History of Mass Communication and Culture revision
What are the three principles of public service broadcasting?
1. Airwaves must be used in public interest 2. Broadcasting must serve a range of needs and purposes 3. Commercial interests cannot comprise the broadcaster's output
What are the environmental impacts of planned obsolescence? (4 impacts)
1. Cloud storage devices require servers that worsen the carbon footprint 2. Video games consoles are very inefficient with electricity 3. High levels of e-waste and carbon dioxide emissions produced when making iPhones 4. E-waste is usually exported to poor countries that are unable to deal with it
What were the weaknesses of American public service broadcasting?
1. Dependent on public funding - couldn't criticise government 2. Conformed to culturally elite tastes - showed high culture programmes generally ignored by most audiences and broadcasters
What are the limits of consumerism?
1. Diminishing returns - the more someone has, the less they appreciate new acquisitions 2. Not enough money or time to appreciate all the products out there - ease of choice is more important than value 3. Advertising tells us that consumption makes us happier, when in reality it has no impact, and can negatively cause materialist values
Why did the radical press decline?
1. Growth of entertainment-based news content 2. Success of working class social movements - less need for radical press 3. Technological innovations e.g. printing press were too expensive 4. Advertisers didn't want their messages in papers with a revolutionary stance 5. Changing news priorities - profit over public knowledge
How did the British press change as a result of World War II?
1. Increased public affairs coverage - people needed to know what was happening 2. Decreasing influence of advertising - newsprint rationed so less ad space 3. Attempted censorship of anti-war papers e.g. Daily Worker 4. Left-wing newspapers grew alongside Clement Attlee's welfare state 5. Increased need for impartiality in journalism.
What are the three main principles of war in the media?
1. Make the war short 2. Control media coverage 3. Pick the right enemy
What was the government's first response to the radical press?
1. Matched radical protest with heavy suppression e.g. the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester in 1819, where troops killed demonstrators protesting for the vote. This was defended by the government but criticised by the radical press. 2. Penalties increased for evading stamp duty 3. Libel and sedition laws increased - controversial writers imprisoned if they called for change.
What are the limits of the American commercial broadcasting model? (9 limits)
1. Maximises advertising - show as many as possible 2. Profit goes to shareholders, not back into programming 3. Programming designed to fit advertisers' demands 4. No requirement for educational children's TV - proliferation of tie-ins 5. No requirement for policial fairness 6. Emphasis on producing content for the most profitable audiences - unbalanced 7. Little diversity of formats 8. Reluctance to innovate - audiences reject lack of variety 9. Unlikely to get programming critical of corporate America
What four trends exist across the media and cultural industries?
1. More is spent on advertising than product or content - promotes the idea that purchasing the product brings happiness 2. Shift from public service media to ad-funded content - broadcasting was initially ad-free but this changed as advertisers wanted to promote their products 3. Growth of digital/online economy - free online content has forced change for traditional media: less local journalists, newspapers closing. Music industry also affected by illegal downloads and streaming. 4. Globalisation - wider range of content, countries compete for the weakest labour laws so rich companies set up there. More is owned by fewer companies - greater homogeneity, smaller range of products. Big retailers driving out small retailers.
What four trends of the British press is Rupert Murdoch synonymous with?
1. Ownership concentration - would've broken monopolies legislation if not for support from Thatcher 2. Owner intervention - his papers correlate with his views 3. Decrease in serious news content - 'dumbing down' news, focus on celebrities and sport, declining journalistic standards 4. Shift in mass market newspapers to the right - the Sun begins campaigning for Conservatives
What are the effects of rapid production and consumption on the planet? (3 effects)
1. Pollution e.g. plasticisation of the sea 2. Dwindling natural resources e.g. water scarcity, expensive to get rid of waste, which is never factored into a product's cost, subsidised by taxes 3. Climate change worsening - global warming, rising sea levels, natural disasters. Emissions have guaranteed damage, now just a matter of how bad.
What are the two ways of achieving public service broadcasting?
1. Setting up public companies e.g. BBC 2. Leasing airwaves to commercial companies and regulating them to ensure principles of PSB are upheld
What are the three main purposes of broadcasting?
1. Spreading information 2. Creating economic activity 3. Enriching people's lives with entertainment
What are the two ways of making money from US broadcasting?
1. TV subscription fees (commodity = programmes) 2. Advertising (commodity = viewers)
What did the Frankfurt School think about mass culture? (3 theories)
1. That culture was being run by corporations for profit 2. That culture had to appeal to the lowest common denominator 3. That people weren't active citizens, passively consuming media.
What were the recommendations from the FCC in the early stages of TV in the 1940s? (2 recommendations)
1. That there was a lack of public affairs programming 2. That the biggest companies had their licenses revoked - didn't happen
How does advertising play a role in planned obsolescence?
Advertising makes us think we are behind if we don't have the latest technology - emphasises the rapid replacement of commodities.
What happened in Chile regarding the US and UK?
Allende was elected with a communist government disliked by the US and UK, so they implemented measures to cripple the Chilean economy, culminating in a military coup by Pinochet, who Thatcher and Reagan supported.
How does Apple use planned obsolescence?
Apple has a 12-18 month lifespan for its products, and created the pentalobe screw to ensure homemade repairs couldn't take place.
What did the 1990 Broadcasting Act do?
Auctioned the ability to broadcast on ITV to the highest bidder, not the best candidate. Allowed for cable broadcasting following the 1989 creation of Sky. Initially unsuccessful in this but that changed when they bought the rights to broadcast football. More terrestrial channels created - Channel 5 in 1997.
Why were BBC One and BBC 2 created?
BBC One was redesigned to compete with the broad-appeal programming of ITV, and BBC 2 was launched in 1964 to preserve the 'worthy' programming they had previously shown.
How did the BBC change when WWII broke out?
BBC's audience was previously middle class and high culture, but this changed in 1939 as it had to appeal to the masses. The Forces Network (later called Light Programme) appealed to the working class. Home Service provided talk radio e.g. news, Third Programme played classical music.
How did illegal pirate radio stations change?
Became popular in the 1960s because they played popular music that wasn't played by the BBC. Their popularity led to the 1967 formation of BBC Radio 1, which played this kind of music and took the format and DJs of pirate radio.
What was Walter Benjamin's ideas of 'aura'?
Believed that cultural artefacts had an 'aura' around them that prevents them from being critically analysed - aura needs to be removed before they can be analysed.
What happened in Cambodia regarding the US and UK?
Cambodian economy and infrastructure ruined by American bombing during Vietnam War, hundreds of thousands killed. 1975 - rebels under Pol Pot declared themselves leaders, condemned industrial development, committed genocide. Vietnam invaded in 1979 and retook power. John Pilger released 'Year Zero' to criticise US and UK inaction - refused to support new government due to their ties to Vietnam. 1979 - US and UK support UN proposition to recognise Pol Pot as Cambodia's ruler, helped Khmer Rouge rebuilt forces. New regime just as brutal as Pol Pot's, as shown in Pilger's 'Year Ten'.
How did consumer culture emerge in the early 20th century?
Came as advertisers wanted to increase demand for all the goods being produced. Less interaction while shopping - items placed on shelves, shopping advertised became a leisure activity. Consumer culture increased when rationing ended in the 1950s, advertising created issues that could be solved by purchasing a product.
What and when was the 'Golden Age of Television'?
Came in the 1960s, was a period where there were innovative dramas, gender stereotypes being subverted, rise of sitcoms, sci-fi programmes and hard-hitting dramas based on social issues, such as those made by Ken Loach.
How did the radical press respond to the government's suppression?
Continued operating after the Peterloo Massacre, cut costs by not paying the stamp duty and having readers submit copy instead of paying journalists. Heavily criticised the brutal government response.
What does (C) mean?
Copyright, allowed to be used under fair use
What did the 1967 Broadcasting Act do?
Created the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which created PBS, the American equivalent of the BBC.
What was the pop music industry like in the 1950s?
Dominated by four majors - RCA, Columbia, Decca and Capitol. Minorities generally ignored, except 'Strange Fruit', which was banned from radio stations. Nat King Cole Show cancelled after one season because it couldn't find a sponsor.
Why did mass culture grow in the 1930s?
Due to urbanisation and increased incomes, people had enough money to live in cities and participate in new activities such as the cinema. Class lines blurring.
What happened in Guatemala regarding the US and UK?
Elected a leader in the 1950s who wanted to redistribute land to peasants, which upset landowning American companies, so US helped to overthrow him. New leader Colonel Armas committed human rights atrocities. Example of foreign policy prioritising strategic and political interests over human rights.
What is the pop music industry like now?
Emphasis is on streaming and downloads - less income for labels but lower barrier of entry for musicians. Proliferation of illegal downloads. Touring has become the major source of income for musicians, sales revenue inadequate.
What was the British press like in the 1970s?
Era of the new press barons e.g. Rupert Murdoch. Daily Herald relaunched as the Sun, became right-leaning.
What happened in the Falklands regarding the UK?
Falklands War 1982 - Argentina tried to reclaim Falklands from Britain. Increased patriotism for the island, helped Thatcher's popularity. Quick war due to weak opposition, easy to control coverage as it was far away, easy to rally against Argentina's military regime.
Who was Lord Reith and what were his principles of broadcasting?
First director-general of the BBC, brought 'culture to the masses'. Wanted a 'national culture' based around key institutions e.g. monarchy. Didn't want government censorship, but this happened during General Strike of 1926, BBC couldn't broadcast views of Labour politicians or Archbishop of Canterbury.
How is Barbie an example of hegemony?
Focus on Barbie has always been her physical appearance and fashion choices over her skill, came at a period where women's role was beginning to change, but this was subverted post-WWII when millions of women were fired from their jobs. Emphasis on preserving the traditional family structure. Criticism of Barbie's unrealistic appearance has died down - Barbie almost dictates women's appearance.
How has British broadcasting changed since 2000?
Focus on a lightly-regulated multi-channel system, most channels aren't public. Shift to digital platforms e.g. Sky and Netflix - TV subscription costs increasing.
How does intellectual property law preserve planned obsolescence?
For example, a company could use the copyright on their products to prevent third-party repair guides from being published, ensuring users would have to purchase an upgrade when their current device wears out.
What did the 1996 Telecommunications Act do?
Furthered deregulation and conglomeration in American broadcasting, making the landscape more vulnerable than ever to monopolies.
Why did the press begin to grow in the 18th century?
Growing working-class consciousness, people wanted a say in how the country was governed, but the upper-class believed they had a natural right to govern.
What was President Hoover's stance on US broadcasting?
Hoover believed broadcasting should be in the public interest, despite there being a corporate structure to broadcasting, where companies such as AT&T, Western Union and RCA controlled different elements of the process.
What was the difference between ITV and the BBC?
ITV launched in 1955, less elitist than BBC. Broadcast the first TV soap, 'Coronation Street'. Unafraid to challenge traditional news views. ITV broadcast adverts, wasn't subsidised by the public.
What is hegemony?
Idea pioneered by Gramsci that ideology encourages common consent towards groups and ideas. Media exposure to certain ideas means we don't question them.
How did US broadcasting change in the 1920s?
In 1926, RCA launched the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), and created CBS in 1927. The FRC was launched by the government in 1927 to regulate the airwaves and give out licenses - best licenses given to commercial stations. Radio provided escapist entertainment during the Great Depression.
What happened in Iraq regarding the US and UK?
In the 1980s Iraq's leader Saddam Hussein used chemical weapons against Kurdish civilians, but US didn't intervene because he was a trade partner. Iraq invaded Kuwait because Kuwait was flooding Iraq with cheap oil - Hussein now seen as an evil dictator needing overthrowing. Quick war, public relations handled well, US portrayed as stopping international bullies, media didn't mention industrial motivations.
What happened in Indonesia and East Timor regarding the US and UK?
Indonesia ruled by West-friendly dictator who supported Western businesses by lowering minimum wage. East Timor granted independence from Portugal in 1975, power won by left-wing group. President Ford met Indonesian ruler, requested removal of East Timorese leaders - indirect support, 1/3 of East Timorese population die in conflict, but West don't cover this due to ties to Indonesia. Foreign journalists murdered for trying to reveal details of conflict. November 1991 - 18-year-old activist killed by Indonesian military, army kill up to 200 mourners at his funeral - British camera crew filmed it but received little other attention. Proves Western media only reports on stories correlating with their interests.
What was 1940s pop music like?
Lack of innovation - most hits were by the same white artists, many were covers. Similar song structures and lyrical themes.
What was the 1986 Peacock Enquiry and what was its outcome?
Launched by Thatcher to determine if the BBC should have ads and scrap the license fee. This was rejected, partly because ITV thought it would create competition, but did propose a freer broadcasting market.
When was BBC TV launched, and what were its early years like?
Launched in 1936 but didn't grow until the 1950s, quickly becoming the major source of entertainment.
What impact did the repeal of the 'taxes on knowledge' have?
Led to the radical press beginning to close down, replaced with the Daily Mail, Daily Mirror and Daily Express.
What did the 1996 Broadcasting Act do?
Loosened rules on cross-media ownership, allowing companies to own more media. Protected major sports events from being shown on satellite TV.
Who was Mark Fowler and what did he do? (6 actions)
Mark Fowler was appointed FCC commissioner by Reagan during the deregulation era of the 1980s - didn't care about equality. 1. Changed 7-7-7 rule to 12-12-12 rule. 2. Limits on commercials removed 3. Broadcasters no longer had an obligation to public service broadcasting 4. License renewal virtually automatic 5. Eliminated need for impartiality in news coverage 6. Created framework for cable broadcasting
What is happening in Saudi Arabia regarding the US and UK?
Modern regime that supports terrorism and represses women's and human rights. US and UK don't intervene because they sell Saudi Arabia weapons. Saudi Arabia is at war with Yemen - hundreds of thousands killed in bombing campaign, blockade to starve Yemeni population, but US and UK prioritise business interests over human rights.
What was the significance of the 1982 launch of Channel 4 and S4C?
Move towards producing content for minorities. Channel 4 commissioned producers to create boundary-pushing content e.g. John Pilger's 'Year Zero', which criticised the British and US governments.
What is the British press like in the 21st century?
National titles are controlled by a small number of owners. Rise of internet weakens local press - people expect free journalism, income from print advertising decreasing. Daily newspaper readership decreasing. Stories given to journalists from PR and news agencies - news susceptible to third-party influence.
Who was Newton Minow and what did he do?
Newton Minow was commissioner of the FCC, and was appointed by JFK. He wanted to increase the quality of television, increasing the amount of compulsory news programming from 15 minutes to 30 and increasing the quantity of documentaries, but he unsuccessfully tried to limit advertising.
What was UK and US foreign policy after WWII?
Period of Cold War, military build-up between contrasting powers and ideologies of capitalism and communism. Mutually Assured Destruction. Containment of Soviet power. Never directly went to war. Priority was economic and political, under the pretence of a moral responsibility.
What happened to pop music in the 1970s?
Pop music stagnated - majors would buy out independents that had successful artists, industry economically stagnated. Artists had to make money from videos and tours, helped them promote themselves. Increased censorship - BBC banned a potential #1 song because it disrespect the queen. Independents grew again with a punk aesthetic, aided by low production costs and public sector subsidies.
What was the 1934 Hatfield Wagner Act, and what came as a result of it?
Proposed giving more licenses to public service broadcasting, but this was rejected. Led to the 1934 formation of the FCC, which ensured the airwaves operated in the public interest.
What is the purpose of intellectual property law, and how is it exploited?
Protects producers from having their work stolen, used to police interests of corporations e.g. Fox News v. Al Franken.
What happened with the 1989 US invasion of Panama?
Quick, easy to control, Manuel Noriega had already been demonised as a drug lord trying to bring drugs to America. Noriega refused to allow Panama to become a base for Nicaraguan rebels, so the US invaded - Bush's approval rating increased.
What was the early stages of British broadcasting like?
Radio broadcasting began in early 20th century. 1904 - Postmaster General became responsible for allocating radio frequencies. BBC created in 1922 alongside 10-shilling license fee. BBC became government-independent in 1925. Radio news was more efficient than print news so it was regulated to prevent it overtaking print. In 1926, radio news became the key news source during the General Strike.
What was the government's second reaction to the radical press?
Realised repression wouldn't work, focused on creating a press that suited the ideology of the ruling class.
How did pop music change in the 1980s?
Return to the dominance of majors: Sony BMG, Universal Music Group, EMI and Warner Music. Deregulation policy meant majors had more power, bought out independents or raised production costs by producing expensive music videos.
Who were press barons in the 1920s and 30s, and why did they own newspapers?
Right-wing newspaper-owning men who owned the most popular newspapers, effectively running the press. Brothers Lord Rothermere and Lord Northcliffe owned 9 daily newspapers. Owned newspapers for the status, and to enforce an overall shift to the right.
What happened in Uzbekistan regarding the US and UK?
Ruled by Karimov, who repressed the population but was a Western ally because he had territory useful for the war on terror and protecting oil pipelines. US and UK brought prisoners to Uzbekistan to be tortured - whistleblower Craig Murray argued US and UK shouldn't support Karimov's regime.
How has British broadcasting changed since 2000?
Shift to a lightly-regulated multi channel system, most digital channels require payment. More repeats and cheap programming e.g. reality TV. Less money for investigative journalism, less minority programming. Subscriptions means it costs more to watch TV.
What was the British press like in the 1960s?
Slight return to conservative dominance as the left-wing Daily Herald closed - was working-class but focused on public affairs, couldn't get advertising revenue.
How did companies such as Sony use vertical integration to dominate the pop music industry?
Sony produced movies that used music from their record labels, and produced CD players during the transition from vinyl to CD.
Who developed the first TV prototype, and what came of it?
TV prototype developed by Philo Farnsworth in the 1930s. His idea was copied by RCA/NBC, who had to pay him royalties, but due to WWII, TV didn't take off until this period was over.
What was the attitude of broadcasters towards the relationship between programmes and advertising in the 1940s?
TV shows were seen as vehicles for delivering audiences to advertisers in a pleasant way so they were more receptive to sponsors' messages. Advertisements preferred over sponsorships - could appeal to a broader audience, more freedom.
What were 'taxes on knowledge' and why did they exist?
Taxes such as on stamps required to print newspapers, advertising and paper. Designed to make sure only the rich had the financial capability to produce papers.
What did the Effects school believe?
That all media is trying to manipulate consumers, and that all information is being taken at face value.
What did Orson Welles' 'War of the Worlds' radio serial demonstrate?
That mass culture such as radio could cause hysteria if consumed in the wrong way. Proved how unified mass culture was, everyone consuming the same thing.
How did the BBC try and detract from ITV's launch?
The BBC broadcast an episode of their radio serial 'The Archers', in which a main character died.
What was the Poor Man's Guardian, and what ideas did the radical press have?
The Poor Man's Guardian was the first radical newspaper, created by Henry Hetherington. Believed defiance against inequality was the only way to stand up for the poor, took ideas from revolutionary France of the working class creating a democracy. Believed in Chartism - extending the vote to the working class.
What happened in Iran regarding the US and UK?
The US and UK wanted stable Middle Eastern governments to maximise oil revenues, but Iran's PM Mossadeq wanted Iran's oil wealth to go to the people - threatening US and UK interests. 1953 - Mossadeq overthrown in joint MI5 and CIA operation, former shah restored, American oil companies return.
What is political economy?
The exploration of the relationship between cultural products and the economic or structural positions that produce them - 'following the money'.
What is cultural capital?
The idea that some media texts are class-bound and require a certain level of class to appreciate, mainly tied to ideas of 'high culture'.
What is the Bubka principle and who operates using it?
The idea that, instead of taking large leaps in innovation, it is more profitable to innovate little by little and sell these small upgrades, as shown by Apple's business model with iPhones.
What is 'churnalism'?
The lack of funding in the industry has led to churnalism, where journalists reproduce press releases they are sent instead of investigating stories.
How did pop music change after WWII?
The population boom and increased leisure time and disposable income meant people were more likely to support artists. Rock and roll became popular - threatened establishment with black artists, sexually suggestive lyrics. Greater diversity due to low production costs - easy to take risks, more experimental music.
What is semiotics?
The study of signs, how meaning is created in media texts. Relationship between signifier (object) and signified (meaning).
What were the two kinds of press in 18th-century Britain?
There was the establishment press (paid stamp duty) and radical press - didn't pay for stamps and conveyed working-class ideas.
How is creative journalism preserved?
Through government intervention and regulation, in order to prevent the homogenisation of content.
What does (R) mean?
Trademark, total control of the corporation that owns it
Why are PR messages used by journalists, and what are their drawbacks?
Used to save money instead of paying for investigative journalism, but may negatively impact the public sphere because their validity is rarely judged and corporate messages begin to dominate newspapers.
Who was Thomas Milner Gibson and what did he do? (3 actions)
Was appointed President of the Association for the Promotion of the Repeal of Taxes on Knowledge. 1. Repealed ad duty in 1853 2. Repealed stamp duty in 1855 3. Repealed paper duty in 1861
What is vertical integration?
Where a large company owns companies at every stage of the production process.
What is horizontal integration?
Where a large company owns many companies at one stage of the production process.
What is Orientalism?
Where people from the Middle East are linked to terrorism by the media. Subverted by the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. British press frames Islam as being 'fanatical' and 'evil'.
What is planned obsolescence?
Where products are designed to run out after a certain amount of time, then needing an upgrade or replacement to be purchased. E.g. lightbulbs
What is psychological obsolescence?
Where products don't actually wear out but we are made to think that change is frequently required, e.g. razors.
What is 'flow' in US broadcasting?
Where there is a continuum between programmes and adverts, making the transition between the two less jarring for viewers.
