History of PSYCH test 3

Chapter 15 summary

Explanations of mental illness fall into three categories: biological explanations (the medical model), psychological explanations (the psychological model), and supernatural or magical explanations (the supernatural model). How mental illness was treated was largely determined by what its causes were assumed to be. All forms of therapy, however, involved a sufferer, a helper, and some form of ritual. If the psychological model of mental illness was assumed, then treatment involved such things as the analysis of dreams, encouragement and support, or the teaching of more effective coping skills. Hippocrates was among the first to promote the biological model of illness (both physical and mental). He saw physical health resulting from a balance among the four humors of the body and illness resulting from an imbalance among them. He saw mental illness resulting primarily from abnormal conditions in the brain. To regain health, either physical or mental, the Hippocratics prescribed such naturalistic remedies as mineral baths, fresh air, and proper diets. The Hippocratics also identified a number of mental illnesses, including hysteria. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, those with mental illness were often believed to be possessed by evil spirits and were harshly treated. But even during this era some people refused to believe that abnormal behavior resulted from possession of the person by demons or spirits. Paracelsus, Agrippa, Weyer, Scot, and Plater argued effectively that abnormal behavior had natural causes and that people with mental illness should be treated humanely. Even after the supernatural explanation of mental illness subsided, patients were still often treated harshly in "lunatic asylums" such as Bedlam. Not until the end of the 18th century did Pinel, Tuke, Chiarugi, Rush, Dix, and others help bring about dramatically better living conditions for people with mental illness. Through the efforts of these pioneers, many patients were unchained; given better food; provided recreation, fresh air, sunlight, and medical treatment; and treated with respect. In 1883 Kraepelin summarized all categories of mental illness known at that time; he attempted to show the origins of the various disorders and how the disorders should be treated. Kraepelin also performed pioneering research in the field that came to be called psychopharmacology. One of the charter members of the APA, Lightner Witmer, was trained as a Wundtian experimental psychologist but became increasingly interested in using psychological principles to help people. He coined the term clinical psychology, established the world's first psychological clinic in 1896 (and subsequently several others), developed the first curriculum designed to train clinical psychologists, and founded the first journal devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. By the mid-19th century, the medical model of illness (both physical and mental) had prevailed. The prevalence of the medical model discouraged a search for the psychological causes of mental illness because it was believed that such a search exemplified a return to a form of demonology. Although psychological explanations of mental illness gradually became more respectable, there was and is a tension between those accepting the medical model and those accepting the psychological model. Szasz contends that mental illness is a myth because it has no organic basis. To him, what is called mental illness is more accurately described as problems in living, and individuals should have the responsibility for solving those problems rather than attributing them to some disease. The work of Mesmer played a crucial role in the transition toward objective psychological explanations of mental illness. Mesmer believed that physical and mental disorders are caused by the uneven distribution of animal magnetism in the patient's body. He also believed that some people have stronger magnetic force fields than others and that they, like himself, are natural healers. Because of something later to be called the contagion effect, some of Mesmer's clients were more easily "cured" in a group than individually. Puysegur discovered that placing clients in a sleeplike trance, which he called artificial somnambulism, was as effective as Mesmer's approach for treating disorders. Puysegur explained this sleeplike state as the result of suggestibility. He also discovered the phenomena of posthypnotic suggestion and posthypnotic amnesia. By systematically studying hypnosis and attempting to explain it as a biological phenomenon, Braid gave it greater respectability in the medical community. Members of the Nancy school, such as Liebeault and Bernheim, believed that all humans are more or less suggestible and therefore hypnotizable; Charcot, in contrast, believed that only hysterics are hypnotizable. Unlike most other physicians of his day, Charcot treated hysteria as a real illness. Charcot theorized that traumatic experiences cause ideas to become dissociated from consciousness and thus from rational consideration. In such isolation, the dissociated ideas became powerful enough to cause the bodily symptoms associated with hysteria. Charcot's ideas played a significant role in Freud's subsequent work. Like Charcot, Janet believed that aspects of the personality, such as traumatic memories, could become dissociated from the rest of the personality and that such dissociation explains both hysterical symptoms and hypnotic phenomena. Janet found that often when a patient became aware of and dealt with a dissociated memory, his or her hysterical symptoms would often improve.

Which statement below best describes the outlook of Benjamin Rush?

He argued for humane treatment of mentally ill patients and also advocated bloodletting and the use of rotating and tranquilizing chairs.

Which statement below best describes Guthrie's belief about reinforcement?

He believed that it is recency rather than reinforcement that affects learning

What effect did Freud have on psychology?

He created a new way of treating age-old mental disorders.

Which statement below is true of Pinel?

He found great success with treating patients with mental illness humanely

How did Watson's opinion of human instincts change over the years?

He started off believing that instincts were important for human infants, but then later decided that humans did not have instincts.

What mistake did Freud believe he was making regarding his seduction theory?

He thought he was erroneously taking his patients' stories of seduction as literally true.

Which statement best describes Hull's influence on the field of psychology?

His work was very influential

Which statement is true of psychoanalysis?

Its components were already developed before Freud came on the scene to synthesize them.

What advice would Guthrie give a person who was trying to quit smoking but has an especially hard time resisting a cigarette after eating a meal?

Perform a healthful act instead of smoking after meals.

Chapter 12 summary

Several years before Watson's formal founding of the school of behaviorism, many psychologists already insisted that psychology be defined as the science of behavior. Several Russians, such as Sechenov, were calling for a completely objective psychology devoid of metaphysical speculation. It was Sechenov's discovery of inhibitory processes in the brain that allowed him to believe that all behavior, including that of humans, could be explained in terms of reflexes. During his research on digestion, Pavlov discovered "psychic reflexes" (conditioned reflexes). Pavlov saw all behavior, whether learned or innate, as reflexive. Innate associations between unconditioned stimuli (USs) and unconditioned responses (URs) were soon supplemented by learned associations between conditioned stimuli (CSs) and conditioned responses (CRs). Pavlov believed that some stimuli elicit excitation in the brain and other stimuli elicit inhibition. If a conditioned stimulus that was previously associated with an unconditioned stimulus is now presented without the unconditioned stimulus, extinction occurs. The facts that spontaneous recovery and disinhibition occur indicate that extinction is due to inhibition. If stimuli that elicit excitation on one hand and inhibition on the other are made increasingly similar, experimental neurosis results. According to Pavlov, conditioned stimuli act as signals announcing the occurrence of biologically significant events; he called such stimuli the first-signal system. Language allows symbols (words) to provide the same function as conditioned stimuli, such as when the word fire elicits defensive behavior. Pavlov called the words that symbolize physical events the second-signal system. Bechterev also sought a completely objective psychology. Unlike Pavlov, who studied internal reflexes such as salivation, Bechterev studied overt behavior. Bechterev believed that his technique was superior to Pavlov's because it required no operation, it could be used easily on humans, it minimized unwanted reactions from the subject, overt behavior could be easily measured, and satiation was not a problem. Other influential Russian psychologists included Luria and Vygotsky. Several factors molded Watson's behavioristic outlook. First, many of the functionalists at Chicago and elsewhere were studying behavior directly, without the use of introspection. Second, Loeb had shown that some of the behavior of simple organisms and plants was tropistic (an automatic reaction to environmental conditions). Third, animal research that related behavior to various experimental manipulations was becoming very popular. In fact, before his founding of the school of behaviorism, In 1913 Watson gave a lecture titled "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" at Columbia University. The publication of this lecture in the Psychological Review in 1913 marks the formal beginning of the school of behaviorism. In 1920 scandal essentially ended Watson's career as an academic psychologist, although afterward he published articles in popular magazines, spoke on radio, and revised some of his earlier works. Watson found support for his position in Russian objective psychology and eventually made conditioning the cornerstone of his stimulus-response psychology. For Watson the goal of psychology is to predict and control behavior by determining how behavior is related to environmental events. Watson even viewed thinking as a form of behavior, consisting of minute movements of the tongue and larynx. Early in Watson's theorizing, instincts played a prominent role in explaining human behavior. Later, Watson said that humans possess instincts but that learned behavior soon replaces instinctive behavior. Watson's final position on instincts was that they have no influence on human behavior. He did say, however, that a person's physical structure is inherited and that the interaction between structure and environmental experience determines many individual characteristics. Also, the emotions of fear, rage, and love are inherited, and experience greatly expands the stimuli that elicit these emotions. The experiment with Albert showed the process by which previously neutral stimuli could come to elicit fear. Later, along with Mary Cover Jones, Watson showed how fear could become disassociated from a stimulus. The two major influences Watson had on psychology were (1)to change its goals from the description and understanding of consciousness to the prediction and control of behavior and (2)to change its subject matter from consciousness to overt behavior. Those psychologists who, like Watson, rejected internal events such as consciousness as causes of behavior were called radical behaviorists. Those who accepted internal events such as consciousness as possible causes of behavior but insisted that any theories about unobservable causes of behavior be verified by studying overt behavior were called methodological behaviorists. One of Watson's most formidable adversaries was McDougall, who agreed with Watson that psychology should be the science of behavior but thought that purposive behavior should be emphasized. Because of its emphasis on goal-directed behavior, McDougall's position was referred to as hormic psychology. Although McDougall defined psychology as the science of behavior, he did not deny the importance of mental events, and he believed they could be studied through their influence on behavior. In other words, McDougall was a methodological behaviorist. Whereas Watson had concluded that instincts played no role in human behavior, McDougall made instincts the cornerstone of his theory. For McDougall an instinct is an innate disposition that, when active, causes a person to attend to a certain class of events, to feel emotional excitement when perceiving those events, and to act relative to those events in such a way as to satisfy the instinctual need. When the instinctual need is satisfied, the whole chain of events terminates. Thus, for McDougall, instincts and purposive behavior go hand in hand. McDougall believed that the reason humans learn habits is that they satisfy instinctual needs. Also, McDougall believed that instincts seldom, if ever, motivate behavior in isolation. Rather objects, events, and ideas tend to elicit two or more instincts simultaneously, in which case a sentiment is experienced. However, the Chinese psychologist Zing Yang Kuo was one of many who produced research against instinctual behavior.

chapter 13 summary

The positivism of Bacon, Comte, and Mach insisted that only that which is directly observable be the object of scientific investigation. For the positivists, all speculation about abstract entities should be actively avoided. Watson and the Russian physiologists were positivists. The logical positivists had a more liberal view of scientific activity. For them, theorizing about unobservable entities was allowed, provided those entities were directly linked to observable events via operational definitions. Operational definitions define abstract concepts in terms of the procedures used to measure those concepts. The belief that all scientific concepts must be operationally defined was called operationism. Physicalism was the belief that all sciences should share common assumptions, principles, and methodologies and should model themselves after physics. Neobehaviorism resulted when behaviorism, with its insistence that the subject matter of psychology be overt behavior, merged with logical positivism, with its acceptance of theory and its insistence on operational definitions. By following the tenets of logical positivism, many neobehaviorists believed they could be theoretical and still remain objective. Guthrie created an extremely parsimonious theory of learning. All learning was explained by the law of contiguity, which stated that when a pattern of stimuli and a response occur together they become associated. Furthermore, the association between the two occurs at full strength after just one exposure. By postulating one-trial learning, Guthrie rejected the law of frequency. To explain why practice improves performance, Guthrie differentiated among movements, acts, and skills. A movement is a specific response made to a specific pattern of stimuli. It is the association between a movement and a pattern of stimuli that is learned in one trial. An act is a movement that has become associated with a number of stimuli patterns. A skill, in turn, consists of many acts. It is because acts are made up of many movements and skills are made up of many acts that practice improves performance. According to Guthrie, bad habits can be broken by causing a response, other than the undesirable one, to be made in the presence of the stimuli that previously elicited the undesirable response. Attempts to formalize Guthrie's theory, thereby making it more testable, were made by Virginia Voeks and William Estes. Using intervening variables Hull developed an open-ended, self-correcting, hypothetico-deductive theory of learning. If experimentation supports the deductions from this theory, the theory gains strength; if not, the part of the theory on which the deductions were based is revised. Equating reinforcement with drive reduction, Hull defined habit strength as the number of reinforced pairings between a stimulus and a response. He saw reaction potential as a function of the amount of habit strength and drive present. Hull's theory was extremely influential in the 1940s and 1950s, and because of the efforts of Hull's disciples such as Kenneth Spence, the influence of his theory extended well into the 1960s. Some particular aspects of Hull's theory are still found in contemporary psychology, but not his comprehensive approach to theory building; psychologists now seek theories of more limited domain. In his approach to psychology, Skinner accepted positivism instead of logical positivism. He can still be classified as a neobehaviorist, however, because although he avoided theory he did accept operationism. Skinner distinguished between respondent behavior, which a known stimulus elicits, and operant behavior, which an organism emits. Skinner was concerned almost exclusively with operant behavior. For Skinner, reinforcement is anything that changes the rate or probability of a response. Nothing more needs to be known about reinforcement, nor is an understanding of physiology necessary for an understanding of behavior. Skinner urged a study of the functional relationship between behavior and the environment. Because such an analysis is correlational, it avoided the complexities of determining causation in human behavior and eliminated the need to postulate unobserved cognitive or physiological determinants of behavior. Watson and Skinner were radical behaviorists because they stressed environmental influences on behavior to the exclusion of so-called mental events and physiological states. Tolman, Hull, and Guthrie were methodological behaviorists because they were willing to theorize about internal causes of behavior (such as cognitive maps and physiological drives). Many contemporary psychologists label themselves Skinnerians and are active in both research and the applied aspects of psychology. According to Skinnerian psychology, behavior that is reinforced is strengthened (made more probable), but behavior that is punished is not necessarily weakened. It is best then to arrange reinforcement contingencies so that desirable behavior is reinforced and undesirable behavior is not. No matter what type of behavior is under consideration, the rule is always the same: Change reinforcement contingencies, and you change behavior. Instead of studying reflexive, or molecular, behavior, Tolman studied purposive, or molar, behavior; thus, his version of psychology was called purposive behaviorism. According to Tolman, the learning process progresses from the formation of hypotheses concerning what leads to what in an environment, to an expectancy, and, finally, to a belief. In Tolman's theory, confirmation replaced the notion of reinforcement, and an important distinction was made between learning and performance. Aspects of contemporary cognitive psychology also have much in common with Tolman's work. Although the influence of behaviorism and neobehaviorism has diminished in contemporary psychology, some of their basic tenets have been incorporated into all current brands of experimental psychology.

chapter 16 summary

Although most, if not all, of the conceptions that would later characterize psychoanalysis were part of Freud's philosophical and scientific heritage, his significant accomplishment was to take those disparate conceptions and synthesize them into a comprehensive theory of personality. Although Freud originally tried to explain hysteria as a physiological problem, events led him to attempt a psychological explanation of hysteria instead. Freud learned that when Breuer's patient Anna O. was totally relaxed or hypnotized and then asked to remember the circumstances under which one of her many symptoms had first occurred, the symptom would at least temporarily disappear. This type of treatment was called the cathartic method. Freud also learned from Breuer's work with Anna O. that the therapist was sometimes responded to as if he were a relevant person in the patient's life, a process called transference. Sometimes the therapist also became emotionally involved with a patient, a process called countertransference. Studies on Hysteria (1895/1955), the book that Freud coauthored with Breuer, is usually taken as the formal beginning of the school of psychoanalysis. From his visit with Charcot, Freud learned that hysteria is a real disorder that occurs in both males and females, that ideas dissociated from consciousness by trauma could trigger bodily symptoms in those inherently predisposed to hysteria, and that the symptoms of hysteria may have a sexual origin. Soon after Freud began treating hysterical patients, he used hypnosis but found that he could not hypnotize some patients and that the ones he could hypnotize received only temporary relief from their symptoms. He also found that patients often refused to believe what they had revealed under hypnosis and, therefore, could not benefit from a rational discussion of previously repressed material. After experimenting with various other techniques, Freud finally settled on free association, whereby he encouraged his patients to say whatever came to their minds without inhibiting any thoughts. By analyzing a patient's symptoms and by carefully scrutinizing a patient's free associations, Freud originally believed that hysteria results from a childhood sexual seduction but later concluded that the seductions he had discovered were usually patient fantasies. During his self-analysis, Freud found that dreams contain the same clues concerning the origins of a psychological problem as did physical symptoms or free associations. He distinguished between the manifest content of a dream, or what the dream appears to be about, and the latent content, or what the dream is actually about. Freud believed that the latent content represents wish fulfillments that a person could not entertain consciously without experiencing anxiety. Dream work disguises the true meaning of a dream. Examples of dream work include condensation, in which several things from a person's life are condensed into one symbol, and displacement, in which a person dreams about something symbolically related to an anxiety-provoking object, person, or event instead of dreaming about whatever it is that actually provokes the anxiety. According to Freud, the adult mind consists of an id, an ego, and a superego. The id is entirely unconscious and demands immediate gratification; it is, therefore, said to be governed by the pleasure principle. The ego's job is to find real objects in the environment that can satisfy needs; it is, therefore, said to be governed by the reality principle. The realistic processes of the ego are referred to as secondary in order to distinguish them from the irrational primary processes of the id. The third component of the mind is the superego, which consists of the conscience, or the internalization of the experiences for which a child had been punished, and the ego-ideal, or the internalization of the experiences for which a child had been rewarded. Freud distinguished among objective anxiety, the fear of environmental events; neurotic anxiety, the feeling that one is about to be overwhelmed by one's id; and moral anxiety, the feeling caused by violating one or more internalized values. One of the major jobs of the ego is to reduce or eliminate anxiety; to accomplish this, the ego employs the ego defense mechanisms. All defense mechanisms depend on repression, which is the holding of disturbing thoughts in the unconscious. Other ego defense mechanisms are displacement, sublimation, projection, identification, rationalization, and reaction formation. During the psychosexual stages of development, the erogenous zone, or the area of the body associated with the greatest amount of pleasure, changes. Freud named the stages of development in terms of their erogenous zones. During the oral stage, either overgratification or undergratification of the oral needs results in a fixation. Fixation during the anal stage results in the adult being either an anal-expulsive or an anal-retentive character. During the phallic stage, the male and female Oedipal complexes occur. Freud believed the psychology of males and females to be qualitatively different, primarily because of differential Oedipal experiences. The latency stage is characterized by repression of sexual desires and sublimation. During the genital stage, the person emerges possessing the personality traits that experiences during the preceding stages have molded. Freud found considerable evidence for his theory in everyday life. He felt that forgetting, losing things, accidents, and slips of the tongue were often unconsciously motivated. He also thought jokes provide information about repressed experience because people tend to find anxiety-provoking material humorous. Freud believed that although we share the instinctual makeup of other animals, humans have the capacity to understand and harness instinctual impulses by exercising rational thought. Freud was especially critical of religion, believing that it is an illusion that keeps people functioning on an infantile level. His hope was that people would embrace the principles of science, thereby becoming more objective about themselves and the world. In recent years, there have been efforts to correct several misconceptions about Freud and psychoanalysis. Some historians have argued that Freud was not the courageous, innovative hero that he and his followers portrayed him to be, and that his ideas were not as original as he and his followers claimed. Several current scholars and researchers suggest that Freud entered some therapeutic situations assuming that repressed childhood sexual trauma was the cause of a patient's disorder. Freud has also been criticized for overemphasizing sexual motivation, and creating a method of therapy that is too long and costly to be useful to most people. Also, Freud's theory violates Popper's principle of falsifiability. Anna Freud became the spokesperson for psychoanalysis after her father died. She also applied psychoanalysis to children, which brought her into conflict with Melanie Klein, who had distinctly different ideas about child analysis. In her analysis of children, Anna Freud's approach to understanding children emphasized ego functions and her interest in ego psychology was further demonstrated by her analysis of the ego defense mechanisms. One of her followers was Erik Erikson who developed a life-span model of development. Other psychoanalytic researchers in development included Bowlby and Ainsworth, best known for their study of infant attachment styles. Jung, an early follower of Freud, eventually broke with him. Jung saw the libido as a pool of energy that could be used for positive growth throughout one's lifetime. Jung distinguished between the personal unconscious, which consists of experiences from one's lifetime of which a person is not conscious, and the collective unconscious, which represents the recording of universal human experience. According to Jung, the collective unconscious contains archetypes, or predispositions, to respond emotionally to certain experiences in one's life and to create myths about them. Among the more fully developed archetypes are the persona, the anima, the animus, the shadow, and the self. Jung distinguished between the attitudes of introversion and extroversion. He also believed that synchronicity, or meaningful coincidence, plays a major role in determining one's course of life. Jung assumed that dreams give expression to the parts of the personality that are not given adequate expression in one's waking life. Like Jung, Adler was an early follower of Freud who eventually went his own way. The theory Adler developed was distinctly different from the theories of both Freud and Jung. Adler believed that all humans begin life feeling inferior because of infant helplessness. Adler also believed that most people develop a lifestyle that allows them to gain power or approach perfection and thereby overcome their feelings of inferiority. Some people, however, are overwhelmed by their feelings of inferiority and develop an inferiority complex. Influenced by Vaihinger's philosophy of "as if," Adler believed that the only meaning in life is the meaning created by the individual. Out of its earliest experiences, a child creates a worldview. Horney was trained as a Freudian analyst but eventually developed her own theory. She believed that psychological problems result more from societal conditions and interpersonal relationships than from sexual conflicts. Among interpersonal relationships, that between parent and child is most important. Horney believed that there were two types of parent-child relationships: one that consistently and lovingly satisfies the child's biological and safety needs and one that frustrates those needs. When basic hostility is repressed, it becomes basic anxiety, which is the feeling of being alone and helpless in a hostile world. A child experiencing basic anxiety typically uses one of three major adjustment patterns with which to embrace reality: Moving toward people emphasizes love, moving against people emphasizes hostility, and moving away from people emphasizes withdrawal. Normal people use all three adjustment techniques as they are required, whereas neurotics attempt to cope with all of life's experiences using just one. Horney modified Freud's contention that anatomy is destiny, saying instead that sex differences in personality are culturally determined. She said that women often feel inferior to men because they are often culturally inferior. In her practice, Horney found that it was males who were envious of female biology rather than the reverse. Horney contended that psychoanalysis seemed more appropriate and complimentary to males because it was created by males. Although in her practice of psychoanalysis Horney used a number of Freudian concepts and techniques, she was more optimistic in her prognosis for personality change than was Freud.

Whose brand of behaviorism can be seen as a forerunner to current cognitive psychology?

Tolman

After experience in a maze with food situated at certain points, a rat becomes aware of all the possibilities in the maze; for example, if he turns left at the first choice point, he will find food and if he turns right he will not find food. This awareness illustrates ________.

a cognitive map

The medical model of mental illness considers abnormal behavior to be caused by ________.

a malfunctioning in the body

A man quits his job in order to support his wife's successful career as an artist. He begins to identify with her successes and frustrations rather than his own. Which defense mechanism does this situation illustrate?

altruistic surrender

A psychologist treats a patient by removing the reinforcements for his undesirable behavior and arranging reinforcement for desirable behaviors. Which type of therapy is this psychologist using?

behavior therapy

Watson was instrumental in developing which therapy?

behavior therapy

Freud believed that his success was in part a self-fulfilling prophecy due to ________.

being his mother's favorite

Szasz argued that ________.

belief that mental illness is a real illness harms more people than it helps

During the Renaissance, people with mental illness were generally seen as ________.

bewitched

Who did Freud credit with inventing psychoanalysis?

breuer

Tolman's latent learning studies showed that learning ________.

can occur without altering behavior

Anna Freud and Melanie Klein disagreed in their analyses of ________.

children

Which drug did Freud endorse to improve energy and general health?

cocaine

Which field of psychology was Skinner so deeply opposed to?

cognitive psychology

A dog begins to salivate when it sees its owner come home from work because the owner coming home is associated with feeding the dog its dinner. This is an example of the _________.

conditioned reflex

According to Skinner, the important aspect of operant behavior is that it is ________.

controlled by consequences

What was Freud's master stroke for the field of psychoanalysis?

forming a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory from many preexisting parts

A therapist encouraging her patient to talk about whatever comes to mind is using which therapy technique?

free association

Charcot's theories about how ideas could cause physical illnesses had a huge influence on ________.

freud

How did Freud feel about religion?

he adamantly opposed religion

What did Watson believe about the connection between language and thought?

he believed that thinking was the same as internal speech

McDougall is associated with which type of psychology?

hormic psychology

According to Freud, the ________ contains the instincts (or drives or forces) such as hunger, thirst, and sex.

id

Dorothea Lynde Dix campaigned to ________.

improve the physical conditions in which mentally ill patients were housed

A major focus of Sechenov's work was ________.

inhibition

McDougall believed that most human behavior is ________.

instinctive

Which of the following was a criticism of psychoanalysis?

it was too dogmatic

A man dreams about falling from a great height into deep water, and a psychoanalyst tells him that the dream means that he has an unconscious wish to give in to temptation and have an affair with a coworker. The desire to have an affair is the _______ of the dream.

latent content

The solution to the problem of how to allow science to use theory without entering the realm of metaphysical speculation was solved by ________.

logical positivism

Which of the following famous figures did NOT have an influence on psychoanalysis?

marx

The current debate over whether alcoholism is inherited or caused by a biochemical imbalance or is caused by life circumstances that cause feelings of stress, frustration, conflict, or anxiety illustrates the debate between the ________ model and _________ model of mental illness.

medical; psychological

What are parapraxes?

minor; everyday errors

Tolman studied ________.

molar behavior

The belief that a person gets what he or she deserves in life is known as ________.

natural law

A psychologist who supports logical positivism, operationalism, and research on nonhuman animals, and places a huge emphasis on the learning process, that psychologist can best be classified as a(n) ________.

neobehaviorist

Freud's addiction to ________ led to his eventual death of cancer in 1938.

nicotine

The insistence that all abstract scientific terms be defined in terms of the procedures used to measure the concept is known as _________.

operationism

The idea that behavioral and psychological acts often have more than one cause is called _________.

overdetermination

By the mid-19th century, the dominant belief was that all cause of illness, including mental illness, was ________.

physiological problems

John Watson and the Russian physiologists were _________.

positivists

Unlike other behaviorists, McDougall focused on _______ behavior rather than ________ behavior.

purposeful; reflexive

What was involved in the procedure known as trepanation?

putting a hole in the skull of a living person

According to Hull, ________ is a function of both the amount of drive present and the number of times the response had been previously reinforced in the situation.

reaction potential

Pavlov believed that all behavior was _________.

reflexive

According to Freud, what is the fundamental ego defense mechanism?

repression

According to the positivists, _________ is/are the ultimate subject matter for any scientific field, including psychology.

sensations

Check My Work Freud emphasized the role of ________ in unconscious motivation

sex

The influence of which behaviorist remains particularly strong to this day?

skinner

As a child is socialized into society, he or she begins to learn right from wrong and to inhibit inappropriate desires. This process illustrates the formation of the ________.

superego

Throughout history, mental illness has been defined in terms of ________.

the behavior and thoughts of average people

A patient who does not respond to the power of suggestion when alone with a hypnotist becomes hypnotized when in a room full of people who are also falling under hypnosis. This patient illustrates ________.

the contagion effect

What is the biggest legacy of behaviorism and neobehaviorism today?

the focus on overt behavior

Which law of learning did Guthrie endorse?

the law of contiguity

Check My Work What was the major point over which Freud and Jung disagreed?

the nature of the libido

The theory that mental illness is caused by experiences such as grief, fear, disappointment, frustration, guilt, or conflict is part of which model?

the psychological model of mental illness

For Freud, the basis of neurosis was ________.

the repression of sexual thoughts

One way that Watson and Hull diverged was that, unlike Watson, Hull believed that ________.

there were important intervening psychological events between stimuli and responses

For positivists, speculating about what exists beyond sensations was considered _________.

unacceptable

Freud believed that the Oedipus conflict is ________ among male children.

universal

Members of the Nancy school believed that hypnotism ________.

would work on anyone