Human Growth and Development Chapter 7

reversibility

the process of mentally undoing or reversing an action

centration

the tendency to center attention on a single aspect of the problem

clinical method

An unstandardized interviewing procedure used by Piaget in which a child's response to each successive question (or problem) determines what the investigator will ask next.

Tommy, a two-year-old, sees a goat for the first time and says "Doggie." What does this illustrate? a. organization b. accommodation c. adaptation d. assimilation

Assimilation

dynamic

In Fischer's dynamic skill framework, the idea that human performance changes in response to changes in context.

Reggie is able to arrange blocks along the dimension of size. What is this skill called? a. transformation b. transitivity c. decentration d. seriation

Seriation

What is relativistic thinking?

Relativistic thinking is understanding that knowledge is subjective and depends on each individual's perspective on or assumptions about the information available to them.

Ramon understands that if A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must also be bigger than C. This shows that he has mastered: a. Transitivity b. Conservation c. Seriation tasks d. Reversibility of thought

Transitivity

dialectical thinking

or detecting paradoxes and inconsistencies among ideas and trying to reconcile them

decontextualize

or separate prior knowledge and beliefs from the demands of the task at hand

perceptual salience

or the most obvious features of an object or situation, means that preschoolers can be fooled by appearances

static thought

or thought that is fixed on end states rather than the changes that transform one state into another, as when the water is sitting in the two glasses, not being poured or manipulated.

relativistic thinking

or understanding that knowledge depends on its context and the subjective perspective of the knower

Renee has an imaginary companion. In what stage of cognitive development is she most likely to be? a. sensorimotor b. preoperational c. formal operations d. concrete operations

preoperational

imaginary companions

A play companion invented by a child in the preoperational stage who has developed the capacity for symbolic thought.

What is a scheme in Piaget's theory?

A scheme or schema is an organized pattern of thought that helps a person interpret his or her experiences.

About what percentage of college students show firm, consistent mastery of formal operations? a. 10 percent b. 50 percent c. 70 percent d. 30 percent

50%

guided participation

by actively participating in culturally relevant activities with the aid and support of their parents and other knowledgeable guides

Timothy is eight years old. He is probably in what stage of cognitive development? a. formal operations b. preoperational c. sensorimotor d. concrete operations

Concrete operations

When Mom presents the kids with some cookies, big sister Kim immediately grabs for the unbroken cookie, saying she doesn't want the broken one. Little sister Sal happily takes the cookie broken in half, saying, "Ha-ha! I got more than you!" Sal seems to lack an understanding of: a. Egocentrism b. Conservation c. Class inclusion d. Object permanence

Conservation

How does Vygotsky's theory characterize cognitive development? a. discontinuous b. context-specific c. stage d. universal

Context-specific

coordination of secondary schemes

During Piaget's sensorimotor period, the infant's combining of actions to solve problems, using one scheme as a means to an end, as in batting aside a barrier in order to grasp a toy.

tertiary circular reactions

During Piaget's sensorimotor period, the infant's experimenting with actions to find new ways to solve problems or produce interesting effects.

primary circular reactions

During Piaget's sensorimotor period, the infant's repetition of interacting acts centered on his or her own body (e.g., repeatedly kicking).

secondary circular reactions

During Piaget's sensorimotor period, the infant's repetition of interesting actions on objects (e.g., repeatedly shaking a rattle to make a noise).

In what ways is dynamic skill framework different from Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

Dynamic skill framework emphasizes the environment or context in which a skill is performed, with some contexts conducive to the skill and others not. In contrast, Piaget's theory suggests that once a child has acquired a skill, it is available and can be used in any context.

What approach posits that new knowledge is constructed in the context of existing knowledge and is constrained by genetic as well as environmental factors? a. behavioral genetics b. biopsychosocial development c. biobehavioral framework d. neuro-constructivism

Neuro-constructivism

Schemes

cognitive structures—organized patterns of action or thought that people construct to interpret their experiences

Research on the effect of aging on cognitive skills has been made difficult to interpret because of the cohort effect. What was the design of these studies? a. correlational b. experimental c. cross-sectional d. longitudinal

cross-sectional

skill

person's ability to perform on a particular task in a specific context

postformal thought

ways of thinking that are more complex than those of the formal-operational stage

transitivity

which describes the necessary relations among elements in a series

seriation

which enables them to arrange items mentally along a quantifiable dimension such as length or weight

When, or under what conditions, is an adult most likely to use formal-operational thinking?

Adults are most likely to use formal-operational thought in their area(s) of expertise, or those areas where they have the greatest experience.

How do assimilation and accommodation operate to bring about cognitive change?

Assimilation is using an existing scheme to make sense of new experience, such as seeing a raccoon for the first time and calling it a cat. Accommodation is creating a new scheme, or changing the way you think, in order to understand new material. After having the differences between raccoons and cats pointed out on several occasions, and child may accommodate his or her thinking by creating a new schema or category of raccoons

George can focus on more than one dimension of a problem at once. What is this skill called? a. reversibility b. decentration c. transformational thought d. conservation

Decentration

What is the meaning of the terms dynamic and skill in the dynamic skill framework?

Fischer uses the term dynamic to convey the fluidity or change in performance that occurs with changes in context. Skill refers to a person's ability to perform a task in a particular context. Thus, a skill is not necessarily present across all situations but may be revealed under certain conditions.

How is the dynamic skill framework similar to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?

Fischer's dynamic skill framework uses a concept similar to Vygotsky's zone of proximal development to convey his belief that there is an opportunity for growth from where a person currently performs to where he or she can potentially perform with support. Both also emphasize the importance of context, including support from others, in cognitive performance.

What is the hypothetical-deductive approach to problem solving?

Hypothetical-deductive thinking is reasoning from general ideas or rules to specific examples of these rules. It allows an individual to take a theory and generate specific hypotheses that follow from the theory and then systematically test the hypotheses to determine their validity.

Fischer's dynamic skill framework emphasizes the ________ . a. development of cognitive structures b. impact of context on performance c. universal stages of development d. importance of genetic predispositions

Impact of context on performance

developmental range

In Fischer's dynamic skill framework, the concept that people's abilities vary depending on the context, from optimal levels in highly supportive contexts to lower levels in unsupportive situations.

Mira emphatically tells her older brother that "there is a Santa Claus because I see lots of presents under the tree!" Mira's thinking reflects: a. The "A-not-B error" b. Conservation c. Transformational thought d. The influence of perceptual salience

In influence of perceptual salience

What must infants master or acquire in order to understand object permanence?

In order to understand object permanence, infants must come to realize that objects continue to exist even if they are not directly perceived, that is, an object or person still exists when it is in a different room and can't be seen or heard or otherwise detected.

Why does the name "sensorimotor" stage seem to capture the essence of Piaget's first stage of development?

In the first stage of Piaget's theory, infants learn much about the world by taking in information through their senses and acting motorically on this information. Thus, the name "sensorimotor" captures the main focus of this stage.

According to Piaget, what is the basic life function that helps an organism adapt to its environment? a. intelligence b. schema c. cognition d. epistemology

Intelligence

Which statement most applies to Vygotsky's perspective? a. Cognitive development is universal. b. Learning drives cognitive development. c. Children construct knowledge on their own. d. Peers are especially important.

Learning drives cognitive development

Which aspect of formal operational thought may lead to risk-taking behavior in adolescence? a. personal fable b. hypothetical-deductive reasoning c. decontextualization d. imaginary audience

Personal fable

What are three problems with, or challenges to, Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Piaget probably underestimated what infants and young children know and are able to do. His idea of several qualitative sifts in thinking has been challenged by research suggesting more gradual changes over time and evidence of inconsistent levels of thinking across tasks at a given point in time. Although Piaget did a great job of describing children's cognitive abilities, he has been criticized for not fully explaining the changes

Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding Piaget's first stage of cognitive development? a. Piaget may have overestimated infants' abilities by allowing them multiple attempts to solve problems. b. Infants progress through the substages in an individualized order that does not permit researchers to make any generalizations about developments of this stage. c. Piaget underestimated infants' abilities because he placed many task demands on them in assessing their knowledge. d. Piaget was right on the mark with his description of the ages when infants typically acquire symbolic logic.

Piaget underestimated infants' abilities because he placed many task demands on them in assessing their knowledge

What are two of Piaget's major contributions to our understanding of cognitive development?

Piaget was instrumental in pointing out that we are active in our development, even as infants. He also argued that our thinking does not just grow incrementally over time, but shifts qualitatively at several points over the life span

Name three ways that preoperational thought is limited relative to concrete-operational thought.

Preoperational thought is limited relative to concrete operational thought by its reliance on perceptual salience—what is most obvious about a problem—rather than on logical reasoning about a problem. It is also characterized by difficulties mentally reversing actions, grasping transformations from one state to another, and decentrating or decentering so as to focus on multiple aspects of a task.

Six-month-old Hannah puts new toys in her mouth and sucks them in order to learn about them. What would Piaget call this organized pattern of behavior? a. intelligence b. cognition c. scheme d. epistemology

Scheme

The defining difference between concrete-operational thought and formal-operational thought is: a. The use of logical reasoning b. The ability to reason about abstract and hypothetical problems c. The ability to imagine performing before an audience d. The ability to use relativistic thinking

The ability to reason about abstract and hypothetical problems

An important distinction between concrete-operational thought and preoperational thought is: a. The acquisition of logical reasoning skills in the concrete stage b. The acquisition of symbolic logic in the concrete stage c. The acquisition of hypothetical thinking in the concrete stage d. The use of deductive reasoning in the concrete stage

The acquisition of logical reasoning skills in the concrete stage

What is the defining feature of concrete-operational thought?

The defining feature of concrete-operational thought is the ability to reason logically about concrete problems. This allows children to decentrate, mentally reverse actions, and think about transformations, which leads to success on conservation problems.

reaction time

The interval between the presentation of a stimulus and a response to it.

What change in thinking marks the shift from concrete to formal-operational thinking?

The shift from concrete to formal-operational thinking comes when adolescents can apply their logical reasoning abilities to abstract or hypothetical issues and not just to concrete problems.

A-not-B error

The tendency of 8- to 12- month-old infants to search for a hidden object in the place they last found it (A) rather than in its new hiding place (B).

egocentrism

The tendency to view the world from the person's own perspective and fail to recognize that others may have different points of view.

What is the zone of proximal development? Provide an example of this concept.

The zone of proximal development is the difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance or support of someone who is more skilled. For example, a boy may not be able to solve a new math problem on hisown until he receives a few tips from his teacher.

object permanence (also called object concept).

This is the fundamental understanding that objects continue to exist—they are permanent—when they are no longer visible or otherwise detectable to the senses.

What theme is stressed in Vygotsky's theory that is largely missing in Piaget's theory?

Vygotsky gave much more attention to social and cultural factors than Piaget. Vygotsky believed that children learn a great deal through social interaction with others and cultural transmission of knowledge

The gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner is called the ________ . a. guided participation zone b. dependency need c. immature function range d. zone of proximal development

Zone of proximal development

personal fable

a tendency to think that you and your thoughts and feelings are unique

organization

children systematically combine existing schemes into new and more complex ones

During which of the substages of sensorimotor development does an infant begin to display intention? a. tertiary circular reaction b. reflex activity c. primary circular reaction d. coordination of secondary schemes

coordination of secondary schemes

Jesse is able to separate his prior knowledge and beliefs from the demands of the problem he is currently working on. What is this skill called? a. transformation b. decontextualization c. centration d. hypothetical deductive reasoning

decontextualization

adolescent egocentrism

difficulty differentiating one's own thoughts and feelings from those of other people

Bill is playing with his infant daughter, Skylar, showing her a stuffed bear and then dropping it behind the sofa. Skylar seems interested in the toy when it is in front of her, but as soon as Bill drops it behind the sofa, she stops "playing" the game and looks at other things. This illustrates that Sklyar: a. Has not yet developed object permanence b. Is not really interested in the toy c. Is mentally trying to figure out where the toy has gone after it is dropped d. Is still operating with secondary circular reactions but has not yet learned to combine them to solve the problem

has not yet developed object permanence

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

imaginary audience

involves confusing your own thoughts with those of a hypothesized audience for your behavior.

Assimilation

is the process by which we interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemes or cognitive structures.

Adaptation

is the process of adjusting to the demands of environment

Accommodation

is the process of modifying existing schemes to better fit new experiences.

neuroconstructivism theory

new knowledge is constructed through changes in the neural structures of the brain in response to experiences

Which term characterizes postformal thought? a. concrete b. absolute c. relativistic d. egocentric

relativistic

Baby Joel seems to be fascinated with the dog's tail: He repeatedly kicks at it with his foot, which makes the dog wag his big tail. Joel finds this highly amusing. This suggests that Joel is in which substage of the sensorimotor period? a. Primary circular reactions b. Secondary circular reactions c. Coordination of secondary schemes d. Tertiary circular reactions

secondary circular reactions

Kira is furious that her father won't let her go out with a friend on a school night. She screams, "You have no idea what I'm feeling! You just want me to be miserable." Kira's response indicates that she: a. Has not yet acquired conservation of thought b. Is spoiled or has unreasonable parents c. Shows centration of thought d. Shows adolescent egocentrism

show adolescent egocentrism

private speech

speech to oneself that guides one's thought and behavior

Jeremy used to just bang his shoe on the coffee table, but now he has started holding it up to his ear and "talking" to it as if he is using a telephone. Jeremy has acquired: a. Decentration b. Transformational thought c. Symbolic capacity d. Object permanence

symbolic capacity

Joey is playing, using a block as if it were a toy car. What does this type of play demonstrate? a. cause and effect b. object permanence c. intentionality d. symbolic capacity

symbolic capacity

scaffolding for their children's development

that is, the more-skilled person gives structured help to a less-skilled learner but gradually reduces the help as the less-skilled learner becomes more competent.

transformational thought

the ability to conceptualize transformations, or processes of change from one state to another, as when water is poured from one glass to another

decentration

the ability to focus on two or more dimensions of a problem at once.

symbolic capacity

the ability to use images, words, or gestures to represent or stand for objects and experiences

zone of proximal development

the gap between what a learner can accomplish independently and what she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more-skilled partner

conservation

the idea that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way

class inclusion

the logical understanding that the parts are included within the whole.

equilibration

the process of achieving mental stability where our internal thoughts are consistent with the evidence we are receiving from the external world

Research into the idea of the imaginary audience has demonstrated that ________ . a. it rarely has a significant impact on behavior or development b. adolescent egocentrism drives the influence of the imaginary audience c. there is actually a real audience that has important consequences d. only very insecure adolescents indulge in the imaginary audience

there is actually a real audience that has important consequences