Human Sexuality Exam 2 Study Guide

sex reassignment process

*4 Step process:* *1. Assessment, education, and psychotherapy:* professionals ask about the client's life histories, discuss their goals, and educate them about the process, limitations, and risks of transitioning. This helps clients deal with conflicts, depression, and other issues that may have made their lives difficult. *2. Hormonal treatment:* - *From male to female:* estrogen is prescribed and an androgen-blocking drug is usually added; this allows the dose of estrogen to be lower than would be necessary otherwise. - *From female to male:* testosterone or a related androgen is prescribed, and progesterone may be added to stop menstruation. - Hormones cause a variety of anatomical and psychological changes, but *stature and skeletal structure are not affected.* *3. Experience in the desired sex role:* it is recommended that transitioning clients spend at least a year living in the community in the sex role corresponding to their desired sex, while being monitored and counseled by an experienced therapist. The client may also choose to have training in voice, language, gait, mannerisms, and so on. *4. Sex reassignment surgery:* aka gender confirmation surgery. - *For males:* removal of penis and testicles, construction of a vagina, labia, and clitoris, and augmentation of the breasts. Vagina constructed from inverted skin of the penis or a graft of intestinal tissue. Other procedures include surgery on vocal cords, liposuction to the waist, reduction of the Adam's apple, and various procedures to feminize the appearance of the face - *For females:* removal of breasts, ovaries, oviducts, uterus, and vagina. A scrotum and penis may be constructed. Construction of a penis that looks natural, contains a functioning urethra, and is capable of erection, but this is a multistage process and results are far from ideal. --> Many trans men forgo this and do a *metoidioplasty* to enlarge the clit by hormonal treatment and surgery. The resulting small penis may be capable of erection and orgasm. The procedure may also be psychologically and socially beneficial in confirming a male identity.

AVEN

*Asexuality Visibility and Education Network:* it works to promote understanding and dispel myths about asexuality

CNS & sexual response

*Brain:* - Brain imaging reveals that the thalamus is activated during orgasm - Increased dopamine activity during sexual experiences - Similar activity occurs during a heroin rush - Some people experience multiple orgasms *Spine:* --> *Spinal cord injuries and sexual expression:* - One option adopted is to make increased use of parts of the body whose movements and sensations are unimpaired - Many people report that the erotic sensitivity of their unaffected body regions increases over time, so much so that the person may experience orgasms, or highly pleasant sensations comparable to orgasm: *Phantom orgasm:* sensations experienced as if they were coming from the genitalia even though the lower region of the body is impaired - *Injury in the lowest portion of spinal cord:* very unlikely to be able to have erection under any circumstances - *Injury high in the spinal cord:* probably will be able to have erection in response to sensory stimulation of the genitalia bc the entire reflex loop from the genitalia to the spinal cord and back is intact- the loss of inhibitory influences from brain may cause reflex erections to be stronger and more frequent - *For women:* they may lose movement, sensation, and vaginal lubrication

XXY syndrome

*Characteristics:* male, may have genital anomalies, atypical cerebral cortex development. Intelligence tends to be low, and autism is common

human sexual response cycle

*Master's & Johnson's major contribution* to the understanding of human sexuality. Their model of sexual desire proposes 4 phases of sexual response: 1. *Excitement:* occurs as a result of physical or mental erotic stimuli, such as kissing, making out, or viewing erotic images, that leads to sexual arousal. During this stage, the body prepares for sexual intercourse 2. *Plateau:* the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm; characterised by an increased circulation and heart rate in both sexes, increased sexual pleasure with increased stimulation and further increased muscle tension; respiration continues at an elevated level; both men and women may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this stage. Prolonged time in this phase without progression to the orgasmic phase may result in sexual frustration. 3. *Orgasm:* the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response cycle and is experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied by quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs. Women also experience uterine and vaginal contractions. 4. *Resolution:* occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. --> The *refractory period*, which is part of this phase, is the time frame in which usually a man is unable to orgasm again, though women can also experience a refractory period.

items & recreational drugs used as aphrodisiacs

*Substances have been shown to have effect on functioning:* o Ginseng o Yohimbe o Phenylethylamine (found in chocolate) - *Recreational drugs:* --> Amyl nitrite (poppers)- brief rush in which sexual feelings are enhanced --> Marijuana- induces relaxation to make sex more enjoyable --> Methamphetamine- intensifies pleasure of sexual experience --> Cocaine- increases dopamine at synapses, enhances sexual sensations in moderate doses, high doses can cause erectile dysfunction --> MDMA (ecstasy)- serotonin-related drug which increases sexual arousal --> Heroine and other opiates- when injected intravenously produces a rush similar to an orgasm --> Alcohol- facilitates sexual expression by reducing inhibitions *Recreational drugs have safety issues when used in sexual context*

Kaplan model of sexual response

*Triphasic model:* conceptualizes 3 relatively independent stages: 1. Desire: new phase that has a physiological & cognitive approach 2. Excitement: vasocongestion of the genitals 3. Orgasm: reflex muscular contractions

cross-cultural differences in sexual orientation

- *Homosexuality* may be a fuzzy category; the term was first used in 1869. - Same-sex relationships are found in all cultures: --> *Pederasty (sexual relations between a man & a boy)* in Ancient Greece. --> Sappho of Lesbos in 7th century BCE --> Sparta and gays in the military --> "Sexual inversion" among historic Azande - *Heterosexuality* is always the predominant orientation. - Ritual homosexuality of Sambia and other cultures. - The incidence of "homosexuality" is believed to be fairly constant although cultures differ in amount of overt expression - A few (15-20) societies permit same sex marriages but for different reasons - Nandi of East Africa having "female husbands" - Marriage equality movement in the US

social factors underlying sex differences: sex roles, rewards & punishments

- *Sex roles:* sets of social behaviors that are perceived as appropriate for men and women - *Girls and boys are socialized & sexualized differently:* parents influence children by the way they dress them, the way they decorate their rooms, and the toys they provide - Through *rewards & punishments:* infants whose parents reacted to their behavior in a traditional manner by rewarding their sex-typical behavior and disapproving of sex-atypical behavior exhibited more sex-typical behavior.

attractiveness in other senses

- *Sounds:* women perceive men with deep voices attractive, while men rate women with high pitched voices as attractive - *Taste and touch* are important - *Pheromones:* (hormones secreted to the exterior of the body) may influence sexual arousal through unconscious olfactory mechanisms.

sex differences in arousal

- Both men & women are aroused by looking at a partner's face. - Men also find looking at a partner's genital area arousing. - Men are more likely to report being highly aroused watching their partner undress. - Even in non-sexual situations, men tend to look at people's crotches; women don't - The *anterior cingulate area* of the left cortex is stimulated during arousal --> This area also shows activity when people in love view a photo of their loved one --> Exposure to euphoria-producing drugs such as cocaine also case this region to be active.

cross-cultural differences in sexual impulse

- Cultures vary in expected or acceptable levels of sexual interest or overt sexual activity. - Age, gender, social status, or occupation can influence different levels of sexual activity in different cultures.

cross-cultural differences in ethnophysiology

- Example: *Sambia ideas about the important & power of semen:* they believe that biologic growth in humans results from ingesting semen; strength can only be obtained through semen. Menstrual blood = *the antithesis of semen; it's viewed as dangerous, polluting, & debilitating to men*

criticisms of Master's & Johnson's model

- Focused almost entirely on the physiological aspects of the response, ignoring what the person is thinking and feeling emotionally - M&Js model excluded anyone whose pattern of sexual response did not include an orgasm, so the model cannot be generalized to the entire population - *Leonore Tiefer:* psychological/sex therapist and one of the best-known critics. He compared the exclusion of anorgasmic subjects from the study to doing a study of singers but limiting it to opera singers. --> Argued that it resulted in a "false universality" of the "cycle" - One of the most variable aspects of sexuality is what turns us on, which is not addressed in the M&J research

facial attractiveness

- In terms of *ethnic differences:* people usually find the faces of individuals from their own ethnic group more attractive. - Infants also appear to be able to detect differences in attractiveness.

differences in sexuality

- Men have stronger sex drive than women - Woman express more restrictive attitudes to casual sex than men - Men and women seek different things in their sex lives § women typically want older partners while men want younger ones - Women are more concerned with their partners' status or wealth; men are more concerned with physical attractiveness - Men are more interested in visual sexual stimuli including porn - Men experience sexual jealousy, while women experience emotional jealousy - Men are more likely to participate in unusual sexual behavior, like fetishes - Men are more likely to perform rape, child molestation, etc. - Men are more likely to pay for sex, women are more likely to get payed for sex - Men masturbate more than women - Men are aroused easier and reach orgasm easier than women - Women's reproductive capacity ends suddenly at menopause, while mens gradually declines over adult life - Men either have a lot of children or none while women are more likely to have a moderate number - Women have more direct sexual consequences than men aka pregnancy, STIs that could impair future pregnancy, etc.

PNS & sexual response

- Nerves, Ganglia, etc. connect with the CNS with sense organs, glands, muscles, internal organs - Two parts of the *autonomic nervous system:* 1. Sympathetic (fight or flight) dominates in emergency situations - *Orgasm/ejaculation is under control of the sympathetic nervous system* - Orgasm/ejaculation can be brought under control through practice 2. Parasympathetic: predominates when body is more inactive; "maintenance" such as tissue repair, digestion, etc. - *Arousal/erection is a process of the parasympathetic nerves:* muscles relax, arteries expand to allow blood flow - Erection can occur as a result of a reflex as well - *Sympathetic nervous system tends to inhibit erections.* --> During REM sleep, they may occur spontaneously; Men have about 5 erections each night.

cross-cultural differences in the definition of & categorization of sex & gender

- Some cultures define more than 2 genders --> For example, *Indian Hijras = an institutionalized 3rd gender.* - *Kulick's study* of transgender Brazilian prostitutes = an example of *gender identity being determined by sexual behavior.*

cross-cultural differences in patterns of marriage, family, & kinship

- There are variations in attitudes about premarital and extramarital sex. - There's variation in the beliefs regarding the significance of females' virginity. - Differences in attitudes regarding romantic love: for example, *Dani interpersonal attraction is marked by very low affect* while *Inis Beag men find inercourse to be debilitating; women are taught to believe sex with their husbands is their duty* --> *Mehinaku* men and women are taught that *romantic love is absurd;* only new couples are permitted to engage in more than low-key affection. - Divorce may be harder in some societies.

social factors underlying sex differences: language & advice

- Through *language:* children in Hebrew speaking households are aware of their sex about a year before children in Finnish speaking households because the Hebrew grammar emphasizes sex, even the word for you changes weather you are male or female, the Finnish language doesn't differentiate at all, and English falls in the middle. Therefore, English children learn their sex at an intermediate stage. - Through *advice:* when a boy gets hurt or falls down, an older brother or father may say "big boys don't cry," sending a clear message that they must control their tears. Girls learn they are allowed to cry and are even rewarded with extra attention. In many households, teenage girls are more firmly told they are not allowed to swear than teenage boys.

social factors underlying sex differences: observation & imitation

- Through *observation:* children who have older siblings of the same sex are more sex typical in their behaviors at a young age and children who have older siblings of the opposite sex are less sex typical than singletons. However, the data was modest, and a child's own sex was a much stronger indicator for their behaviors. - Through *imitation:* a child may first imitate both parents, but they are rewarded for imitating the same sex parent more, causing them to become better acquainted with and more likely to imitate the behaviors typical of their own sex. They also tend to play with children of the same sex which offers another way in which they can learn and imitate sex-typical behavior. Also, the media offers much for children to imitate.

Master's & Johnson's model of sexual desire

- Two things occur during HSRC (human sexual response cycle) 1. *Vasocongestion:* tissue swelling caused by increased filling of local blood vessels in the genitals 2. *Myotonia:* occurs when the muscles contract, not only in the genitals but throughout the whole body *Orgasmic platform:* the outer portion of the vagina and surrounding tissues, which thickens and tenses during sexual arousal - Some women ejaculate during orgasm - In both men and women, orgasm is released by a release of oxytocin - Debate exists about whether or not there is more than one kind of orgasm for women *Changes to the HSRC:* - Some people call for a model that collapses the excitement and plateau stages - Research associated with ED drugs such as Viagra and Cialis, and similar research with females suggests there isn't a clear dividing line between "excitement" and "plateau" --> But still remember it "EPOR"

ejaculation

2 phases: 1. *Emissions:* semen is loaded into the urethra- first prostate fluid, then sperm, and then fluid from the seminal vesicles 2. *Expulsion:* of semen caused by contractions of the pelvic floor - Recent research with PET scans suggest that male orgasms may be experienced in the thalamus, the same area shown to be active during a heroin rush.

Triple X Syndrome

A genetic abnormality in which a female has an extra X sex chromosome; characterized by decreased fertility, some genital abnormality, and slight mental retardation. - *Characteristics:* female, atypical facial features, may have learning disabilities, but not all of these girls are affected.

Turner's syndrome

A genetic defect in which affected women have only one X chromosome, causing developmental abnormalities and infertility. - *Characteristics:* female, short, lack of normal ovaries, require assistance to enter puberty, infertile. They are not intellectually disabled and have excelled in a variety of careers.

John Money

A psychologist who argued that gender was more based on nature (how one's raised) than on nature. - Famous Reimer twins: Money performed sexual reassignment on one Reimer twin who lost his penis during a botched circumcision. The doctors advised that in order for the Reimer twin to live a normal life, he should undergo sexual reassignment surgery and then be raised as a girl. They named her Joan. - Despite Money's argument that Joan could be raised as a girl with no negative consequences, Joan did not take on the girly girl appearance or persona that had been hoped, and at the age of 14, after years of feeling like she was living the wrong sex, her parents revealed the truth about her childhood and she transitioned to a boy, named David. - Money continued to report that the experiment was a success, and that Joan had been raised as a girl and was a very happy, content girl, even though Joan was now David, a male who was married to a woman and living life as a full male. David was very distressed by this and after years of confusion and influence about his gender, he took his own life.

Inis Beag

A remote island off the coast of Ireland. Inis Beag lived in a very strict community. They hated nudity, they rarely bathed, they rarely breastfed, when they had sex they'd keep as much clothes on as possible. Sex was seen as a necessary evil. A female orgasm was unheard of. - Messenger described them as "sexually repressed" because there is such a strong taboo around everything that has to do with sex in their culture, so much so that people are afraid to talk about it or explore it. - *These people are said to be one of the most sexually naïve societies in the modern day.* - His research was carried out between 1958 and 1966. I think that this community must be very different today because of the modern technology and tourism that would have soon made its way to the island.

ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

Trobriand family life vs. American family life

Family life for the Trobriand islanders is extremely different from that in the US. - In the Trobriand Island communities, parents do not seem to demand respect or obedience from their children. - They have open conversations where parents and children both say what they actually feel. - Also, from a young age, the children of the same age in the villages form "republics" or communities amongst themselves. They can do what they please and do not need to ask the elders for permission to leave on day trips or go exploring. - The children are not sheltered when their parents are having sex and they engage in conversations about sexuality openly with adults. They are even encouraged to explore their open sexuality with each other.

Edward Westermark

Finnish sociologist; studied *exogamy (social norm of marrying outside of one's social group)* and the *incest taboo* - He has been described as "first Darwinian sociologist" or "the first sociobiologist". - Performed a cross-cultural study of marriage & family

language of the sexes

Important takeaways: - Attractiveness differs greatly all over the world - Two things that are considered universally attractive = *youth & beauty* - Some societies view heavier woman as more beautiful because it's a sign of wealth and social status. - A community in *Burma* believes that long necks are beautiful and they put heavy rings around their necks to stretch them. These rings are worn their entire lives. - In *China:* women had their feet bound because small feet were major sex symbols and objects of beauty. This is no longer practiced today. *In many cultures, fattening is considered beautiful and is required for most women before they are able to be married.* - The *Annang people of Nigeria* have fattening rooms where women go before they can get married and they are secured to the room using heavy metal rings around their ankles. - The people of *Mauritania* force-feed their children from a very young age and are beginning to reinstate this practice. - *The practices of fattening young girls has become a serious human rights issue and is viewed to be unhealthy and coercive.*

sexual orientation in the Kulick reading

In Brazil, gender goes beyond the biological differences. A person who is penetrated is considered to be feminine or female even though they may biologically be a man. Sexual orientation is determined on whether the person is the receiver or penetrator. - Brazilian travestis do not have sex changes and think this is an odd American custom. - Travestis have seemingly normal relationships with boyfriends. They are not considered gay because they are the receivers of the penis and view themselves as females. - *Travestis:* transgender people who believe that they are not completely man or woman. Both cultures have identified a 3rd gender for these people.

biological factors underlying sex differences

In terms of the *interest in casual sex:* - The cost of fathering a child to a man is minimal. Men can have a very large number of offspring by impregnating lots of women and walking away. - Women have to invest a lot of time and energy into pregnancy and child care, which limits the number of offspring they can have or want to have. - It is argued that genes have evolved which promote a man's interest in casual sex, and promote a woman's choosiness. In terms of *jealousy:* - Women can be certain about the identity of their children, but a man can't be certain that a child is his. This difference leads to *male sexual jealousy* which served to reduce the likelihood of one's partner having a child that was not theirs; and *women's emotional jealousy* which served to reduce the likelihood that their male partners would abandon them and leave them without the resources to raise their child. *Cognitive differences:* - Since they have greater physical strength, men usually have roles like hunting, warfare, and exploration. Because of biologically mandated roles in pregnancy and breastfeeding, women have a leading role in activities near the home. These differences, over many generations and division of labor, have favored the genes for cognitive skills in the two sexes, like greater throwing and navigating skills in men, and greater hand and finger dexterity in women.

why is being married so important for Mehinaku?

In this culture, marriage is viewed as an important economic partnership (i.e. the husband goes out to catch fish and the wife meets him at home to cook it). A hammock is a symbol of marriage between a man and a woman. Women are great hammock makers and make them as gifts to their husbands. Bachelors have tattered old hammocks and are often thin because they don't know how to cook and don't have anyone to cook for them or make them a new hammock.

Intersexion movie notes

Money's ideas about intersex children changed their entire life starting from when they were born. Since he believed that your gender was dependent on nurture, not nature, countless intersex children were subjected to multiple surgeries throughout their childhood and throughout puberty. - Despite these surgeries, many intersex children still faced discrimination and persecution since they still felt and appeared different. - When many of them finally did learn the truth about their identities, they felt resentful towards the doctors who had altered them, without giving them a say in what parts they could keep or remove/what their body got ot look like. - Many of them grew up feeling different their entire lives without understanding why. - It wasn't until they finally learned the truth that they were able to embrace who they were and change their gender to the one that felt fitting or reject the idea of gender at all and live as intersex. - Now, many of these individuals are working to help intersex babies by advocating against performing surgery on them. They encourage parents to instead love their children for who they are, raise them, and let them decide when they get to puberty if they would like to identify as male, or female, or neither. Then, they can make their own choices regarding surgeries.

Bronislaw Malinowski

Polish scholar and main anthropologist who began to actually do work in the fields. - Performed participant-observation field work in the Trobriand Islands off the coast of New Guinea. --> He got stuck on these islands during WWI and lived there and studied the community for more than a year, which is something that had never been done before --> One of his innovations was to learn the language of the people so that he didn't get a bias from the interpreters - Wrote the *sexual life of savages*

Bo laurent (intersexion)

She published a letter in a journal called "The Sciences" that announced that she had started an intersex support group called the Intersex Society of North America. - She began receiving hundreds of letters from people who were also intersex. Then, she was getting hundreds of phone calls and the intersex community grew and grew. - She decided to host the first intersex meet up in 1996 in California. That's when they all shared their stories of the injustices and persecutions they've faced, realizing how horribly they were treated as a community.

partible paternity in South America

Some cultures believe that their children can have more than one father due to the belief that a child is made through the accumulation of a father's semen. For example, if a woman has sex with multiple men and then gets pregnant, all of these men are considered to be the fathers of the child. These children are generally healthier because they have more than one father to provide for them and bring home meat to feed them.

relationship between testosterone & sexual arousability

Testosterone does not by itself cause sexual arousal, but it does have long term influence on our *sexual arousability:* our capacity to experience sexual arousal in response to a variety of stimuli. - Adult men who have low testosterone levels typically experience reduced sexual desire and activity. This can be treated with hormone therapy. --> Unless levels are low, testosterone therapy does not improve libido in either men or women --> Testosterone is one of the many substances used as an aphrodisiac but it's doubtful extra testosterone enhances sexual desire or performance in healthy men - Women have testosterone levels 10-20 times lower than men

Dani & the universality of libido

The Dani people suggest that there may not be a universality of libido. These people live very content lives and this postpartum sexual abstinence is invariably observed. It isn't supported by a powerful explanation or enforced by strong sanctions and the people have no alternative sexual outlets. No one shows high levels of stress or unhappiness. Because everyone observes this long period of sexual abstinence and doesn't complain about it, Heider concluded that the Dani people are not compelled to do this through some powerful explanation or sanction. They aren't bothered by this practice and they happily go about their lives with a low-energy attitude toward everything, including their sexuality. Overall, the Dani people appear to be of a low-energy system

Sambia homosexuality

The Sambia believe in "ritual homosexuality" where boys are inseminated to make them into men. - Sambia males undergo three stages of initiation of homoerotic insemination. *During the first two stages*, the boy acts as the fellator and ingests the semen through oral sexual contacts. *Third stage:* pubescent bachelors and older youths then act as the fellateds, inseminating pre-pubescent boys. There are no exceptions and the roles cannot be reversed.

how important is romantic love to the Mehinaku?

The idea of romantic love is absurd to these people. There isn't much degree of affection between man and wife. In the early stages of marriage, this is seen for some time but then this degree of affection begins to look foolish. Despite the absence of romance, some husbands and wives take an enduring pleasure in one another's company. Families will often go on long fishing trips to get away from social demands. Every day after work, a husband and wife go bathe together.

Mehinaku view of premarital sex, extramarital affairs, & illegitimate children

The villagers tolerate premarital sex, but pregnancy out of wedlock is wrong. The mother of an illegitimate child is the object of scorn and the fatherless child is subject to abuse. As a result, most woman marry as soon as they come out of adolescent seclusion after they start their first period. Extramarital affairs seldom provoke serious confrontation. - *Adultery and extramarital affairs are said to actually serve an adaptive purpose and create bonds and relationships outside the community.*

cross-cultural differences in standards of beauty

There is a lot of variation between and within cultures regarding what characteristics are considered attractive. - Unblemished skin is considered a symbol of youth and health - *In Nigeria:* fatness is considered very attractive for women; the *Annang fattening rooms* --> Also have force feeding in *Mauretania*

"alligorating" in Mehinaku culture

To do this means to summon women to assignations from small areas behind the houses known as "alligator places". The alligator is a sexual metaphor as a lipidimous animal in myth. Like the alligator, the men lay hiding in wait of their "prey", the young girl, until she comes to the "alligator place" from his home and pounces on it to have sex. - Men are more sexual than women and often exchange sex for the deliverance of food and resources. Girls are made to feel inferior to boys starting at a very young age. There is no understanding of the woman's orgasms and many women do not enjoy sex

when does sexuality begin for the Trobrianders?

Young girls begin to "amuse themselves" as early as 4 or 5 years old. The real sexual life of these children begins age 6-8 for girls and 10-12 for boys.

Klinefelter's syndrome

a chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXY or XXXY condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility - *Characteristics:* male, tall, low testosterone, small genitals, low sperm count, usually infertile. May identify as gay or bisexual.

ethnographic present

a description of a culture as it was prior to contact. - Ethnographers write about their studies in the present time and people later use that data and apply it to the modern day. - This is a problem because cultures are ever changing and just because things used to be a certain way, does not mean they are still the same. --> Examples: 1. *Bachelor huts of the Trobriand people* - The Trobriand islanders used to have "bachelor" huts called Bukamatulas where the single young men would live. These huts functioned as a place where adolescent males could have sex with their female companions before marriage. Although this concept played a large role in the 1900s, when they were written about, they are no longer prevalent to society and irrelevant to the current sexuality of the Trobrianders and their culture. 2. *Bizarre sex lives of the Mangaia people:* - The islanders that Donald Marshall studied fabricated information about their sex lives and made it seem like they lead bizarre sex lives and had strange customs. Although this was written decades ago and not true, people still believe this to be true in modern day Mangaia.

classical conditioning

a form of behavioral learning in which a novel stimulus is tied to a preexisting reflex

polygyny

a form of marriage in which men have more than one wife

polyandry

a form of marriage in which women have more than one husband

levirate

a marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow

sororate

a marriage in which the husband engages in marriage or sexual relations with the sister of his wife, usually after the death of his wife or after she has proven herself infertile.

gender identity

a person's sense of being male, female, or not exclusively one or the other.

gender identity

a person's subjective sense of being male, female, or not exclusively one or the other

5 alpha reductase deficiency

a rare condition in which a child is born with ambiguous genitalia but develops male secondary sex characteristics at puberty. - Genetic disorder in which testosterone cannot be converted to DHT - Infants appear to be female but at puberty they develop male secondary sex characteristics.

patrilineal descent

a system of tracing descent through the father's side of the family

matrilineal descent

a system of tracing descent through the mother's side of the family

two-spirit

an additional gender identity in many Native North American cultures; often thought to have special spiritual powers - 3rd gender of the Native American Indians. - The distinction for this role was based off the gender role of the person instead of their biological distinction. - Means two spirits in one body.

hijras

an alternative gender role in India conceptualized as neither man nor woman - Indians institutionalized 3rd gender. - This is a person who is not see as a man or a woman. - Men used to join these communities and undergo ritual emasculation so that they no longer appeared clearly male. - Very controversial and marginalized community

DHT

an androgen derived from testosterone that plays an important role in the development of male external genitalia.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex; includes transsexuals, as well as those who do not seek sex-reassignment surgery but prefer only some treatments, such as hormones

transitioning

changing one's physical sex and social gender

averageness

composite faces generated by averaging a considerable number of faces together are rated more attractive than any individual. Attractiveness is derived in large part from the fact they emphasize features common to many faces and are therefore very familiar. Computer averaged faces also tend to be very symmetrical.

androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

condition during prenatal development in which androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males, impeding the formation of male external genitalia; in these cases, the child may be born with female external genitalia. *Testicular feminization* - XY chromosomal disorder - Gonads are usually removed

hypospadias

condition in which the urinary meatus is located somewhere else on the penis - May be caused by testosterone deficiency, problems with conversion to DHT, and/or exposure to progestins in utero.

asexual

describes a person who never experiences sexual attraction. - They may still experience romantic attraction in the sense of desiring psychological intimacy with a specific partner, but they do not desire to express that intimacy in physical sex. - This does not lie in the genital stimulation and orgasms sex can provide. For example, asexual men masturbate at the same frequency as other men --> this lies in the interpersonal aspects of sexual desire.

demisexual

experiencing sexual attraction only in the context of a strong emotional bond

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

genetic disease in which the adrenal gland is overdeveloped, resulting in a deficiency of certain hormones and an overproduction of others. - Aka *adrenogenital syndrome:* normally developed ovaries begin to function abnormally later in the course of prenatal development - It's caused by an inherited deficiency of enzymes necessary for steroid synthesis and results in an over secretion of adrenal androgens - It can be treated prenatally and some states are recommending screening, especially in areas where it is common.

trans

having a gender identity that is not fully congruent with one's birth sex

ethnophysiology

how particular cultures view and understand the body

sexual fantasy

imagined sexual responses experienced during waking hours - Around half of all women experience erotic fantasies about being physically coerced into sex, which they would do anything to avoid in real life - Some women also like to watch pornography that features sexual violence against women - *Several explanations for rape fantasies:* --> By fantasizing that they have no choice, women avoid feeling guilty (less so this) --> Rape fantasies are fantasies of sexual power: the women is so irresistible that men cast aside their inhibitions against sexual violence --> Rape fantasies are a part of a general openness to a variety of sexual experiences (more so this) - *Women who experience rape fantasies are generally high in self-esteem, have more frequent sexual fantasies and a wider variety of fantasies, and they generally have more positive attitudes towards sex than women who don't have rape fantasies.*

ejaculatory inevitability

in males, the sensation produced during the emission phase of ejaculation that expulsion of semen is imminent, reflexive, and cannot be stopped; often referred to as the "point of no return"

myotonia

muscle tone; occurs when muscles contract; not only in the genitals, but in the whole body

intersexuality

not exhibiting exclusively male or female sex characteristics; having a biologically ambiguous or intermediate sex

hypogonadal

producing insufficient levels of sex hormones

cross-cultural differences in sexual style

sexual style varies between and within cultures; sexual behaviors such as courting behaviors, sexual positions, and preferred activities vary. - Example: oral sex in the U.S. today. - Dating "rules" vary greatly - Example: *Trobriand courtship:* During adolescence, *Bukumatula relationships:* purely sexual, premarital relationships occur. Marks a period in which love becomes passionate yet remains free. --> *Courtship in Inis Beag community:* is almost non-existent; most marriages are arranged with little concern for the desires of the young people involved.

sexuality related rules in Trobriand Islands

social norms: - The elders do not engage in sexual contact with the younger children and there is no "initiation" or deflowering ceremony. As children grow older, they are not to be seen with the opposite sex during the day or in public. - It would be looked down upon to break these social norms. *Bukamatula rules:* - Boys live in these houses with their temporary mistresses. During adolescence; before marriage. - There is never an exchange of partners within the house. - Also, when a couple is to have sex in the house while the other people are around, they must wait until everyone is asleep and they can have sex but it has to be silent so they do not wake the other occupants of the house. - When a boy and girl break up, she must leave the house and go live somewhere else immediately.

sex reassignment surgery

surgery to change a person's genitals or other anatomical structures to those of the sex with which the person identifies

cisgender

term used when gender identity and/or expression aligns with the sex assigned at birth. - Having a conventional gender- masculine if anatomically male, feminine if anatomically female. "cis" is the opposite.

bukamatula

the bachelor houses in the Trobriand islands where young men live with their temporary mistresses

vasocongestion

the engorgement of blood vessels in particular body parts in response to sexual arousal

2D:4D ratio

the length of someone's index finger (2D) divided by the length of their ring finger (4D); a low ratio is linked to high testosterone. - *Men typically have a lower 2D:4D ratio than women.* Evidence suggests that this difference is due to higher testosterone levels that men experience during fetal life. - They have found that the 2D:4D ratio correlates significantly (but not strongly) with sex-differentiated characteristics such as aggressiveness, even within one sex. - These findings suggest a *relationship between the brain's exposure to androgens before birth and sexually differentiated characteristics.* - *The prenatal hormones don't DETERMINE these characteristics they just have an INFLUENCE*, which may be very strong, very weak, or nonexistent for different people.

fraternal polyandry

the marriage of a woman to two or more brothers at the same time

familiarity

the mere fact of having seen a face before makes us judge it as more attractive than the same face seen for the first time (*mere exposure effect*). - *Homophily:* we are attracted to people who resemble ourselves in a variety of ways- attitudes, age, race, education, and social status - *Coolidge effect:* sexual familiarity may reduce attractiveness and this may reflect men's greater interest in sexual novelty.

symmetry

the more symmetrical a person's face is, the more attractive, sexy, and healthy the person seems to others. - Evolutionary psychologists propose the reason we are attracted to people with more symmetrical faces is because this shows you have good genes and you would be a valuable person to mate with. --> People with asymmetrical faces historically have differences due to them having poor genes, which would make their genes less appealing to pass down.

transvestism

the practice of deriving sexual gratification from dressing as a member of the other gender

post-partum sex taboo

the practice of prohibiting sex for a certain period of time after a woman gives birth. - In almost all cultures, there is a waiting time to have sex again after a child is born. --> In the US, the waiting time is usually about six weeks. --> In other cultures, it is shorter and for some cultures it is considerably longer. One such culture that has an unusually long postpartum sexual abstinence is the *Dani of New Guinea. These people wait 4-6 years* after a couple's child is born. There is no evidence of infidelity or unhappiness due to this.

ethnography

the study of a cultural group often by means, of extended individual field work

masculine-feminine continuum

when studying *attractiveness*, researchers find that.. When viewers are asked to look at the different faces of a computer-generated female face, they *often choose the "hyper feminine" face to be the most attractive.* - This would explain why women use cosmetics to increase their feminine features and exaggerate their differences from males. The studies on male faces were more complicated and inconsistent. *Masculine faces may come off as attractive but also may come off as cold or unkind.* - One consistent finding was that *women's attraction to a masculine-looking face varies with their menstrual cycle. Two studies show that hetero women prefer more masculine faces near the time of ovulation.*