Barbers

also performed a rudimentary form of embalming which usually involved removing internal organs and treating them with alcohol-based liquids or discarding them. If discarded they filled the cavities with saw dust.

Circle of necessity

ancient Egyptian belief that the soul of the deceased would make a 3000 year journey and return to the body. Once reunited the whole man would live with the gods. This belief created the need for embalming.

Coffin

are either hexagonal or octagonal which conforms to the anatomy of the human body.

Layers out of the dead

became an occupational specialty practiced by women in many larger US cities by the end of the 18th century; predecessor to the undertaker.

Vikings

believed in the spiritual hereafter, called Valhalla: death terminated the physical part of the body only. Inhumation and cremation were both practiced; the dead were laid to rest in graves capped by mounds known as tumuli (mound burial), or in level places individually, in pairs, or communally. Small wooden coffins and large wooden chambers in the tumuli were also used at times.

Vikings

believed that proper funeral rites were essential if the deceased souls were to move on to the afterlife. A suitable funeral ensured that the spirit, known as a revenant or draugr, did not remain to haunt the living. The nature of an individual's funeral reflected his personal status and wealth.

Extramural burial

burial outside the walls of the city; concept introduced during the ancient Roman times

Neanderthals

buried flowers and some hunting gear with their dead.

Prince Greer

was the personal slave of a cavalry officer who was killed during battle. He took it upon himself to return the body of his former master to his estate and contacted W. R. Cornelius, a successful undertaker from Nashville. Cornelius arranged to have the body of Greer's master shipped back to his Texas home. Around the same time, Cornelius found himself in a dilemma for his assistant, a young surgeon named Dr. E. D. Lewis, who had been trained in the embalming arts by Dr. Holmes himself, decided that embalming the dead was not the occupation for him. ________ _________ had remained on the Cornelius's premises and indicated he would do anything to secure his room and board. Cornelius taught him the embalming arts

Funerary masks

were a very important aspect of Ancient Egyptian burials. In common with the anthropoid coffin, they provided the dead with a face in the afterlife. In addition, they also helped the spirit to recognize the body.

Barber-surgeons

were thus largely referred to as surgeons of the short robe