IB History: Cold War Terms (Middle Cold War Quiz)

*Korean War* Political outcomes

- A commitment to containment by every US President up to the 1990s. Restricted the freedom of presidents to consider other policy options and alternatives. - Truman lost public support - Failure to win war in Korea undermined credibility which Republicans could capitalize on - Eisenhower ran on the slogan "Corruption, Communism and Korea" as key area the Democrats had failed in - First war in which US forces fought in desegregated units which gave a boost to the civil rights movement

*Korean War* Diplomatic outcomes

- Further strained relations with the Soviet bloc - Defense cuts in the conventional military forces were initiated by Eisenhower on the advice that nuclear weapons were an effective deterrent. This led to the policy of brinkmanship - West Germany was given membership of NATO in 1955 to strengthen its European alliance and in response to the Soviets' establishment of the Warsaw Pact alliance - The recommendations of NSC 68 to triple the defense budget were now implemented - The US established a new alliance bloc, SEATO (the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) in 1954 - The US signed a Treaty with Japan in 1952 which enabled it to maintain military bases in Japan - The USA now committed itself to d fend Taiwan; following the Korean War it sent Taiwan's Jiang Jieshi with military and economic aid and continued to recognize Taiwan as the only official Chinese state until as late as 1971 - China was now isolated by the US - The US became committed to supporting other regimes in Asia that it believed were resisting Communism; this would lead to US involvement in the Philippines and in Vietnam

*Eisenhower* Space race

A 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals—the Soviet Union and the United States—for supremacy in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, enabled by captured German rocket technology and personnel. The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, in additions to being symbolic of ideological superiority. It spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, unmanned space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon.

*Covert Operations* Plausible deniability

A core principle of the CIA is that the US president is removed from its decision-making. According to the principle of plausible deniability, the president could arrange for certain actions to take place but the links would be so well concealed that he could later deny knowledge of these actions. This allowed Eisenhower (and later presidents) to disavow US involvement in a number of activities conducted to destabilize, overthrow or even assassinate leaders of hostile regimes. The deniability of such actions was reduced over time, but during Eisenhower's tenure he used this to his advantage in places such as Iran and Guatemala.

*Kennedy* "flexible response"

A defense strategy implemented by JFK in 1961 to address the Kennedy administration's skepticism of Dwight Eisenhower's New Look and its policy of massive retaliation. Flexible response calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the United States the capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of war, not limited only to nuclear arms. There are options instead of resorting to violence, such as withdrawal of financial aid and CIA investigations.

*Eisenhower* Brinkmanship

A strategy of escalating the consequences of confrontation with one's opponent until one side must back down to avoid potentially catastrophic results. The idea was to force the Soviet Union to back down rather than risk destruction. Brinkmanship differs from massive retaliation in that massive retaliation was thought of as a deterrent to Soviet actions, while brinkmanship would escalate a crisis in which the Soviet Union had already taken aggressive steps. Secretary of State Dean Rusk verbalized brinkmanship during the Cuban Missile Crisis when he remarked, "We're eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked." Brinkmanship led to an increase in the number of nuclear weapons the USA possessed. During the Eisenhower administration, the US stockpile grew from 1200 to 22 229.

*Nixon* Détente

A term often used in reference to the general easing of the geo-political tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, beginning in 1969. Nixon's campaign boasted of détente with the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, both popular with most Americans. Nixon's strategy was to appeal to working- and middle-class suburbanites. Guided by Henry Kissinger, Nixon's foreign policy was marked by a new era of U.S.-Chinese relations, which in turn helped pressure the Soviet Union to agree to détente with the United States.

*Eisenhower* Eisenhower Doctrine

A term referring to a speech by President Eisenhower on January 5, 1957, within a "Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East." Under it, a Middle Eastern country could request U.S. economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was under threat of armed aggression from another state. After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "Eisenhower Doctrine." Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held that the United States would be "prepared to use armed force... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism." The United States would also provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.

*Korean War* Military developments: TRUMAN DISMISSES GENERAL DOUGLAS MACARTHUR, APR 11, 1951

Although General MacArthur was responsible for the tactful strategies which helped save South Korea from the invading North Koreans, his ideas on what to do were at conflict with Truman's. Truman wanted to keep the conflict in the Korean War limited while MacArthur wanted to push into North Korea and defeat them once and for all. Truman was worried that MacArthur's plan would cause Chinese intervention. However, in October 1950, MacArthur insisted to Truman that it was unlikely the Chinese would join the fight. This proved to be false, and in December 1950, hundreds of thousands of Chinese troops attacked, sending the U.S. troops back to South Korea. Afterward, General MacArthur wanted to bomb communist China and use nationalist Chinese troops from Taiwan to fight China. Truman was against both of these requests and arguments started between the two men. Finally, in April 1950, Truman fires General MacArthur and he is replaced with General Matthew Ridgeway.

*Eisenhower* United Fruit Company

An American corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas), grown on Latin American plantations, and sold in the United States and Europe. The company was formed in 1899, from the merger of Minor C. Keith's banana-trading concerns with Andrew W. Preston's Boston Fruit Company. It flourished in the early and mid-20th century, and it came to control vast territories and transportation networks in Central America, the Caribbean coast of Colombia, Ecuador, and the West Indies. Though it competed with the Standard Fruit Company (later Dole Food Company) for dominance in the international banana trade, it maintained a virtual monopoly in certain regions, some of which came to be called banana republics, such as Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala.

*Korean War* Military developments: CEASEFIRE AGREED, JUL 27, 1953

An armistice agreement was settled on by the UN, North Korea, and China. South Korea was enraged that there was a cease fire without Korea being unified, so the country refused to sign the armistice. The armistice agreement created a Demilitarized Zone, 2 km on each side of the border between North Korea and South Korea. The zone is still patrolled today as an official peace treaty was never signed, only a ceasefire.

*Eisenhower* U-2 Incident

An international diplomatic crisis erupted in May 1960 when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) shot down an American U-2 spy plane in Soviet air space and captured its pilot, Powers. Confronted with the evidence of his nation's espionage, Eisenhower was forced to admit to the Soviets that the CIA had been flying spy missions over the USSR for several years. The Soviets convicted Powers on espionage charges and sentenced him to 10 years in prison. However, after serving less than two years, he was released in exchange for a captured Soviet agent in the first-ever U.S.-USSR "spy swap."

*Korean War* Military developments: PRC FORCES RETAKE SEOUL, JAN 4, 1951

As U.N. troops continued to retreat back across the 38th Parallel, the Chinese and North Korean army recaptured Seoul. They were stopped by U.N. troops 30 miles south of Seoul and the U.N. troops had begun a counteroffensive by the end of January.

*Eisenhower* Hungarian Revolt

At the 20th Party Congress in Feb 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin. The CIA got copies of the secret speech and distributed copies of it to the world, causing riots to ensue. On Oct 23, 1956 Hungarian students took to the streets to demand that the Stalinist puppets be replaced with Imre Nagy. Khrushchev agreed, but then Hungary demanded the removal of the Red Army and the creation of anti-Communist political party. By the 28th, the Russians had given in. Freedom was at hand, and the US was careful with support although Voice of America, Radio Free Europe, and Dulles (promised economic aid to those who broke with the Kremlin) encouraged the rebels. On the 31st, Nagy announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and the Soviets decided to move in. 7,000 Russians and 30,000 Hungarians dead, and the US never helped because of fear of another world war or nuclear disaster. This revolt proved that freedom was a sham to the world.

*Covert Operations* CIA

Born out of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) from the Second World War, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created in 1947 as a data-gathering organization to assist policymakers in their decisions. During the war, the US discovered that its espionage was not well developed and the OSS floundered. However, its potential was soon recognized by Dulles and Eisenhower; it was an agency that worked mostly overseas, gaining info on those considered enemies of the USA. Headed by Allan Dulles (brother to the Secretary of State), the CIA was soon involved in subversive tactics and paramilitary actions as well as info acquisition.

*Korean War* Involvement of Latin America

Colombia also sent roughly 6,200 soldiers, many of whom notably participated in the Battle of Pork Chop Hill, the bloodiest battle of the war, from March to July 1953. A regiment of 1,000 men fought with the US forces and suffered heavy losses; almost half of the contingent were killed or wounded. Colombia also sent 6 warships to assist in the amphibious landings. *Colombia was the lone Latin American participant in the war*; in a sign of hemispheric solidarity, this force was dispatched and the last Colombian troops did not leave the peninsula until 1955.

*Kennedy* Fidel Castro

Cuban leader Fidel Castro (1926-2016) established the first communist state in the Western Hemisphere after leading an overthrow of the military dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. He ruled over Cuba for nearly five decades, until handing off power to his younger brother Raúl in 2008. Castro's regime was successful in reducing illiteracy, stamping out racism and improving public health care, but was widely criticized for stifling economic and political freedoms. Castro's Cuba also had a highly antagonistic relationship with the United States-most notably resulting in the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis. The two nations officially normalized relations in July 2015, ending a trade embargo that had been in place since 1960, when U.S.-owned businesses in Cuba were nationalized without compensation. Castro died on November 25, 2016, at 90.

*Eisenhower* Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

Despite his endorsement of this pro-nuclear shift, Eisenhower recognized the danger of nuclear weapons; the USA could not simply stockpile weapons and the Soviet Union would stand idly by - it, too, was increasing its cache of nuclear weapons. Indeed, the quest for new forms of weaponry (hydrogen bombs, missiles in outer space) fueled a growing defense industry. Eisenhower recognized that technology brought about the idea of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), which theorized that massive retaliation from one side would produce the same on the other; this, in turn, led to 2 US-Soviet summits in 1955 and 1959 to address the threat of nuclear weapons.

*Korean War* Military developments: NORTH KOREAN FORCES PUSHED BACK ACROSS 38TH PARALLEL, OCT 1, 1950

During the summer of 1950, North Korean forces almost pushed the UN forces off the Korean peninsula. In September, however, the USA launched a successful counterattack and, on 1 October, the North Koreans were pushed back over the 38th parallel. UN and ROK forces then advanced into North Korean territory in an attempt to reunite the two countries.

*Eisenhower* NASA

Eisenhower came under heavy criticism after the Sputnik launch, and his administration responded to this crisis with many strategic initiatives, including the creation of NASA in 1958 and a speeding up of the U.S. space program. Under Eisenhower, NASA's human spaceflight program started and visionary projects such as Saturn and the F-1 rocket engine were funded. Those initiatives were necessary for success in the subsequent administrations' effort to win the Space Race. On April 2, 1958, in a special note sent to Congress President Dwight D. Eisenhower called for a civilian National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), based on the existing NACA, to oversee the US space program. Although a former military commander, Eisenhower believed a civilian agency would be more effective than assigning space to the military, where inter-service rivalries had already demonstrated a lack of results in launching a satellite. As the legislation was being drafted, Galloway successfully lobbied to designate the new organization an Administration instead of an Agency to give it broader authority to coordinate with other government bodies.

*Korean War* Military developments: PRESIDENT EISENHOWER BECOMES PRESIDENT, JAN 20, 1953

Eisenhower was critical of the Truman administration during his presidential campaign, scrutinizing Truman on his inability to end the Korean War. Eisenhower promised to go to Korea to see the situation firsthand in order to end the conflict. After his visit to Korea, Eisenhower established a "get-tough" policy to North Korea. He threatened to unleash the Nationalist Chinese on Taiwan against communist China and use any force necessary (even nuclear weapons) to end the war.

*Eisenhower* Inter-American Development Bank

Established in 1959, this organization was created to alleviate poverty in Latin America and the Caribbean, providing grants and technical assistance for development projects.

*Kennedy* Cuban Missile Crisis

For thirteen days in October 1962 the world waited—seemingly on the brink of nuclear war—and hoped for a peaceful resolution to the Cuban Missile Crisis. In October 1962, an American U-2 spy plane secretly photographed nuclear missile sites being built by the Soviet Union on the island of Cuba. President Kennedy did not want the Soviet Union and Cuba to know that he had discovered the missiles. He met in secret with his advisors for several days to discuss the problem. After many long and difficult meetings, Kennedy decided to place a naval blockade, or a ring of ships, around Cuba. The aim of this "quarantine," as he called it, was to prevent the Soviets from bringing in more military supplies. He demanded the removal of the missiles already there and the destruction of the sites. On October 22, President Kennedy spoke to the nation about the crisis in a televised address. No one was sure how Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev would respond to the naval blockade and US demands. But the leaders of both superpowers recognized the devastating possibility of a nuclear war and publicly agreed to a deal in which the Soviets would dismantle the weapon sites in exchange for a pledge from the United States not to invade Cuba. In a separate deal, which remained secret for more than twenty-five years, the United States also agreed to remove its nuclear missiles from Turkey. Although the Soviets removed their missiles from Cuba, they escalated the building of their military arsenal; the missile crisis was over, the arms race was not.

*Korean War* Douglas MacArthur

General Douglas MacArthur was put in charge of the American-led coalition of UN troops. That fall, his troops repelled the North Koreans and eventually drove them back toward the Chinese border. MacArthur met with Truman, who worried that the Chinese would intervene. MacArthur assured Truman that the chances of a Chinese intervention were slim. Then, in November and December 1950, a massive force of Chinese troops crossed into North Korea and flung themselves against the American lines, driving the U.S. troops back into South Korea. MacArthur asked for permission to bomb China and use Nationalist Chinese forces from Taiwan against the People's Republic of China. Truman flatly refused these requests, and a public dispute broke out between the two men. On April 11, 1951, Truman relieved MacArthur from his command for insubordination. In an address to Americans that day, the president stated, "I believe that we must try to limit the war to Korea for these vital reasons: To make sure that the precious lives of our fighting men are not wasted; to see that the security of our country and the free world is not needlessly jeopardized; and to prevent a third world war." MacArthur had been fired, he said, "so that there would be no doubt or confusion as to the real purpose and aim of our policy." MacArthur's dismissal set off a brief uproar among the American public, but Truman remained committed to keeping the conflict in Korea a "limited war." Eventually, the American people began to understand that MacArthur's policies and recommendations might have led to a massively expanded war in Asia.

*Eisenhower* Latin America - anti-US sentiment

In May 1958, Nixon was dispatched to Latin America to congratulate Argentine President Frondizi on his recent election. Nixon decided to extend his tour throughout Latin America to evaluate the situation for himself and was surprised by the anti-Americanism he encountered in city after city. In most cases, he found himself engaged in debates with students and intellectuals who challenged US dominance in the region, and in general the opposition he encountered was respectful. However, in Lima and Caracas, he was met with angry crowds that threatened to turn violent; in Caracas, he was first stoned and then the crowds attempted to pull him from his car.

*Nixon* Covert operations and Chile

In September of 1970, the election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile led Nixon to order that Allende not be allowed to take office. Edward Korry, U.S. Ambassador to Chile, told Nixon that he saw no alternative to Allende, and Nixon ruled out American intervention, though he remained willing to assist opponents of Allende who might come forward. The military regrouped under General Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew Allende in 1973 with the backing of the United States. During the coup, the deposed president died under disputed circumstances. There have been allegations of CIA involvement in the coup, incited by declassified transcripts of conversations between Nixon and his National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger.

*Kennedy* Berlin Wall

In the early morning hours of August 13, 1961, the Berlin Wall was built. Running across cemeteries and along canals, zigzagging through the city streets, the Berlin Wall was a chilling symbol of the Iron Curtain that divided all of Europe between communism and democracy. Berlin was at the heart of the Cold War. Though Kennedy chose not to challenge directly the Soviet Union's building of the Berlin Wall, he reluctantly resumed testing nuclear weapons in early 1962, following the lead of the Soviet Union. "Let Them Come to Berlin" In the summer of 1963, President Kennedy visited Berlin and was greeted by ecstatic crowds who showered his entourage with flowers, rice, and torn paper. In the Rudolph Wilde Platz, Kennedy gave one of his most memorable speeches to a rapt audience. No other American politician had met with such joy and enthusiasm on a visit to Germany. Shortly after President Kennedy's death in November of 1963, the square where he had made his famous speech was renamed the John F. Kennedy Platz.

*Eisenhower* John Foster Dulles

John Foster Dulles served as secretary of state in the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration. His policies were firmly anti-communist and he was instrumental in the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, which was designed to prevent communism from coming to power in any more countries in that region. It was Dulles' policy that the United States should curb Soviet expansion with the threat of massive atomic retaliation. In an article for Life Magazine, Dulles wrote about brinksmanship, "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." In actual practice, he was unable to roll back any of the gains that the communists had made during the Truman years, and he found no way to support uprisings in East Germany in 1953 or Hungary in 1956. The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), which Dulles helped to organize, was formed in 1954. The treaty, signed in Manila by the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines, obliged all its signatories to help defend against aggression in the Pacific region.

*Kennedy* Alliance for Progress

Kennedy's most well known act regarding Latin America was the Alliance for Progress, which aimed to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America. In March of 1961, Kennedy proposed a ten-year plan for Latin America, which called for an annual increase of 2.5% in per capita income; the establishment of democratic governments; the elimination of adult illiteracy by 1970; price stability to avoid inflation or deflation; more equitable income distribution; land reform; and economic and social planning. Economic assistance to Latin America nearly tripled between fiscal years 1960 and 1961. Between 1962 and 1967, the U.S. supplied $1.4 billion per year to Latin America. However, Latin American countries still had to pay off their increasing debt to the U.S. and other first-world countries, limiting their financial independence. The Alliance for Progress achieved a short-lived public relations success. It also had real but limited economic advances. However, by the early 1970s, the program was widely viewed as a failure. Like all economic development programs, it was rife with complications. It is often argued that the program failed for three reasons: 1. Not all Latin American nations were willing to enact the exact reforms that the U.S. demanded in exchange for their assistance. 2. Presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the program. 3. The amount of money was not enough for an entire hemisphere; $20 billion averaged out to only $10 per person in Latin America.

*Nixon* Henry Kissinger

Kissinger was appointed Secretary of State on September 21 by President Richard M. Nixon and served in the position from September 23, 1973 to January 20, 1977. With his appointment, he became the first person ever to serve as both Secretary of State and National Security Adviser, a position he had held since President Nixon was sworn into office on January 20, 1969. However, on November 3, 1975, President Gerald R. Ford removed him from his National Security Adviser position while keeping him as Secretary of State.

*Eisenhower* Massive Retaliation

Massive Retaliation was an all-or-nothing strategy. It was the threat to turn the Soviet Union into a smoking, radiating ruin at the end of two hours. By making nuclear war too destructive to fight, by making the distinction between victor and loser in such a conflict increasingly meaningless, the deterrent strategy aimed at eliminating war itself. Furthermore, and more concretely Massive Retaliation meant the possible deterrence of an all-out attack. Massive Retaliation reflected a policy of "brinkmanship." The expectation was that by going to the "brink of war" the United States would be able to deter future Koreas.

*Eisenhower* Khrushchev

Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) led the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War, serving as premier from 1958 to 1964. Though he largely pursued a policy of peaceful coexistence with the West, the Cuban Missile Crisis began after he positioned nuclear weapons 90 miles from Florida. At home, he initiated a process of "de-Stalinization" that made Soviet society less repressive. Yet Khrushchev could be authoritarian in his own right, crushing a revolt in Hungary and approving the construction of the Berlin Wall. Known for his colorful speeches, he once took off and brandished his shoe at the United Nations. Khrushchev had a complicated relationship with the West. A fervent believer in communism, he nonetheless preferred peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries. Unlike Stalin, he even visited the United States

*Nixon* China

Nixon initiated diplomatic relations with China, and made a well-received and productive visit to China in February of 1972. The visit ushered in a new era of U.S.-Chinese relations. Fearing the possibility of a U.S.-Chinese alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States. February 21, 1972 - Nixon visited for a week to meet with Chairman Mao Tse-Tung for improved relations with China, Called "ping-pong diplomacy" because Nixon played ping pong with Mao during his visit. Nixon agreed to support China's admission to the UN.

*Kennedy* Bay of Pigs

On April 17, 1961, 1,400 Cuban exiles launched what became a botched invasion at the Bay of Pigs on the south coast of Cuba. In March 1960, Eisenhower directed the CIA to develop a plan for the invasion of Cuba and overthrow of the Castro regime. The CIA organized an operation in which it trained and funded a force of exiled counter-revolutionary Cubans serving as the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front, known as Brigade 2506. Cardona led this group and was going to become the president of Cuba if the invasion succeeded. Following his election in November 1960, JFK learned of the invasion plan, concluded that Fidel Castro was a Soviet client posing a threat to all of Latin America and, after consultations with his advisors, gave his consent for the CIA-planned clandestine invasion of Cuba to proceed. Launched from Guatemala, the attack went wrong almost from the start. Components of Brigade 2506 landed at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961 and were defeated within 2 days by Cuban armed forces under the direct command of Castro.

*Eisenhower* Suez Crisis

On July 26, 1956, Egyptian President Nasser announced the nationalization (supported by Soviet arms and money) of the Suez Canal Company, the joint British-French enterprise which had owned and operated the Suez Canal since its construction in 1869. Although Nasser offered full economic compensation for the Company, the British and French Governments were outraged. On September 9, Dulles proposed the creation of a Suez Canal Users' Association (SCUA), an international consortium of 18 of the world's leading maritime nations, to operate the Canal in an effort to avoid conflict. However, this and other efforts failed. In discussions with the US between August and October, the Brits repeatedly hinted that they might resort to force in dealing with Nasser. At the same time, the Brits and Frans held secret military consultations with Israel, who regarded Nasser as a threat to its security, resulting in the creation of a joint plan to invade Egypt and overthrow Nasser. Israeli forces invaded on October 29, 1956, soon joined by French and British forces, and the troops took control of the area around the Suez Canal. However, their hesitation had given the USSR time to respond. The Soviets, eager to exploit Arab nationalism and gain a foothold in the Middle East, supplied arms from Czechoslovakia to the Egyptian government beginning in 1955, and eventually helped Egypt construct the Aswan Dam on the Nile River after the US refused to support the project. Khrushchev railed against the invasion and threatened nuclear force on Western Europe if the Israeli-French-British force did not withdraw. Eisenhower warned the Soviets that reckless talk of nuclear conflict would only make matters worse, and cautioned Khrushchev to refrain from direct intervention in the conflict. However, Eisenhower also issued stern warnings to the French, British and Israelis to give up their campaign and withdraw from Egyptian soil. Eisenhower was upset with the British, in particular, for not keeping the United States informed about their intentions. The US threatened all three nations with economic sanctions if they persisted in their attack. The threats did their work. The British and French forces withdrew by December; Israel finally bowed to U.S. pressure in March 1957, relinquishing control over the canal to Egypt. In the aftermath of the Suez Crisis, Britain and France found their influence as world powers weakened. The crisis made Nasser a powerful hero in the growing Arab and Egyptian nationalist movements. Israel, while it did not gain the right to utilize the canal, was once again granted rights to ship goods along the Straits of Tiran.

*Kennedy* "peaceful coexistence"

On June 10th, 1963, at American University, Kennedy gave his greatest speech ever, calling for an end to the Cold War, painting the heretical vision of America living and competing peacefully with Soviet Communists. World peace, he proposed, would not be "a Pax Americana enforced on the world by American weapons of war." He challenged Cold War fundamentalists who cast the world as a clash of civilizations in which one side must win and the other annihilated. He suggested instead that peaceful coexistence with the Soviets might be the most expedient path to ending totalitarianism.

*Korean War* Military developments: NORTH KOREA INVADES SOUTH KOREA, JUN 25, 1950

On June 25, 1950, the Korean War began when some 90,000 soldiers from the North Korean People's Army crossed the 38th parallel, catching the Republic of Korea's forces off guard and forcing them to retreat towards the South. This invasion was the first military action of the Cold War.

*Korean War* Involvement of Canada

PM Louis St Laurent cautiously brought Canada into the war. He and his cabinet were determined to support the UN and initially offered a token force of three light cruisers and an airforce transport squadron but no ground forces. Following the Chinese intervention, and pressured by the Defense Minister and Secretary of State, the Prime Minister authorized the recruitment of a special volunteer force comprising an infantry brigade, tanks and artillery. He decided against using existing standby forces, fearing a Soviet move into Europe. Canada eventually sent 27,000 soldiers, sailors and aircrew to Korea, the third largest UN contingent after the USA and the UK. Over 500 Canadians were killed and 1,500 wounded.

*Korean War* Military developments: PEACE TALKS STALL, 1951

Peace talks began on July 10, 1951 in Kaesong between the U.N. and North Korea. An agreement was reached on July 26 which discussed: adoption of an agenda, fixing a military demarcation line which created a demilitarized zone, arrangements for a ceasefire and POWs, and recommendations to the countries of both sides. The peace talks, however, stalled when North Korea claimed that the conference area in Kaesong was bombed causing armistice talks to be on hold until 25 October 1951. After long investigations, talks resumed in Panmunjom. There, POW repatriation was another dilemma that halted peace talks. Many of the communist soldiers refused to be repatriated which North Korea and China would not allow. The issue was finally solved when the U.N. dealt with the situation.

*Korean War* Military developments: THE PRC SEND FORCES OVER THE BORDER INTO KOREA, OCT 1950

ROK and U.S. forces were nearing the border with China. The PRC issued warnings that the Allied forces should keep their distance, and beginning in October 1950 Chinese troops began to cross the border. Their numbers grew to around 300,000 by early November.

*Korean War* Military developments: STALIN DIES, MAR 5, 1953

Stalin's death made Soviet support of North Korea and China lessen. The USSR's shipments of military supplies to the communist forces became uncertain. Additionally, the Soviet leader's death spurred talks for negotiation because two weeks after Stalin's death, the USSR called for a quick end to conflicts.

*Eisenhower* Iran

The 1953 Iranian coup d'état was the overthrow of the democratically elected Prime Minister Mosaddegh in favor of strengthening the monarchical rule of Pahlavi on August 19, 1953 orchestrated by the US ("Operation Ajax") and the UK ("Operation Boot") It was the first covert action of the United States to overthrow a foreign government during peacetime. Mosaddegh had sought to audit the documents of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), a British corporation and to limit the company's control over Iranian oil reserves. Upon the refusal of the AIOC to cooperate with the Iranian government, the parliament voted to nationalize Iran's oil industry and to expel foreign corporate representatives from the country. After this vote, Britain instigated a worldwide boycott of Iranian oil to pressure Iran economically. Initially, Britain mobilized its military to seize control of the British-built Abadan oil refinery, then the world's largest, but Prime Minister Clement Attlee opted instead to tighten the economic boycott while using Iranian agents to undermine Mosaddegh's government. Judging Mosaddegh to be unreliable and fearing a Communist takeover in Iran, UK prime minister Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided to overthrow Iran's government, though the preceding Truman administration had opposed a coup, fearing the precedent that Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) involvement would set. British intelligence officials' conclusions and the UK government's solicitations were instrumental in initiating and planning the coup, despite the fact that the U.S. government in 1952 had been considering unilateral action (without UK support) to assist the Mosaddegh government. Following the coup in 1953, a government under General Zahedi was formed which allowed Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran to rule more firmly as monarch. He relied heavily on US support to hold on to power. According to the CIA's declassified documents and records, some of the most feared mobsters in Tehran were hired by the CIA to stage pro-Shah riots on 19 August. Other CIA-paid men were brought into Tehran in buses and trucks, and took over the streets of the city.Between 200 and 300 people were killed because of the conflict. Mosaddegh was arrested, tried and convicted of treason by the Shah's military court. On 21 December 1953, he was sentenced to three years in jail, then placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life. Other Mosaddegh supporters were imprisoned, and several received the death penalty. After the coup, the Shah continued his rule as monarch for the next 26 years until he was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution in 1979.

*Eisenhower* OPEC

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a group consisting of 14 of the world's major oil-exporting nations. OPEC was founded in 1960 to coordinate the petroleum policies of its members and to provide member states with technical and economic aid. OPEC is a cartel that aims to manage the supply of oil in an effort to set the price of oil on the world market, in order to avoid fluctuations that might affect the economies of both producing and purchasing countries. Countries that belong to OPEC include Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela (the five founders), plus the United Arab Emirates, Libya, Algeria, Nigeria, and five other countries.

*Kennedy* Peace Corps

The Peace Corps program was an outgrowth of the Cold War. President Kennedy pointed out that the Soviet Union "had hundreds of men and women, scientists, physicists, teachers, engineers, doctors, and nurses . . . prepared to spend their lives abroad in the service of world communism." The US had no such program, and Kennedy wanted to involve Americans more actively in the cause of global democracy, peace, development, and freedom. The Peace Corps was established by executive order on March 1, 1961, and a reluctant Shriver (brother-in law of JFK) accepted the president's request to officially lead the organization. Shriver recruited and energized a talented staff to implement the task force's recommendations. On his first trip abroad as director, he received invitations from leaders in India, Ghana, and Burma to place Peace Corps volunteers in their countries. Tanganyika and Ghana were the first countries to participate in the program. Congress approved the Peace Corps as a permanent federal agency within the State Department, and Kennedy signed the legislation on September 22, 1961.

*Eisenhower* Sputnik

The Space Race originated from the missile-based nuclear arms race between the the United States and the Soviet Union that occurred following World War II, as both countries sought to recruit German engineers who worked on ballistic missile programs that could be utilized to launch objects into space. Americans were astonished when Soviets were the first to launch a satellite (Sputnik) into space on October 4, 1957. The Soviet Union also later beat the United States in sending the first human into space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961.

*Eisenhower* Caracas Declaration

The Tenth Inter-American Conference of the OAS met in Caracas, Venezuela, from March 1-28, 1954. Although LA nations expected economic issues to be the main focus, the United States convinced the organizing committee to place an anticommunist resolution first on the agenda. The Eisenhower administration was worried about the influence of Communists in the elected government of Arbenz in Guatemala. The vote on the anticommunist resolution was seventeen in favor, one against (Guatemala), and two abstentions (Mexico and Argentina). Dulles added a statement to the resolution that said the design was to deal with dangers originating outside the hemisphere and not to impair the right of each state to freely choose its own form of government. Failing to obtain support against Arbenz, the United States joined Guatemalan rebels to overthrow him in June 1954.

*NEW LOOK POLICY: WHAT IS IT???*

The main elements of the New Look were: (1) maintaining the vitality of the U.S. economy while still building sufficient strength to prosecute the Cold War; (2) relying on nuclear weapons to deter Communist aggression or, if necessary, to fight a war; (3) using the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to carry out secret or covert actions against governments or leaders "directly or indirectly responsive to Soviet control"; and (4) strengthening allies and winning the friendship of nonaligned governments. Eisenhower's defense policies, which aimed at providing "more bang for the buck," cut spending on conventional forces while increasing the budget for the Air Force and for nuclear weapons. Even though national security spending remained high—it never fell below 50 percent of the budget during Eisenhower's presidency—Eisenhower did balance three of the eight federal budgets while he was in the White House.

*Eisenhower* New Look: Reasons for policy

The military policy was called New Look since it was supposed to reflect a coming change in military orientation. Developed out of NSC-162/2 (issued in Oct 1953 which addressed the Soviet nuclear threat and US determination to maintain nuclear superiority), it was a re-evaluation of US military priorities, committing the USA to a smaller army and navy while building up nuclear weapons reserves and expanding the air force which would be required in the event of nuclear strikes. During the Eisenhower administration, the US stockpile grew from 1,200 to 22,229. However, the USA was also facing an economic downturn and Eisenhower was looking for ways to curb economic expenditures overseas. Republican economic policy in the 1950s reflected a free market, laissez-faire approach. In foreign policy, this meant limited economic assistance, including the end of a number of low-interest loans. Commodities proposals made during the Truman administration were put on hold, leaving the cacao and coffee producers particularly vulnerable to market fluctuations. The creation of an Intra-American Development Bank was halted. Latin American states were advised that, in the interest of regional stability and cooperation, they should not discourage private foreign investment (US interests).

*Covert Operations* Covert activities

To perform its functions, CIA actions included: - having foreign leaders on its payroll - financially supporting anti-communist labor unions, newspapers, and political parties overseas - hiring US journalists and academics to make contact with foreign student leaders - co-opting business executives who worked overseas to report back on economic circumstances and vulnernabilities - creating the US Information Agency to spread US culture, including the funding and programming for the voice of America and Radio Liberty - funding Radio Free Europe - training foreign military officers in counter-revolutionary methods - conducting covert operations to overthrow regimes hostile to the USA

*Korean War* Military developments: UN FORCES LAND AT INCHON, SEPT 15, 1950

U.S. Marines landed at Inchon on the west coast of Korea, 100 miles south of the 38th parallel and only 25 miles from Seoul. The location was too risky, but U.N. Supreme Commander Douglas MacArthur insisted on carrying out the landing. By the early evening, the Marines had secured Inchon. The landing had cut the North Korean forces in two, and the U.S.-led U.N. force pushed inland to recapture Seoul, which had fallen to the Communists in June. Allied forces then converged from the north and the south, devastating the North Korean army and taking 125,000 enemy troops prisoner.

*Eisenhower* New Look: Repercussions for region

Under the New Look policy, defense of the USA was a prime concern and the US military community argued strongly that there needed to be a continental defense policy, not simply a protection of US borders. Canadian politicians were understandably concerned; although they shared US fears of Soviet expansion and understood the destructive potential embedded in massive retaliation, they also feared US encroachment on Canadian territory. Negotiations began in 1953 and finally, in 1958, they reached an agreement, and the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) was created. NORAD is a bi-national defense organization that provides advance warning of missile and air attacks on the USA and Canada and protects the sovereignty of airspace in North America. It also maintains and airborne force to be used in the event of attack.

*Eisenhower* Guatemala

United Fruit Company (UFCO) not only controlled the main crop but also owned most of Guatemala's infrastructure, including railways, ports, and utilities. Arévalo (first democratically elected president of Guatemala) was succeeded in 1951 by Arbenz, who promised social and economic reforms for the country. Arbenz passed the Agrarian Reform Bill (Decree 900) in June 1952, and this called for expropriation of uncultivated lands. Much of this land was owned by UFCO, and so the gov. offered money to compensate, but UFCO had been deliberately undervaluing itself to avoid tax payment. They used this to their advantage and complained to the US that they were not being compensated "fairly." The USA demanded more money from them, and it was clear that the US gov. was accusing Guatemala of being communist. Guatemala did not give a crap and continued with land reforms. The USA tried asking the OAS for assistance, and they passed a measure for action against Arbenz but this did not allow the US to force a policy or regime change. This meant the US had to resort to embargoes and covert operations to oppose Arbenz. They refused to sell military equipment to Guatemala, which forced Arbenz to approach the Commies for help. On May 17, 1954 an arms shipment from Poland to Guatemala gave the US the proof they needed to brand Arbenz communist. Now the USA enlisted the help of Colonel Armas in neighboring Honduras to lead a group of exiles in an armed insurrection against Arbenz. US pilots also strafed (attack repeatedly with bombs or machine-gun fire from low-flying aircraft.) the capital and this caused the military to refuse support to the government. Arbenz was forced to resign and go into exile, and the US ambassador assisted in transferring power to Castillo who reversed Decree 900 and ruled a dictatorship for 3 years.

*Korean War* Military developments: US LED UN FORCES ARE ROUTED, NOV 7 - DEC 9, 1950

With their backs to the Sea of Japan and fighting in a brutally cold winter, U.S. Marines encircled at the Chosin Reservoir retreated to the ports Hungnam and Wonsan, where some 20,000 troops and refugees were evacuated. Known as the battle of "Frozen Chosin," the Chinese routed 15,000 U.N. troops, causing 12,000 casualties, of which 3,000 were killed.

*Eisenhower* Overthrowing Arbenz (Operation PBSUCCESS)

see Guatemala card