Ib Tech SL

Form

-3D space a product takes up -Can be described by shape (organic, geometric), texture, balance, as/symmetry. contrast, harmony, discordant, alignment

Reach/Workspace Envelope

-3D space to carry out physical work in a fixed location -Limits of the envelope are determined by functional arm reach, which is influenced by the direction of the reach & the nature of the performed task -Most of the things needed to carry out tasks should be within this area (Primary & Secondary zones)

Circular Economy

-A closed loop system where the materials/resources are in constant use -Material waste is a resource of the system and is regenerated

Scale Drawings

-A drawing that shows a real object with accurate sizes expect they have all been reduced or enlarged by a certain amount (SCALE) -The need for scale drawings is when the object is either too large/small to make *Means that the plans are drawn to a specific ratio relative to the actual size of the place/object *1:100 scale for large objects/architecture *100:1 for small objects/electronic projects

Non-renewable Resources

-A finite resource that does not renew itself -eg: Earth minerals, metal ores, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels

User Need

-A marketing specification should identify the essential requirements of the product to satisfy market and user need

Physical Models // Aesthetic Models

-A model developed to look and feel like the final product *Do not work like the final product! -Used for ergonomic testing, and evaluation of aesthetic appeal -May be relatively simple, consisting of painted foam chunks or may simulate weight and material properties in more detailed ones -Give non-designers a good representation of feel and look for product -Quite expensive to produce as they need to have a good surface finish and be life-sized

Eco Design

-A more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts to focus on all broad environmental categories of material, energy, pollution/waste -Is more complex with a longer time scale and difficulty -Repair and maintenance in Eco-Design optimizes end of life options

'Design for Environment' (DfE) Software for FEA

-A number of software programs now available to assist designers in DfE -These packages allow the LCA of a product and selection of materials/processes with lesser adverse environment effects -eg: CAD software like SolidWorks where designers can examine the environmental consequences of various decisions, allowing them to optimise their designs and obtain a cost-effective environment sensitive outcome

Fatigue

-A person's tiredness -Affects performance and decisions

Fibreglass

-A reinforced plastic material composed of glass fibres embedded in a resin matrix -Benefits include: 1. It is very strong vs its weight 2. It is corrosion resistant 3. It is water resistant

Robots & Work Envelopes

-A robot's work envelope depends on its arm length & axes design -A robot can only perform within the confines of its work envelop *Some may have the ability to reach behind (eg: Gantry robots defy traditional work envelops as they move along track systems = large work space)

Physical Models // Prototype

-A sample or model built to test a concept or process -Can act as an object to be replicated from -May be tested and used to validate ideas throughout design development and an be used to provide specifications for a real working product -Main two reasons of use: 1. For the design development team, who can learn and discuss the idea by creating prototype 2. For the user, from whom the development can further progress through user interaction and feedback *Prototype scale is 1:1

Physical Models // Mock Ups

-A scale or full-size model of an object used to gain feedback from users *Also used for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation, promotion or other purposes -Uses inexpensive materials to verify a design -Often used to determine proportions of piece to other elements of design or to the environment (especially if they suit human shapes and sizes) -Designs that fail to consider these issues may be unsuccessful -May also be used to test colour, finish and design details otherwise difficult -Cost of making mock-ups is often more than repaid by savings made by avoiding going into production with faulty design

Physical Models // Scale Models

-A smaller or larger physical copy of object -Gives a better overview, especially for testing purposes (allow visualization from examining the model) -Unforseen factors can be highlighted and thereafter, prevented in final outcome -Can be a fast method to ideate something more sophisticated for design communication, thinking, and further ideas and aesthetic considerations -eg: Architectural models of reduced scale allows designers to visualize structure and exterior/interior aesthetics

Strategies of Innovation // Adaptation

-A solution to a problem in one field is used to provide a new idea for a design problem in another -eg: Trevor Bayliss adapted the concept of using electric motors as electricity generators to produce a radio that did not rely on batteries *His motivation was the spread of AIDS/HIV in Africa and the need to stress importance of communication and education to manage HIV/AIDs

Aluminum Production

-ALUMINUM // the most plentiful metal in the Earth's crust! *The industry's increasing demand is due to its lightness and strength -The only commercial source of aluminium is BAUXITE // a hydrated form of aluminium *It is difficult to decompose and there is no cheap chemical available for reduction purposes! *Therefore, an expensive ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS is required for production, which consumes large quantities of electrical energy *Bauxite is obtained by open-cast mining, then crushed and dried! *As much as 5x more electric energy is needed to produce 1 tonne of aluminumum vs 1 tonne of steel!

Adjustability

-Ability of a product to change size -Can be used to increase percentile range of a product -Found in car seats, office chairs, desk heights, foot rests, ironing boards -5th female percentile to 95th percentile male can accommodate for 95% of male and female populations

End-of-Pipe Technologies

-Added to the end of manufacturing processes to reduce the emission of pollutants and waste -eg: filtering/wastewater treatment plants which serve to contain or dispose emissions like exhaust gases, wastewater and other pollutants -Tend to only be effective when the damage has already occurred

Timber Treatments

-Additive preservatives that improve resistance to attack -Improve durability -Protects from wood destroying fingus from moisture and wood destroying insects (eg: borers, white ants) -Includes: 1. WOOD PRESERVERS -Provides protection from excess moisture that may cause timber to split/rot 2. CREOSOTE -Penetrates timber fibres to protect wood integrity from borers, wood lice and fungal attack -Used in outside conditions (eg: posts below soil) 3. STAIN PRESERVERS -Soaks deep into fibres of timber and provides tone/colour -Protects against fungus, moisture, insect infestation

Factors Affecting Human Processes Systems

-Age (young children may not have enough skills vs old lose skills to perform tasks) -Skill level -Disability (people with disabilities may not have fine motor skills) -Infirmity & frailty

Metallic Oxides

-Agents used to colour glass *The same oxide may produce different colours with different glass mixtures *Different oxides of same metal may also produce different colours -eg: Venetian Glass is renowned for its colour

Physical Models

-Allow visualization from examining model or the info it represents -Presents a means for manipulating the object for analysis (used to obtain important data for tests and simulation measurements) -Allows user to better understand problem Allows users to understand the internal relationships within the product or its external relationship with the environment

Modifying Mechanical Properties // Adding Carbon

-Allows alloys to be tougher and harder with higher tensile strength -Known as Carbon Steels -But they may rust easily when exposed to air & moisture

Lamination

-Allows for a tougher substance

Fibres can be twisted via spinning process = yarn

-Also can be used in their raw form and manufactured = felt

Physical Models // Manikin

-An anatomical 3D model of the human model -Useful for assessing relationship of body parts to a spatial arrangement of 3D model

Carbon Reinforced Plastic (CRP0

-An extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic containing carbon fibers -Can be expensive to produce - The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin (eg: epoxy resin) -Commonly used whenever high strength:ratio and rigidity are required (eg: aerospace, automotive, civil engineering, sports goods) -eg: CRP is used in the design of BMW's new vehicles

Strategies of Innovation // Analogy

-An idea from one context is used to stimulate ideas for solving a problem in another context (nature is a large inspiration) -eg: Bats provide an analogy for ultra-sonic tracking devices

Waste Reduction Strategies // ISO Standards Organization

-An international network addressing environmental issues

Parts Drawing

-An orthograhpic drawing of the components of a product -Provides detail info on each part, material, and quantity required to assemble product -May be specific to engineers with specialist knowledge -May also be designed so they may be used by consumers

Strategies of Innovation // Chance

-An unexpected discovery leads to a new idea [eg // Post-It Notes] -Spencer Silver intended to make a strong adhesive but created one that was weaker than expected -The result could stick to objects but also be pulled off -A colleague used this to bookmark pages in a book, triggering the birth of the idea

Competition

-Any company/product that can fulfil a similar function for a similar market -Designers evaluate product against existing benchmark (a dominant product or one that has minimum required features to be successful) -Many products fail to meet the International + National standards for quality assurance even if consumers do not require them -Many products that do not meet these standards (and users' own standards) are unlikely to gain success in the marketplace

Ergonomics

-Application of scientific info concerning relationship between humans and product design, system and environment

Timber Fin ishes

-Applied to surface for aesthetics and function (protect from env impact) -Includes: VARNISH/ESTAPOL -Provide a hard/tough surface suitable for covering timber floor board. -Increases surface hardness by sealing timber and protects wood fibres from moisture and insect attack - It is the best for protecting timbers from surface scratching FINISHING OILS -Protects material from moisture while providing a low sheen finish WOOD WAX - Gives a dull gloss shine -Applied to timber using a cloth -Often used on a good quality furniture -It has the ability to lift grain colour for aesthetic finish

The dendrites of commercial metals are called GRAINS

-As grains grow to architectural form, they meet at a point called the GRAIN BOUNDARY

Anthropometrics

-Aspect of ergonomics dealing with body measurement (eg: size, strength, physical capacity) -Aka comfort/functional/userf-riendly design

Cradle to Gate

-Assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction (cradle) to factory gate/transport to consumer

Automated Production

-Automation refers to a wide use of systems with little/no human intervention

Prevention Principle

-Avoidance & minimization of hazards -Knowledge based -Actual risk of harm can be assessed -Occurrence of damage is probably if no measures are taken -Scientifically based

Waste Reduction Strategies // Other

-Banning/Reducing Pollutants (eg: EU's Take Back Program) -Eco-labelling products (increases customer awareness) -Developing new bio-fuels -Building products from recyclables -Building products with a cradle-to-cradle lifestyle -Design For Environment/DfE (making a product where parts can be used at the end of its life cycle)

Physical Limitations

-Body movement -Hand/eye coordination -Strength -Size -Stamina -Visual sensitivity -Tolerance to extreme environments -Body tolerance

Product Life Cycle

-Business technique attempting to determine the life stages of a product's lifespan from... 1. Introduction -All products/services require introduction to marketplace -It is important to launch product with right image and price. -Good infrastructure is needed to support product *Significant investment required! 2. Growth -Once product has survived introduction, it needs to grow! -This is the stage where hoped sales and profits grow -Customer base may be established, cueing a good time to introduce complementary products and services 3. Maturity -The profit revenue of the product is falling and price reductions are necessary to remain competitive -This is the point of MAXIMUM POTENTIAL of the customer base 4. Decline Phase -Falling sales mean customers are tiring of the product -The market is changing and questions should be addressed; could the product be re-launched? Does it need modifying? Do we create a new product/move on? Do we need a new market?

When a company can be the first to market and secure sufficient IP, they build an excellent platform for brand recognition, sales, and continued brand loyalty!

-Businesses value brand loyalty the most -However, a major risk of being the first to market is the uncertainty of the market's success

Nominal Data Scale

-By name -Used to classify products into discrete groups -No measurements between categories

Computer Numerical Control

-CAM is the use of computers in manufacture -Associated with elimination of operator error and labour costs -CNC refers specifically to the computer control of machines *Machines are controlled by the G CODE program

Textile Fibres

-Can be natural or synthetic

Waste Mitigation Strategies

-Can reduce/eliminate materials directed to landfill -Includes: 1. Reuse -Utilizing an object more than once in a different/same context 2. Recycle -Using materials from an obsolete product to create other products -Decreases consumption of raw resources, trims down energy usages, lowers air/water pollution by decreasing energy for waste discarding 3. Repair -Reconstruction/renewal of any part of an existing structure 4. Recondition -Rebuilding a product through replacement -Turn it to a 'as new' condition (eg: cars, house renovation, watch reconditioning) 5. Re-engineer -Product that has been redesigned to improve engineering from the original -eg: re-engineering a motorbike to increase speed efficiency & energy consumption 6. Dematerialization -Reduction of total material & energy of a product, thus reducing environmental impact

Steel Production

-Carbon content of pig iron is reduced from > 3% to <1.5% (<0.25% in Mild steel) -Impurities are removed -Small amounts of other elements are added *A blast furnace is often used

Innovation Strategies // Configurational Innovation

-Change is made in both technology and organization -Is associated with the DESIGN CONFIGURATION PROBLEM, consisting of: 1. SELECTION of components 2. ALLOCATION of components 3. INTERFACING of components (design of the ways components assemble together)

Clean Manufacturing > End-of-Pipe Technologies

-Clean manufacturing considers the reduction of environmental impact of a product when it is being developed rather than implementing protective measures at the end

Human Factors

-Combination of ergonomics & anthropometrics

Composites

-Combination of multiple materials together to improve mechanical/physical properties -Can be broken down to: 1. Form 2. Process 3. Composition

Concrete

-Composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with fluid cement that hardens over time -Additives and reinforcements (eg: reinforcement bar that contains materials needed to achieve desired characteristics) are added to concrete to achieve certain characteristics * When mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is moldable and may form a hard matrix *Matrix binds to the other ingredients to create a durable stone-like material with many uses *Physical properties of density and strength are determined by proportions of water, cement and aggregate

Physical Models // Digital Human

-Computer simulation of a variety of mechanical and biological aspects of the human body

Digital Humans

-Computer simulations of a variety of mechanical/biological aspects of human body -May be used to interact with virtual prototypes *They enable product development time to quicken as there are more design iterations in less time *This results in higher product quality that better meets human requirements -Final products also safer due to more extensive analysis of safety aspects -Enable manufacturing plants to be developed more quickly and manual flow to be optimized -Often used to improve worker related safety, eg: *Improves worker safety and reduce compensation costs from accidents *Ensure people can access parts and equipments needed to assemble products *Check workers can effectively use tools needed for manual tasks *Check all tasks are performed safely w/o injury risk *They optimize workplace (esp process times, fire escapes, access to manufacturing processes)

Physical Ergonomics

-Concerned with human anatomy and anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical characters -Especially important in medical field (especially for those diagnosed with physical ailments like arthritis)

Cognitive Psychology

-Concerned with mental processes (eg: perception, memory, reasoning, motor responses) that affect interaction of user and system

Bakelite

-Considered the first synthetic plastic

Social Media & Innovation

-Consumers can influence innovation diffusion: 1. Done via social media (eg: support for boycotting products/systems) 2. Exploring Kickstarter, CrowdCube; crowd-funding platforms for creative ideas

Fibre

-Continuous filament with a length that is 200x its diameter

Incremental Green Design

-Continuous improvement -Do not involve major investments or risks -User experience and feedback is important and may dominate source of ideas [eg // Truong Thanh Furniture Corporation (TTFC)] -They made improvements to improve their product's effects on the environment: 1. 40% of wood is made from leftover wood and production processes 2. Overall use of wood has decreased

Pultrusion

-Continuous process of manufacture of composite materials with constant cross-section -A moulding process where fibres are saturated with a liquid polymer resin and pulled through a heated die to form a part

As pure metals continue to solidify, they form CRYSTALS

-Crystals grow into DENDRITES // a skeletal form that seems to have a backbone with arms growing in different directions according to structural architecture)

Quantitative Data

-Data measured by numbers -eg: height, shoe size, fingernail length

Ordinal Data Scale

-Deals with order/rank of items -No quantitative assessment can be made -eg: 1-10 scale of a chili pepper hotness

Stainless steel is different to carbon steel

-Depends on amount of chromium inside -Stainless steel have chromium that forms a film of chromium oxide to prevent spread of corrosion via oxygen diffusion

Innovation

-Described as the creation of new devices/objects/ideas useful in completing human objectives -Innovators include James Dyson, Zaha Hadid, Steve Jobs

Design Specifications

-Design contexts for different markets and audiences -Relates to the requirements of a product including: *Aesthetic requirements *Functional requirements *Cost constraints *Customer requirements *Environmental requirements *Size constraints *Safety considerations *Performance requirements/constraints *Materials requirements *Manufacturing requirements -The specification must be justified with reasons

Green Design

-Designing in a way that takes account of the environmental impact of the product throughout its life

Psychological Function

-Determined by emotional responses -Decisions by designers/users evoke psychological responses (sight, smell, taste, touch, hearing)

Radical Green Design

-Development of new key design elements (eg: change in product component or new architecture) -Results in a distinctively new product/service/system that is different from existing line -High level of uncertainty- especially at early stages [eg // Kamworks in Cambodia] -The company saw the country's solar capacity as an opportunity to create solar lighting products to fit purchasing power of rural households -Many households use kerosene fuel lamps that is not very bright with high costs -The company created a sustainable lighting solution for low-income households

Electric Battery

-Device with 2+ electrochemicals that convert stored chemical energy to electrical energy -Each cell has a positive terminal (cathode) and a negative terminal (anode) -Made of chemicals like lead, cadmium, zinc, lithium & mercury -Coin/Button, lead acid, Ni Cd are considered hazardous by many govts -Li Po is non hazardous, as is H2O

Product Versioning

-Different models of same product sold at different price points -Gives consumers option of purchasing high/low valued models depending on high/low cost -Businesses do this to attract higher prices based on value perceived by customers

Benefits of IP Rights

-Differentiating a business from competitors -Selling/licensing for revenue stream (A license is a consent by the owner to the use of IP in exchange for money or something else of value) -Offering customers something new/different (When new product is released, producer wants to prevent copying so they can maximize impact and profit) -Marketing/branding Increase value as an asset

Quantification of Carbon Emissions

-Discovering how much is produced, who/where it is produced

Percentile Ranges

-Divided into three segments: 1. 5th Percentile Range -Lowest 5% of population -eg: When designining an airplane cockpit, use the 5th percentile so people with short arms can also access the the controls as if they can reach the control, people with longer arms will inevitably be able as well 2. 50th Percentile -The median, the most common -Used when designing for the 'average' person -There are limitations in choosing this as it only appeals to one dimension 3. 95th Percentile -The tallest 5% -Usually, picking this percentile allows 95% of people to use the design (eg: door height where 5th and 50th will definitely fit through the door)

LCA can be linked with Environmental Impact Matrices

-EIM are much more complex, focusing on a particular stage of the LCA by breaking down its steps to focus in output of resources used, wasted and by-products generated & released, eg: 1. Pre-production -Transport of all materials to factory 2. Production -Manufacturing process waste output 3. Distribution & Packaging -Whole network of parts distributed for assembly and packaging for delivery to warehouses and stores worldwide 4. Utilization -Use of product during working life 5. Disposal -Disassembly and recycling of materials

Linear Economy

-Economy based on the make, use, dispose model

Local Combined Heat & Power

-Efficient & clean approach to generating electrical & thermal energy from a single source -Replaces SHP (separate heat & power) -Advantages in reducing energy costs and emissions -Plants is often nearby communities so heat generated can be dispersed through the area efficiently

Renewable Resources

-Energy coming from resources that naturally replenish -eg: sunlight, wind, tides, wave, geothermal heat -Requires management

Distributing Energy

-Energy that is generated and stored in a variety of small, grid-connected devices

Product Stewardship

-Environmental management strategy that means whoever design/produces/sells/uses a product will take responsibility for minimizing its environmental impact throughout its life cycle *it used to be up to the government to take care of old cars/fridges/washing machines but people are now taking responsibility themselves

Characteristics of Superalloys

-Excellent mechanical strength and creep resistance at high temperatures -Corrosion and oxidation resistant The prime design criterias include: 1. Creep -The gradual extension of a material under constant force -Creep and its effects are more pronounced at high temperatures -Resistance to creep is important when components are subjected to high temperatures for long time periods (eg: turbine blades, where creep can cause blade deformation) 2. Oxidation Resistance -Nearly all metals and alloys react with oxygen in the air to form OXIDES // compound with oxygen (it is corroded/oxidized) -Metals and alloys may also corrode in the presence of acids and alkalis -Corrosion is a serious problem at high temperatures (eg: for turbine blades where there is a presence of combustion products such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, corrosion is an issue)

Drivers of Innovation

-Express creativity/for personal interest -Constructive discontent (analyzing a situation which would benefit from re-design and working out a strategy for improving) *eg: Dyson frustrated by inefficiency of conventional hand dryers so they re-designed the dryer using airblade strategies -Scientific/Technical curiosity -Desire to make money -Desire to help others *eg: Illac Diaz used an ingenious solar light made from an old soda bottle to bring natural light into homes of some of the poorest people in the Philippines

Environmental Factors

-Factors that can affect an individual's performance due to the environment -Important in maximizing workplace performance

Composite Forms // Textile Fibres

-Fibres can be spun into filaments/string/rope -Fibres are used as a component of composite materials to make products like fabrics, paper, felt -Synthetic fibres can be produced cheaply in large quantities vs natural fibres -Woven fabrics and other reinforcements are used with resins (matrix) to produce composite materials that are stronger (eg: carbon fibre/CF) *On their own, fabrics do not possess much strength but are much stronger as composites

Fidelity Range of Physical Models

-Fidelity // degree of realism of a model -Can be... 1. Low -Conceptual representation 2. Medium -Representation of aspects of idea 3. High -Mock-up, as close to final product as possible *A combination of fidelity and context can provide validation of an idea or further insight into development of a product -Contexts include: 1. RESTRICTED // a controlled environment 2. GENERAL // any user, any environment 3. PARTIAL // final user or environment 4. TOTAL // final user and environment

Qualitative Data

-Finds depth, people's emotions and perceptions -Used for research at small scales of focused group levels -Aka Ordinal data

Classic Designs & Form/Function

-For design classics, there is no set rule for 'form follows function' -Form relates to the product's shape and its aesthetic qualities

Limitations of Renewable Resources

-Fossil fuels are heavily relied on -High set-up costs -Unreliable supply -Low-energy density

Reducing Waste & Pollution // International Legislation

-General set of rules between states and nations serving as a standard -Role and scale of legislation depends on manufacturing type and perspectives of different countries *Often difficult to come to agreements due to countries being at various stages of development [Examples] 1. Earth Summit @ Rio 1992 -Halt the destruction of irreplaceable natural resources and pollution -Successful results through alternative energy sources, new reliance on public transportations

Glass is often used extensively as a construction material (eg: plate glass and glass bricks are often chosen for wall/floor materials)

-Glass is becoming a more popular structural material for aesthetic and psychological benefits

External Drivers for Eco Design

-Government -Market demand -Social environment -Competitors -Trade organizations

Steel Structure // Body Centred Cubic

-Hard & tough (chromium, tungstein)

Glass

-Hard, brittle and typically transparent amorphous solid made by rapidly cooling a fusion of sand, soda and lime -It is largely unreactive, making it ideal for containers of food and chemicals -Glass has a high compressive strength -Glass has a low thermal conductivity (lets natural light in and traps heat)

Benefits of Enhanced Work Environments

-Healthy workforce (implement more intuitive machines to improve usability and reduce strain) -Enhanced productivity (healthy workforce = enhanced productivity where easy-to-use equipment keeps work momentum for longer durations and less fatigue workers are more happy) -Reduced absence -Increased savings (via ergonomic workstations allowing money to be saved from compensation claims, treatments, fees that come with worker injury)

Reversing Work Hardening via Heating/Annealing & Normalizing

-Heating removes effects of cold working *Annealing refers to non-ferrous metals *Normalizing refers to ferrous metals *Both processes reverse internal stresses and achieve this by heating material to a point where crystals can grow, making the material softer and more ductile *Temperature must be maintained though *Materials need to cool slowly to return to original form

Kevlar

-High-strength material first used commercially in 1970s as a replacement for steep in racing tires - Typically spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such as as an ingredient in composite material components -The quest for lighter, stronger and safer sporting goods has made Kevlar a popular choice for equipment manufacturers and consumers *Its natural toughness allows it to withstand repeated abuse It minimizes vibration transfer and sustains deformation without breaking

Comfort

-How pleasing it feels to use a product -Includes: 1. Physical comfort (increases utility & intuitiveness of product for greater market success) 2. Psychological Comfort (based on human feedback, who have preconceived notions of a product where our reaction helps evaluate the product's quality vs cost)

The Industrial Revolution created mass production/designing for the masses that reduced quality of products

-However, improvement in production techniques allowed people to design HQ products of affordable prices, allowing anyone to afford classic designs (no longer is classic design a preservation of the elite in society)

Designers may use percentile ranges for particular user groups (eg: young children & toys, clothing for teens, etc)

-However, not all users are accommodated for so judgements have to be made in terms of the most important feature *Safety should never be compromised though!

Psychological Factor Data

-Human factor data related to psychological interpretations caused by light, smell, taste, temperature, texture

Physiological Factors

-Human factors related to physical characteristics used to optimize user safety, health, comfort & performance

Mitigation of Carbon Emissions

-Human intervention to create carbon sinks (eg: forests, vegetation, soil) that can absorb carbon

Reserves

-Identified resources whose location, grade, quality & quantity are known and kept in a specific area -Economically extracted at a time of determination

Innovation Types // Process Innovation

-Implementation of a new/improved manufacturing method, including significant changes in techniques, equipment, and/or software that leads to reduced costs/benefits to the customer -Innovations can focus on creation process of product or its delivery method -Some may involve logistics (eg: when delivering packages, use of barcodes and scanners and the internet allow customers to track their parcels!) -eg: Ford's use of the production line by bringing product to the person during fabrication -eg (humanitarian sector): increasing stockpiling of goods in strategic locations, pre-made packs and kits (IKEA flat back house used for disaster related programs)

UNEP Eco Design Manual

-In 1996, UN released this manual called the Design for Sustainability (D4S), with outlines: 1. Increase recyclability 2. Reduce energy requirements 3. Maximise use of renewable resources 4. Reduce creation/use of toxic materials 5. Reduce material requirements of goods and services 6. Increase product durability and reduced planned obsolescence -3 key elements of this strategy are social, environmental, & economic (people, planet, profit) -They are the fundamental components of product innovation -The emphasis of the guidelines varies depending on product type and target market

Percentile Ranges // Methods of Extremes

-Includes 2.5-97.5th percentile -May be used to ensure everyone is protected

Modifying Mechanical Properties // Work Hardening

-Increases hardness of metals by working them cold -Causes permanent distortion of crystal structure -Cold rolling reduces grain size and adds hardness [Process] -Heating removes effects of cold working *Annealing refers to non-ferrous metals *Normalizing refers to ferrous metals *Both processes reverse internal stresses

Modifying Mechanical Properties // Alloying

-Increases tensile strength of metal (malleability and ductility reduced in the process)

Design Objectives of Green Design

-Increasing efficiency in use of materials/energy/resources -Minimizing damage or pollution from chosen materials -Reducing to a minimum any long-term harm caused by product use -Labelling materials for proper recycling -Minimizing number of different materials used in product

External Drivers of Social Change

-Increasing supply chain pressure -Public opinion -Waste charges -Take-back legislation -Eco-labelling schemes

The Lone Inventor

-Individual working outside of an organization who is committed to their invention -Often becomes isolated as they are too engrossed with their idea (resists change by others) -Lone inventors are finding it increasingly difficult to become successful *Most products now are extremely complex and rely on various expertise in various disciplines (eg: marketing) *This is especially because many lone inventors find it difficult to work in large groups/departments of a company (May be dogmatic, single-minded and less flexible)

Design Classic

-Industrially manufactured object w/ timeless appeal -A standard of its time with lasting effect on society -Often ignite tech advances with its beautiful design (eg: Apple products, Coca-Cola bottles) -Not dependent on heavy marketing nor advertising -Often widely imitated with cheaper versions

Sustainable Distribution Network

-Input of renewable energy sources for energy distribution

Grid Systems

-Interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers -Consists of generating stations that produce electrical power & high-voltage transmission lines

Situational Awareness

-Involves 3 levels: 1. Perception (awareness of one's surroundings) 2. Comprehension (understanding of the pattern's meaning & significance) 3. Projection (ability to predict future situations based on understanding)

Innovation Strategies // Modular Innovation

-Involves incremental change that maintains the body/housing/architecture while modifying its modules (basic configuration = same but one or more key components are changed) -May seek to add more interfaces to enhance functionality and features so each product is customizable for individuals- -eg: Phonebloks was an independent organization aiming to encourage the development/production of products with less waste (vs unsustainable iPhone where users cannot see what's inside nor install new parts!)

Mechanized Production

-Involves machines controlled by humans (eg: conveyer belts help control product production rate)

Innovation Strategies // Architectural Innovation

-Involves radical change/design that reconfigures the linkages between components of established products in new ways while leaving the core design elements untouched -eg: Xerox originally invented the plain photocopy machine *But during the 1970s, competitors took the essence of their invention and produced a smaller, less expensive alternative

Young's Modulus

-Is a measure of stiffness in an elastic material -It is a quantity used to characterize materials -Defined as the ratio of stress along an axis to strain -There is a yield point referring to the elastic limit

CAD is used for conceptual design and layout of products!

-It can eliminate high costs of testing and manufacturing! -Generally, it is used in fashion, product design, automotive, architecture and engineering too

Market Analysis

-It is primarily a summary about potential users and the market -An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from a marketing perspective, the fixed costs and variable costs: 1. ECONOMIC VIABILITY // something that can support itself financially (Applicable to anything; a single project or a business or a country) 2. FIXED COSTS // business costs that are constant whatever amount of goods produced (They can be time-related, such as salaries or rent (called OVERHEAD COSTS) that have to be paid) 3. VARIABLE COSTS // a cost that varies with level of output (volume-related)

Metal is made from metal ores, which have to be mined/processed to transform to usable materials

-It is rare for metals to be used in its pure form -They are usually mixed with other metals to improve its properties (becomes an alloy) -Most metals are good conductors

Green Legislation

-Laws and regulations based on conservation and sustainability principles -Is followed by designers and manufacturers when creating green products -Legislation leads to new laws and possible financial penalties for companies who do not practice environmental responsibility -It is effective because it usually involves incremental changes to a design (eg: legislation for use of catalytic converters for cars)

Economies of Scale

-Lead to lower cost & prices -Savings in cost due to increased production levels

Alertness

-Level of vigilance, readiness & caution of an individual -Being aware affects the understanding of environments and will impact goals -Lack of awareness causes human errors, such as slips (resulted by automatic behaviour), or mistakes (results from conscious deliberations) *Especially important in a workplace of high info flow where human errors can lead to serious consequences

Structure of Thermoplastics

-Linear chains with occasional side bondings of weak attraction (NO CROSS LINKS) -Can be heated and reformed as links weaken and molecular structure has flexible bonds at 180-220ºC through a process where it is heated to soften, & cooled to hardened (repeat) -Reheating thermoplastics will cause forces between molecules to weaken, allowing them to slip over one another *This allows the material to be reshaped or misshaped *Polymer chains do not cross links, allowing chains to move freely every time it is heated -If strands are stretched further, they have some extra give along line of atoms but will break easily too! -Thermoplastics include polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), PVC

Environmental Factors Affecting the Workplace

-Management (policies, safety education) -Physical environment (noise, temperature, pollutants, trip hazards) -Equipment Design (controls, visibility, hazards, warnings) -Nature of job (repetitiveness, mental/physical workload, force, pressure) Social/psychological environment (social group, morale) -Worker (personal ability, alertness, age, fatigue)

Mass Customization

-Manufactures products to individual customer orders -Products are adapted to customer's needs -Combines mass production + bespoke tailoring

Load Capacity

-Maximum load a robot can manipulate

Resources that are dependent on regrowth can sometimes be depleted beyond renewability

-May be caused by pollution or overgrazing of land -eg: Deforestation leads to desertification

CAD Software

-May be used in graphic design; producing shapes, curves, texts and figures in 2D *eg: Adobe Illustrator, Corel Draw are both VECTOR-BASED graphic software -May be used for development of solid/surface 3D models in 3D environments *eg: Google Sketch-Up, Fushion, Solidworks

Anthropometric Data // Dynamic (Functional) Data

-Measurements taken during physical activities (eg: crawling height, overhead reach) -Used to consider reach limits -Includes: 1. Reach 2. Clearance 3. Volumetric Data 4. Kinosphere (zone of reach) *More useful than static

Anthropometric Data // Static (Structural) Data

-Measurements taken when the subject is in a fixed position (eg: height, ar length) -Includes: 1. Skeletal dimensions 2. Static/stationary physical measurements 3. Soft tissue measurements *Easier to collect and more reliable than dynamic

Superalloys

-Metallic alloys usable at high temperatures -Can be based on iron, cobalt, nickel -May be used in aerospace, marine industry, nuclear reactors, industrial gas turbines

Human Errors

-Mistakes made by users -eg: Bhopal Chemical Release (1984) where gas leaked in India and over 500k people were exposed to chemicals -eg: Chernobyl Disaster (1986) was the worst nuclear power plant accident, classified as a lvl 7

Alloy

-Mixture of two elements, one which is metal -Often has properties that are different to metals they contain, making them more useful than pure metals! (eg: alloys are often harder than the metal they contain) -Alloy atoms are different sizes, therefore distorting regular atom arrangement (this also makes it more difficult for layers to slide over each other, a property that makes alloys harder than pure metal!)

Instrumented Physical Models

-Models equipped with the ability to take measurements -Records data on the dynamic behaviour of a product (eg: velocity, force, bending, folding or torque of product) -Provides accurate quantitative feedback for analysis -May be used to effectively investigate various phenomena -eg: fluid flows in hydraulic systems, wind tunnels, stress in structures, user interaction with products -eg: instrumented model of a KEYBOARD that can record actions of user and provide data on how often keys are used and the number of errors made by users -May be scaled in terms of both geometry and important force -May stimulate DIMENSIONS, WEIGHT proportions and object ARTICULATION *Design/manufacturing decisions may be formed from the accumulation of this data

Absorbed Mositre

-Moisture within cell walls of timber

Individual Energy Generation

-More people are inventing/using their own devices to create small amounts of energy for their products -Includes solar power, wind turbines, biogas rainwater harvesting, compost toilets, greywater treatments

Grain Size

-Most metals (with exception of mercury) tend to solid at room temperature -When metals are molten, they are held by weak forces *This weakness creates a fluidity, enabling metal to flow -As metals solidifies from its liquid state, the energy within each metallic atom reduces (causing it to emit heat) *The atoms then arrange themselves into a regular pattern (aka LATTICE/METALLIC STRUCTURE)

Raw Materials for Plastic

-Most plastics are derived from natural materials (eg: crude oil, coal, natural gas) -The starting point is DISTILLATION // occurs in petrochemical refineries, where the raw material turns into different parts *Heavy fractions give lubrication oils and heavy oils for heating fuels -Lighter fractions give gas, petrol & NAPHTHA // the chemical blocks for making plastics -Naphtha is cracked into smaller molecules depending on molecular weight (includes ethylene, propylene) and are further refined to produce base plastic materials

2nd Generation Robots

-Multitask or adaptive robots -Inputs and outputs vary to allow robots to have greater task range -Rudimentary machine intelligence due to sensors to detect environment -A controller allows it to process their data and adjust operation -Stay synchronized with others without human operator (occasional checking is good_

CAD Files in Rapid Prototyping

-Must be translated into a language that printing machines can understand (eg: STL/Standard Tessellation Language) -CAD models must be broken up into LAYERS before 3D printing *STL files 'cut up' CAD models, giving the 3D printing machine the info needed to print each layer of the object

Recovery & Disposal of Plastics

-Nearly all plastics can be recycled but its extent depends on technical, economic and logistic factors -As a valuable and finite source, the optimum recovery route for most plastic items at the 'end-of-life' is to be recycled (preferably back into a product that can be recycled continuously)

Internal Drivers of Eco Design

-Need to increase product quality -Better product and company image -Need to reduce costs -Need for innovative power

Projection Drawings

-ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION // A way of drawing an object from different directions -Usually consist of a front, side and top as they are the most important perspectives *Especially useful when a design has been developed to a stage near manufacture -Dominant layout used today is the 3RD ANGLE PROJECTION // most intuitive layout with top view over front view and right view on right/left on left -All orthographic drawings include dimensions for creation -All orthographic drawings include the symbol that identifies the type of projection

Innovation Strategies for Market // Suppression

-Or delayed adoption -A process where a new idea/adoption of a product by the market is actively slowed *This may happen during its early years due to: 1. Patent Disputes -Delays widespread sales until it is clear who has the right to market the innovation -During this time, the patent of other inventors are discouraged from devising improvements when they cannot benefit from them 2. Individuals and companies that provide tech products may be threatened by new innovations (eg: telegraph companies vs telephone) and use their power to increase difficulty of product succeeding (eg: influencing government legislation to outright sabotage) *This protective inertia in business resists change that allows innovation absorption; they prefer a steady evolutionary pathway than a disruptive revolution

Interval Data Scale

-Organized to even divisions/intervals -No 0

Particle reinforcing in composites is less effective than fibre reinforcement when strengthening material

-Particulate reinforced composites achieve gains in stiffness primarily but can also achieve gains in strength/toughness/wearability in concrete composites especially -Particulate reinforced composites are applied in contexts where strength, toughness and hardness is needed

Collection of Physiological Factor Data

-Performance testings -User trials -Observation -Collection of anthropometric data

Air Drying

-Placing stacks of timber in large, open sheds

Bioplastics

-Plastics that are derived from renewable sources (eg: vegetable fats, oils, corn starch -To reduce issue of disposing plastics, they can be designed as biodegradable (not all bioplastics biodegrade though!) -Biodegradable plastics can break down in ana/aerobic environments depending on its manufacture

Structure of Thermosetting Plastics

-Plastics that retain their strength even when heated -Contains linear molecules with strong primary bonds between CROSS links, giving a rigid 3D structure -On first heating, the polymer softens and can be moulded into shape under pressure *However, the heat triggers a chemical reaction that causes molecules to become permanently locked, and therefore, the polymer becomes permanently set and cannot be softened again via heating *Process consists of being heated, hardened, cooled, and then permanently hardened

All plastics are polymers created by bonding molecules

-Polymers are made from binding of monomers

Carbon Capture

-Process of capturing waste CO2 from large point sources like fossil fuel power plants, then transporting it to a storage site to deposit where it will not enter the atmosphere -eg: underground geological formation, which is a means of mitigating contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification!

Design for Manufacture (DfM)

-Process of designing to improve ease of manufacture -This allows product to become more cost-efficient with higher profits and quicker production -Can be broken down to: 1. Designing for materials (availability of materials and its effect on manufacturing) 2. Designing for process (only use available processes at location) 3. Design for assembly (greater convenience = lower assembly line time & costs) 4. Design for disassembly (components can be reused/repaired or materials can be repurposed/recycled, the method increases effectiveness of a product both during/after its life)

Recover & Disposal of Metals/Metallic Alloys

-Processing ferrous and non-ferrous metal scrap into vital secondary raw materials is used for the smelting of new metals -Over 400mil tonnes of metal is recycled every year! -There have been considerable savings in energy, reduced CO2 emissions! -Recycling metals protects the environment while saving energy (eg: recycling aluminium saves 95% energy!) -Using secondary raw materials = less use of natural resources

Assembly Line Production

-Products & components are moved continuously along a conveyer -Each manufacturing task is divided for work division -Components are added as they pass through the stages -May be controlled by robots

Clean Technology

-Products or services that reduce waste and require minimum amount of non-renewable resources

Grain size of metals can be controlled/modified by...

-Rate at which metal is allowed to cool and solidify -Applying heat treatments after solidifcation(eg: hardening, tempering, annealing (non ferrous/no iron), normalizing (ferrous/contain iron) -Reheating metals/alloys to allow grains to diffuse with each other and structures to change

Practical Function

-Rational and well-reasoned approach to a design -Decisions are determined by object usability & reliability

Points of Consideration for Green Design

-Raw materials used -Packaging -Toxic chemicals use -Energy during production -End of life disposal issues -Production methods

Product Recovery Strategies

-Recycling -Raw Material Recovery (eg: BMW have made 90% of their products capable of being dismantled at their end of life to extract materials for a secondary use) -Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment/ WEEE Directive (Directive for EU to reduce electrical & electronic equipment waste) -Waste to Energy/WtE (process of generating energy in heat/electric form from waste, usually produces energy directly via combustion)

Aims of Human Factors

-Reduce stress & fatigue of user with ease of use -Increased safety -Enhanced operational comfort -Improved system performance, reliability & maintenance

Drivers of Clean Technology

-Reducing pollution & energy use -Reducing wastage of resources -Conserving natural resources -Promoting ecofriendliness *Often driven by legislation laws, that are effective as manufacturers want to avoid penalties & community pressure

Strategies of Innovation // Act of Insight

-Refers to sudden insight/revelation suggesting a means of achieving/solution -Not only dependent on state of mind of inventor but the circumstances of occurrence -eg: Thomas Edison & Wilson Swan, the inventors of light bulbs

Target Audience

-Relates to characteristics of users within each sector/segment -A specific group of people within the target market the product is aimed at -eg: A company selling new diet programs for men with heart disease problems (target market) aims its communication at the spouse (target audience) who take care of their nutrition plan

Human Information Processing Systems3. Central Processes

-Relates to how humans deal with surroundings via our 5 senses -Can be represented via information flow diagram with inputs & outputs [Driving a Car Scenario] 1. Input -Red light 2. Sensory Processes -Eyes recognize it 3. Central Processes -Brain remembers meaning of red light *1-3 are Psychological factors 4. Motor Processes -Nerve impulse travels to muscle that signals us to stop the car 5. Output -Gear shift & we stop the car *4-5 are Physiological factors

Innovation Types // Sustaining Innovation

-Relates to improving current products by developing generations until product reaches end of its life -Sustaining innovations are often necessary and provide protection via sustained profitability which can fund breakthrough/disruptive innovations! -They are all about milking the breakthrough product as many will not last long without sustaining effort (which maximizes profitability while improving the benefits of the product too)

Human Factors // Cognitive Ergonomics

-Relates to mental processes (eg: perception, memory, reasoning, motor responses) as they affect human interaction with systems

Target Market

-Relates to sectors and segments within a population and include: 1. SEGMENTATIONS // addresses, local climate/region 2. DEMOGRAPHIC/SOCIOECONOMIC SEGMENTATION // gender, age, income, occupation, education, household size, family life cycle stage 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL SEGMENTATION // similar attitudes, values, lifestyles 4. BEHAVIOURAL SEGMENTATION // degree of loyalty 5. PRODUCT-RELATED SEGMENTATION // relationship to a product

Human Factors // Organizational Ergonomics

-Relates to: 1. Communication 2. Work design 3. Work hours management 4. Teamwork 5. Quality management

Human Factors // Physical Ergonomics

-Relates to: 1. Subject posture 2. Worksite development 3. Operating layout 4. Material handling 5. Repetitive stress 6. Movement 7. Health 8. Safety

Advantages of Thermosets

-Retain strength and shape when heated -Makes them well-suited to production of permanent components & large, solid shapes -Excellent strength attributes (though brittle) -Include melamine resins, epoxy resins, urea formaldehyde

Purposes of Conceptual Modelling

-Show a proposed building design in its surroundings -Show the form of a product for ergonomic considerations -May be used to give a realistic view of intended design with malleable materials -Model a mechanism before manufacture

Assembly Drawing

-Shows how parts of product fit together -Often used to show how to assemble parts of model kits and flat pack furniture -Includes: 1. Fitted Assembly Drawings -Parts are put together -Can be 2D or 3D 2. Exploded Assembly Drawing -Shows separated parts with correct relation of fitting -Usually 3D

1st Generation robots

-Single tasked -Simple mechanical arm that can conduct a task at high speed, many times, for a long time -Can work in groups with synchronized actions -Requires human supervision

Tools of Collecting Anthropometric Data

-Sliding/torso callipers -Cloth tape -Sitting height measure -Height gauges

Metals Slow Cooling vs Rapid Cooling

-Slow cooling: large grains -Rapid cooling: small grains

Craft Production

-Small scale - = Unique products -Labour intensive and high skill required

Properties of Smart Materials

-Smart materials have one or more properties that can be altered (eg: transparency, volume, conductivity) -Includes... 1. PIEZO ELECTRICITY -Ability of materials to generate an electric charge in response to mechanical stress -Can be used in reverse to generate a sound when electricity is an input as it causes the piezoelectric material to vibrate (emit sound) 2. SHAPE MEMORY -Metals that exhibit pseudoelasticity and shape memory due to rearrangement of molecules in material -Occurs without temperature change -The shape memory effect allows severe deformation of a material, which can be returned to original shape through heating! (eg: Increased load in SMA causes molecular rearrangement, which can be reversed when load is decreased) 3. MAGNETO-RHEOSTATIC -There is a change in viscocity when magnetic force is applied 4. PHOTO-CHROMICITY -Changes in colour according to light exposure -eg: sunglasses that can dim when exposed to light, protecting the eyes

Consumerism

-Social and economic order and ideology encouraging the acquisition of goods and services in mass amounts

System Levels Solution

-Solutions that are implemented to deal with the whole system rather than components

Multi-Disciplinary Approach

-Sometimes, the inventor is also the product champion and/or entreprenour -This requires specific skill sets and actions -Effective design draws from multiple areas of expertise and this can be utilized at different stages of product development

Carbon Fibre

-Strong and lightweight at the same time due to the way the atoms are structured and bonded together -The matrix for CF is an epoxy resin that supports and surrounds reinforcement materials (the woven CF fabric) *EPOXY // used to hold CF sheets into final form *Epoxy resin is cured during moulding process with heat and pressure in a device called an AUTOCLAVE // this is an efficient and accurate process that allows manufacturers to create products with high tolerances) *Carbon fibre may also be created with a more bespoke process using a HAND-LAYUP PROCESS // where a mould is required but CF weave is layered between coats of epoxy resin

Sustainable design is different to green design

-Sustainable design provides socio-economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare & environment throughout its life cycle -Eco-design just cares for environmental impact

Machine to Machine (M2M)

-Tech that enables networking of info to perform actions without human manual assistance -Often used for remote monitoring (eg: product restocking where a vending machine can msg the distributor when a particular product is running low) -An important aspect to: *Warehouse management *Robotics *Traffic controls *Fleet management *Telemedicine -Forms a basis for the Internet of Things that M2M is based on (info network transfer between tech) -Key components of M2M are: 1. Sensors 2. Wifi 3. Autonomic Computing Softwares (allow device to interpret data & make decisions)

Shelved Technologies

-Technology that is shelved for various reasons -Sometimes they will be rediscovered or taken off the shelf

Properties of Materials // Physical Properties

-Tend to be characteristics of materials that are identified through testing that is non-destructive (although SOME deformation is required) Physical properties include: 1. MASS -Matter in material 2. WEIGHT -Relies on gravitational forces -In Netwons 3. VOLUME -Quantity of 3D space enclosed by a boundary (eg: space that a substance solid, liquid, gas or shape occupies) 4. DENSITY -Mass/unit volume of material -Design contexts include pre-packaged food is sold by weight and volume 5. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY -Measure of a material's ability to conduct electricity (a material with low resistivity conducts electricity well!) 6. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY -A measure of how fast heat is conducted through a material with a given temp difference across its surface -It is important for objects that are heated or conduct/insulate against heat gain/loss (eg: polystyrene foam in fridge insulation, car radiator) -The particles will travel through conduction from HOT to COLD (hot particles vibrate more rapidly) 7. THERMAL EXPANSION -Measure of the degree of increase in dimensions when an object is heated -Measurable by increase in length, area or volume -eg: Heat expansion strips enable elevated roads to contract and expand 8. HARDNESS -Resistance a material offers to penetration/scratching -eg: Ceramic floor tiles are extremely hard and resistant to scratching/cutting devices) Is often considered with the mechanical property of brittleness and toughness!

Ductility

-The ability of a metal to be drawn out into a thin wire (eg: paperclips)

Precautionary Principle

-The anticipation of potential problems -Risk cannot be calculated and is only suspected -Permits a lower level of proof and is used in policy-making where consequences of waiting for higher levels may be more costly

Innovation Types // Disruptive Innovation

-The big ideas often associated with innovation - They are disruptive because they disrupt current market behaviour (renders current solutions obsolete while transforming value propositions) -May also bring previously marginal customers/companies to the fore as it delivers innovations aimed at a set of customers whose needs are being ignored by industry leaders -Tends to be simpler than prior approaches -Trades off performance of one dimension for another (eg: exchange convenience for price) -eg: iPod radically changed the way we listen/buy music -eg: Tablet PCs disrupted the laptop computer market

Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

-The calculation & stimulation of unknown factors in a product using systems that allow designers to see theoretical stress -Consists of a computer model -Analyzes stress, strain, heat transfer -Design is subdivided into elements where colours indicate stress levels -Benefits include: • Helps designers predict life of material/structure • Shows areas where crack propagation is most likely • Heat transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of material/structure • Can predict the surface temperature on a spaceship/flow of plastic into a mould This method of testing is far more efficient vs manufacturing costs

Conflicts & Compromise

-The development of new products requires multidisciplinary teams of designers, engineers, manufacturers whose different priorities may lead to conflict -Compromises are often made to achieve success as purely functional products lack aesthetic appeal and we often appreciate and view aesthetics first (eg: Starck's Salif Juicer had poor function and only appealed to psychological function)

First to Market

-The first product that created a new market (eg: desktop computer), a product category (eg: a portable computer), or a subdivision of a category (eg: laptop) -eg: Casio Digital watch was the first to market, allowing it to be become a dominant player in the digital watch market -eg: Dyson Vacuum Cleaner where they have developed a whole product family based on a cyclonic air moving system -eg: Sony Walkman was the first and dominant portable music player, forming Sony a foundation to become the largest musical/electronic company

Function

-The function of a product -Design Classics can be considered so due to their high ability to fulfill their task

For an innovation to occur, something more than idea generation is needed!

-The idea must be put into action to a genuine difference to the human condition! -The idea must be diffused into the market place

Strategies of Innovation // Market Pull

-The initial impetus for the development of a new product generated by market demand *Also called consumer pull due to market influences -Market influences include a demand from consumers for a new product as well as when a competitor releases a new product, which impacts one's market share (eg: consumer demand for larger phone screens highlighted by iPhone evolution) -Market research is extremely important in identifying opportunities for new product development (eg: analyzing sales trends help indicate changes in consumer preferences and needs)

IP Rights

-The legally recognized exclusive rights to creations of the mind -Using this, owners are granted exclusive rights to intangible assets (music/art) -eg: copyright, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights, trade dress

Extracting Metal from ore

-The major proportion of naturally occurring materials are metals (form 25% of earth's crust by weight) -All metals (with the exception of gold) are found chemically combined with other elements in the form of oxides and sulphates [Process] -METAL ORE // rock containing metal or a metal compound in a high enough concentration to make it economic to extract the metal *IRON ORES // contain iron oxide, like magnetite and haematite *This ore can be converted into usable material through many processes (eg: washing, grading, crushing) *Ore is crushed to produce a suitable lump size (100mm cubes)/sintered with small loose particles fused with coke to produce a hard porous mass

Converging Technologies

-The merging of existing tech = new innovative products & systems offering greater convenience/efficiency/features not currently in existence -The merging of biotech, info & communication tech & cognitive science has given rise to the smartphone -eg: Wearable tech like applewatch where it can be integrated into fashion to give wider range of user experience -eg: Telecommunications where we can communicate via cable, telegraph, telephone or broadcasting all on one platform such as the Google Glass (more personal experience too) -eg: Small medicinal implants, quick drug delivery services, tracking devices for heart rate/calorie data/glucose levels

Clearance

-The minimum distance required to enable a user group through an area -Especially important when designing emergency exits, safety hatches

Invention

-The process of discovering a principle (a technical advance in a particular field often resulting in a novel product) -Many inventions take many hours of discovering/testing, by chance, or in collaboration with others

Strategies of Innovation // Technology Transfer (ToT)

-The process of transferring knowledge, skills + technologies, methods of manufacturing between governments, education, and business -Transfer ensures scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider range of users/communities who can further develop tech into new products/systems/environments -eg: biogas digesters, windmills and solar systems, vaccines, medicines -TOT provides: 1. Positive economic impact on society 2. Recognition for universities 3. Attraction towards research sponsors 4. Creation of educational opportunities for students 5. A linkage for students to future job opportunities 6. Opportunity for start-up companies to expand operations

Mass Production

-The production of large quantities of a standardized article (often using assembly line techniques) -Involves bulk manufacture of products that have little/no customization -Setup costs are high as it usually involves extensive mechanism and automation *Total cost per unit is lower though as less labour is required and materials can be sourced in larger quantities for less -Purports to deliver goods & services at affordable prices -There is a stable amount

Predictability of PLC

-The rate of technological advancement has caused many extremely short PLC (especially in digital device) -A highly innovative product may be replaced within a year (eg: Apple) -Unpredictability // it may be difficult to test PLC, especially during a new product's development phase (consumer demand is unpredictable and manufacturers don't always get it right)

Dematerialization

-The reduction of total material and energy throughout the creation process of a product to reduce its environmental impact -It is a powerful strategy that many manufactures now use to improve their triple-bottom line -Includes: 1. Reduction of raw materials at production stage 2. Reduction of energy/material inputs at the use stage 3. Reduction of waste at the disposal stage

Biomechanics in Human Factors

-The research & analysis of operations of human muscles, joints, tendons -Includes: 1. Force (excessive impact on joints causes muscles to tense) 2. Repetition (repeated action may strain joints) 3. Duration (continuous muscular effort where continuous load can cause static exertion) 4. Posture (poor posture is caused by duration overexertion)

Perception

-The way something is understood -The human mind cannot effectively deal with chaos, viewing concepts as a pattern for ease of use instead (this natural pattern mapping is called the Perception Effect)

Diffusion of Innovation

-Theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures -The innovation must be widely sustained in order to self-sustain -Relies heavily on human skills and techniques

Ratio Data Scale

-There is a true 0 -Allows comparison between numbers

Uncomfortable work environments affect productivity and physical and mental health

-Therefore, incorporating all such three ergonomics can remedy this, improving employee performance, reduce absence & stress levels

Strategies for green design involve focusing on 1 or 2 environmental objectives when designing/redesigning products

-These categories include: 1. Materials 2. Energy 3. Pollution/Waste

Mass production strategizes to produce a higher number of units while supplying them to the market at a lower cost than competitors

-This allows consumer to access a product of equivalent quality at lower prices -Consumers will show preferences for lower prices, allowing products to sell in much higher quantities, and this creates the status for potential classic designs

The result of a design should derive directly from its purpose

-This idea came from Louis Sullivan -Bauhaus ideology also follows this idea

Nuclear, coal, oil, timber and gas are the most commonly used resources

-This is due to their plentiful and cheap supplies

Recovery & Disposal of Timber

-Timber is one of the most renewable and earth friendly materials *This makes the principle and practical aspect of recovery and recycling quite straight forward [WOOD RECYCLING] -Process of turning waste timber to usable products -Popularized in early 1990s due to deforestation, and climate change issues that prompted timber suppliers to use more sustainable timber source -Over recent years, landfill taxes & haulage costs have also risen *This has increased the amount of waste wood being recycled -Recycling timber is the environmentally friendliest form of timber production -Timber can be chipped to wood chips and used to power homes/power plants -Uses of recycled waste wood include traditional feedstock for panel board industry, animal beddings, play areas, filter beds

Retrostyling

-To imitate a style of the past using its form and decoration -May be used to modernize a product using new tech, materials and manufacturing processes -Classic Designs can also adopt this (eg: Mini Cooper & VW Beetle where the Mini Cooper was designed small and playful and cute to capture audiences a second time around)

Waste Reduction Strategies // Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

-Tool supporting the decision making of a product's impact on environment from its extraction of raw materials, manufacturing processes, distribution & product disposal -Good for creating a regenerative design that enables strategies of reuse and a cradle to cradle life cycle (eg: biofuels, self-decomposing materials, new products from recyclable materials)

Embodied Energy

-Total energy required to produce a product -Valuable for calculating effectiveness of energy-producing/saving devices

Recycling & Plastics

-Turning waste into a new substance/product, which includes composting if it meets quality protocols -Benefits include: *Provides a sustainable source of raw materials to industry *Greatly reduces environmental impacts of plastic-rich products that give off harmful pollutants in manufacture and incineration *Minimizes amount of plastic sent to landfill sites *Avoids consumption of Earth's oil stocks *Consumes less energy than producing new, virgin polymers *Encourages a sustainable lifestyle

Concept Models

-Used to communicate ideas/concepts that might be difficult to imagine otherwise -Are an abstraction; which implies the need for simplification of the real system -The secret to good conceptualization modelling is getting the level of simplification correct, to abstract at the right level! -Concept models may be: 1. GRAPHICAL //sketches, drawings, flow charts 2. PHYSICAL // card, clay, rapid prototype, etc 3. VIRTUAL // computer aided design/CAD

Kick Starters

-Uses the concept of crowd-sourcing -Largely via the internet

Modifying Mechanical Properties // Tempering

-Usually performed after hardening to reduce excess hardness and add toughness -It is a process of heat treating, which increases toughness of iron-based alloys -Done by heating metal to some temperature below the critical point for a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air *The exact temperature determines amount of hardness removed and depends on alloy composition and desired properties of finished product (eg: very hard tools are tempered at low temperatures vs springs which are tempered to much higher temperatures) [Process] -Metal is hardened, heated to cherry red -It is quenched in water -Metal is cleaned & polished with emery cloth or wet & dry paper -Metal is heated and redness flows to end of metal -Metal is tempered hard & tough -When desired colour is reached, quench metal in water again -Heat metal again

Steel Structure // Face Centred Cubic

-Very ductile, good electrical conductors (eg: aluminum, copper)

Steel Structure // Close Packed Hexogonal

-Weak with poor strength:weight ratio (eg: zinc magnesium)

Planned Obsolescence

-When a product is deliberately designed to have a specific product cycle -Products re designed to last until a customer's lasting need is developed -Also designed to convince the customer that this is a quality product despite obsolescence -When product fails, the customer will want to buy another up-to-date version

Obsolescence & Classic Designs

-When a product is no longer needed, though classic designs transcend obsolescence and are still sought after -The classic design may become technologically obsolete or no longer needed as a functional object *Though it may still sell very small numbers (not commercially) *In this situation, the resale value of these products increases drastically *These are very collectable and have investment value (eg: classic cars) -A design classic will remain in the maturity phase of its product cycle *Some may experience decline at times, it will experience growth phase again

Product Life Cycle // Decline Phase Extension Strategies

-When decline phase occurs, companies will use extension strategies to delay PL -Some products are resistant to decline stage (eg: food products like bread, milk) *The profit for food items remains constant, there is rarely huge fluctuations in cost so product is also constant! -Some brands are continuously popular but are often invigorated (eg: Coke Light/Zero, Cherry Coke) as an extension strategy -Technological products go into decline often as new tech replaces them (eg: development of mobile phone technology) *-Maturity stage is a good stage to generate cash and is a profitable stage too so strategies are often implemented then

Composite Forms // Sheet Glass

-When glass is laminated, it becomes a composite because there is an interlayer made from PVB -When glass is shattered, the interlayer keeps the glass bonded, preventing the glass from breaking up

Rational meets Emotional

-When practical function meets the designer's primary goal, the interaction with the object can become intuitive -Intuitive design will consider affordance, expectation, efficiency, responsiveness, explorability, emotional security, forgiveness -A product can transcend its practical function to meet the psychological needs of users by evoking emotions -eg: Aesthetically pleasing objects are more effective due to sensual appeal, which allows users to form an emotional connection with the object

Timber can dry rot

-When timber is subject to decay and attack by fungus -Therefore, timber is seasoned as part of its preparation for commercial use *This process reduces the moisture content so that it becomes workable (however, there will always be remaining moisture means that the wood will never truly stabilize, causing it to swell and shrink as humidity and temperature rise)

Experiential Learning

-Where designers learn by doing

Strategies of Innovation // Technology Push

-Where the impetus for a new design emanates from a technological development -Products may be re-designed due to changes in materials, technology, or manufacturing methods -Manufacturers will push new products to market hoping consumers will adapt to new tech -eg: Volvo pushed safety features (eg: airbags, traction control, pedestrian airbag, collision avoidance) in its cars *This was successful vs failures (eg: Segway, Sinclair C5)

Weaving CF

-Woven CF is moist suitable for applications needed for high strength-weight ratio -CF is stiff/strong but also very light -Has incredible strength and weight products that adds to its distinct aesthetic values -CF is now the absolute leader in performance road bike materials (can be made 3-4x lighter than alloy bikes and 3-4x stronger!)

Short fibres include wool, linen, cotton

-vs long fibres such as silk

3rd Generation Robots

1. Autonomous Robots -Work on its own without supervision -Has a controller -Watches and learns to replicate task 2. Insect Robots -A fleet of simple insect robots are used -Work like anthills -Individuals lack AI but are intelligent as a group -Used with autonomous are not as efficient

Drivers of Green Design

1. Consumer Pressure 2. Environmental Legislation (incremental design often responds to this)

Reasons for Shelved Technology

1. Cost Effectiveness -The technology is available but the cost of use is too expensive (eg: 3D printers for home use but this is changing now) 2. Social Reasons -Market not ready for change -Market perceives product is unsafe 3. Cultural Reasons -eg: Amish beliefs 4. Technological Reasons -The science of ideas have been developed by technology is not resolved enough to introduce the product (eg: flexible phones) 5. Timing Issues -May require strategic release of products (eg: iPad could have been released before the iPhone but Apple did not want to confuse market with that order)

Circular economies requires much consideration and includes...

1. Cradle to Cradle -Design thinking that views whole design and its manufacturing processes regarding its environmental effects 2. Design for Disassembly -Allows for recovery of materials and components

Eco-Design Philosophies include...

1. Cradle to Grave -Considers environmental effects of a product all the way from manufacture to disposal 2. Cradle to Cradle -Aims to eliminate waste from production, use, and disposal -Centres on products which are made to be made again

Strategies of Green Design

1. Design for dematerialization -Reduces overall size, weight & number of materials 2. Design with low impact materials 3. Design for cleaner products 4. Design for disassembly -Reduces end-of-life impact -Ease of assembly enhances recycling ease 5. Design for longevity 6. Design for environment software -Use a software that allows designers to perform LCA on a product to assess its env impact 7. Design for materials -Considers availability of materials that can affect manufacturing processes (eg: thermoplastic can affect env via oil extraction but they are highly recyclable and will have a less impact than if incinerated) 8. Design for Assembly -Approach to design with easy manufacture, allowing for efficiency and less impacts on env that is cost-effective & high profit 9. Design for process -Designing to enable product to be manufactured using a specific method to limit env effects

There are 3 main types of metal alloys

1. Ferrous -Contains iron -Almost all are magnetic -eg: mild steel for engineering, stainless steel for cutlery 2. Non-Ferrous -Metals w/o iron -eg: Aluminium for kitchen foil 3. Alloys -Metals formed by mixing 2+ metals and other elements with improved qualities -eg: High speed steel

Four Elements of Diffusion

1. Innovation 2. Communication Channels -The way the message moves around 3. Time -Rate of adoption/relative speed the innovation is adopted by people of a social system 4. Social Systems -A set of interrelated units engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal

Psychological Factor Data Collection Methods

1. Interviews -May be inaccurate due to what interviewee thinks is socially acceptable 2. Surveys & Questionnaires -Some may observe behaviour and mental processes 3. Observation -May be done in a real world setting or laboratory -Different settings may affect authenticity 4. Standardized Tests -Allows researching to measure an aspect of participants behaviour/mental processes -A comparison may be drawn from different individuals 5. Case Studies -In-depth for an individual but may not be generalized

Competition Research Methods

1. LITERATURE SEARCH -Usually performed using authoritative sources -eg: academic journals, books, theses, publications 2. USER TRIAL -Community members use product under observation in a lab environment -Set tasks are often performed under controlled conditions 3. USER RESEARCH -Questioning of users about their experiences using a product -Usually a questionnaire or focus group 4. EXPERT APPRAISAL -Where an expert of the field gives their opinion

Psychological factor data is influenced by...

1. Light (provides visibility) 2. Smell (most powerful human processes) 3. Sound/noise (users can receive feedback from product) 4. Taste 5. Temperature (hold/cold conditions affect productivity) 6. Texture (provides feedback & info relative to touch & grip)

Elements of Environmental Factors

1. Lighting -Affects alertness, productivity & performance 2. Noise -May affect health (eg: Tinnitus, permanent ringing in ears) 3. Spatial Issues -Open plan environments can encourage communication -Defensible spaces can encourage focused thinking -Affect productivity & performance 4. Air Quality -Includes temperature & humidity -Good air quality = better thermal comfort -Maintained by air temperature (heat from other heat sources), radiant temperature (body heat transfer), air velocity (movement of air, eg still air increases stiffness vs moving air increases heat loss)

Types of Manmade Timbers

1. MDF -Smooth, even surface -Easily machined, painted, stained -Available in water/fire-resistant forms -Mainly for furniture and interior panelling due to easy machining qualities 2. Plywood -Very strong board constructed of layers of veneer/piles glued at 90º to each other 3. Particleboard -Made from chips of wood glued together -Usually veneered/covered in plastic laminate -eg: Kitchen tops *Are all manufactured boards which are timber sheets produce by gluing of wood layers/fibres together aka waste wood products *Mainly used for industrial production

Elements of Reducing Strain of Environmental Factors

1. Management -Policies, safety education 2. Physical Environment -Noise, temperature, pollutants, trip hazards, signage 3. Task -Boredom & receptiveness -Mental/physical workload -Musculoskeletal impacts (eg: force, pressure, repetition) 4. Social & Psychological Environment -Social group norms -Morale 6. The Worker -Personal ability -Alertness -Age -Fatigue

Innovations often fail to make the transition from idea to market due to...

1. Marketability -Low product demand/not readily saleable 2. Financial Support -Little financial backing from outside sources 3. Need -Is there a demand for the product? 4. Price -Cost vs usefulness/value for money 5. Resistance for change -Does the product challenge routine? 6. Risk -Is there a level of uncertainty about financial/time investment vs performance of the innovation?

Types of Plastic

1. Natural -Materials that can be shaped/moulded . by heat (eg: wax) 2. Semi-Synthetic -Natural materials modified with others 3. Synthetic -Derived from breaking & cracking of carbon-based materials -This changes their molecular structure -Often done via petrochemical refineries under heat & pressure

LCA is based on 5 stages...

1. Pre-production 2. Production 3. Distribution (+ packaaging) 4. Utilization 5. Disposal

Roger's 5 Characteristics of Consumer Adoption of Innovations impact adoption of innovation and consist of...

1. Relative Advantage -How improved an innovation is vs previous generation (eg: no bags in suction for the Dyson DC01) 2. Compatibility -Level of ease an innovation has to be assimilated into someone's life 3. Complexity -Of the innovation is too complex/difficult to use, it will be hard to adopt (eg: Self check-in machines at airports) 4. Observability -Extent of product visibility to others (More visible = more communication amongst potential consumers to create more +/- reactions (eg: use of adverts)) 5. Triability -How easily an innovation may be explored. If it is testable, the individual may more likely adopt it (eg: in-store experiences)

Types of Media

1. Social Media -Increasingly popular for small business owners -Affordable and easy to update with growing success -Crowd-sourcing is especially popular for innovators wanting to reach more people -Social networks like FB, Twitter are platforms for brand advertising 2. Newspapers & Magazine -Moved from print to online but both provide opportunities to discuss/advertise/promote new tech -Online version can use moving images to add to message/further appeal -Early to late majority may be influenced -EARLY adopters already track stories and any new Developments 3. Tv & Radio -Mass media may not be as impactful as it was previously -Focuses more on clothes, medical, hygiene/personal products

Difficulties of Collecting Anthropometric Data

1. Tools used 2. Personnel training (prone to errors) 3. Time of day (cartilaginous discs get compressed . by body weight throughout the day, affecting our height by up to 22mm) 4. Body shape (clothes may affect) 5. User behaviour (different people carry out tasks differently, hard to control)

Engineered/Manmade Wood

CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER (CLT) • Versatile multilayered panel of lumber • Each layer is placed cross-wise to adjacent layers to increase rigidity and strength • CLT can be used for floors, walls, roofs Advantages in faster construction time as panels are manufactured and finished off-site and supplied ready to fit/screw together as a flat pack PLYWOOD • Sheet material manufactured from thin layers/piles of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers (wood grain is rotated up to 90º) PARTICLE/CHIPBOARD • Material made from different sizes of wood chips and joined with glue • Is less expensive, denser and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood *Hence, it is substituted for them when appearance and strength are less important than cost • They can be made more attractive by painting or the use of wood veneers LAMINATED VENEER LUMBER (LVL) • Wood that uses multiple layers of thin woods assembled with adhesives • Typically used for headers, beams, and edge-forming material • It offers several advantages over typical milled lumber: 1. It is made in a factory under controlled specifications 2. It is stronger, straighter and more uniform 3. It's composite nature makes it less likely than conventional lumber to warp, twist, bow or shrink

Types of Digital Human Systems

MOTION CAPTURE -Recording of human and animal movement through video, magnetic or electro-mechanical devices -Reduces cost of animation! -Saves times and creates more natural movements (however, it is limited to only anatomically possible gestures) -Allows designer to understand user's physiological requirements! -Capturing a number of user movements allows designers to develop better ergonomic products -eg: Person wearing a set of LED/magnetic/reflective markers at each joint with sensors tracking marker positions to develop a digital representation of the motion HAPTIC TECHNOLOGY -An emerging technology that interfaces the user via sense of touch -Works by using mechanical actuators to apply force to user -eg: New technologies in HT from VR now allow computer users to use touch to feel virtual objects! -Stimulates physics of user's virtual world and may be computed to real time -Allows user to become part of computer stimulation through interaction (which enables designers to better observe user performance to design better!) -Used in feedback devices used in home entertainment consoles -Force-feedback devices allow users to feel and touch virtual objects with high degree of realism! (eg: force-feedback steering wheels that torque and vibrate on bumpy driving game roads) -There are many possibilities for HT: *Entertainment (challenges with knocking down price to reasonable point) *Robots (assist those with motor control issues/elderly who have lost functioning ability} *Wearable haptics (could provide guidance for blind, give info/help for those with special needs) *Touchscreens (feeling an image?) VIRTUAL REALITY -Photorealistic CAD-based interactive models that use both surface and solid modelling -Considered DIGITAL MOCK-UPS -It has the ability to stimulate a real situation on the screen and allows users to interact with it in a near natural way! (eg: may use headset/wearable technology) -eg: Ford Motor Company uses VR to test and analyse cabins of vehicles (also use haptic devices to provide real sense of space) *This provides valuable feedback of mapping of controls/ergonomics of interior of car ANIMATION -Ability to link graphic screens together to stimulate motion/process -Used to stimulate various design contexts with digital humans to allow testing of various scenarios -eg: Manufacturing companies can see how safe production will occur when products are being assembled via computer animations without having to risk worker safety at any point!

Types of CAD Models

SURFACE MODELS -Photorealistic images of a product -Offers some machining data but none on product interior -eg: Autodesk Fusion, Alias Studio Tools SOLID MODELS -Clear representations of the final part, providing complete set of data for product to be realized -Solid modelling programs usually create models by creating a base solid and adding/subtracting from it (with features like extrude cuts, revolves, etc) -It was originally developed for machine design and is used heavily for engineering with large part assemblies, digital testing and rapid prototyping -eg: Autodesk Fusion 360, SolidWorks DATA MODELS -Explicitly determines structure of data, including statistical modelling -A visual representation of a database with diagram, text and symbols -Typically include databases and info systems -Development in ICT uses data modelling (eg: GPS, 3D scanning, digital testing) VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING -Surface + solid modelling = photorealistic interactive models -Involves CAD, CAutoD (computer automated design) and CAE (computer aided engineering) to validate a design before creating physical prototype -Done by creating 3D computer generated geometrical shapes (PARTS!) and combining them into assembly to test different motions, fit and function!

Properties of Materials // Mechanical Properties

TENSILE STRENGTH -Ability of a material to withstand pulling forces -Is important in selecting materials for ropes and cables in an elevator or for steel suspensions cables on a bridge COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH -Ability of a material to withstand being pushed/squashed! -Is important in selecting materials for structure -eg: pillars, reinforced concrete (Glass is also being used more often in construction because of its good compression strength!) STIFFNESS -Resistance of an elastic body to deflection by an applied force -Important consideration for an airplane wing/downhill skateboard where maintaining shape is crucial to Performance! TOUGHNESS -A material's resistance to fracture when stressed! -Can absorb energy and deform without fracturing PLASTICITY -Ability of a material to change shape permanently by external blows/pressure without cracking/breaking (eg: plasticine). -Some materials are more 'plastic' when heated (eg: plastic) STRESS -Force/unit area of material -Is normally determined by applying tensile force to material sample STRAIN -Extension/unit length -After tensile force is applied to sample material, it is expected that there will be some extension/elongation in sample

+/- of SLS

[+] -Decrease development time -Decrease costly mistake -Increase number of variants of product -Increase product complexity -Increase effective communication -Provide with concept proof required for attracting necessary funds [-] -Some feel it fails in replication of the real product of system -Some important developmental steps are omitted for a quick and cheap working model -Many problems may be overlooked = endless rectifications and revisions -May not be suitable for large size applications -User may have high expectations on performance that cannot be delivered

Positives & Benefits of Conceptual Modelling

[+] -Shares a big picture -Makes it easy for non-designers and non-technical people to understand a complex idea -Communicate with clients and users and team members -Ability to manipulate ideas better than with drawings alone -Helps establish proportion -Gauge people's reaction to concept/idea [-] -Lacks detail -Can be misinterpreted =Scale models can be misleading when product is smaller/larger -Materials may not reflect the final choice of materials- difficult to emulate -Simplicity of model can lead to vital aspects of concept forgotten

+/- of FDM

[+] -Speed -Accuracy -Cheap material -Easy to use -Limited design restrictions -Automatic scaling [-] -Limited materials -Limited size -Cost of machine

+/- of LOM

[+] iInexpensive materials (wood, plastic, paper, etc.) -The effect can be achieved manually without aid from machinery -Can be used to create large models -Models can be worked on (sanding, lacquer, painting, etc.) [-] -Not as detailed as other methods - limited by depth of material used -Not very material-efficient, ie lots of waste materials. -Currently not as popular or versatile as FDM, and therefore the technology is less developed

Graphical Models

[2D] 1. Physical Modelling -Using sheet materials -Extension of sketching 2. Virtual Modelling (CAD) -Mostly diagramatic -Conveys/represents reality -Simple and understandable [3D] -Tactile & hands-on -Includes scale models, clay models, prototypes 1. Physical Modelling -Allow visualization from examination of the model and its information, as well as: *Visualization of internal relationships within structure *Visualization of external relationships of the structure to environment (may be assessed from an ergonomic level 2. Virtual Modelling (CAD) -Use of wide range of computer-based tools that assist engineers, architects and product designers to develop a realistic 3D render of ideas

Manufacturing Processes

[Additive Techniques] 1. Paper Based Rapid Prototyping (PRP) -Cheap but only good for prototyping 2. LOM -Slices 3D CAD model to layers -Good for testing form & design though lots of materials are wasted [Subtractive Techniques] 1. Cutting -eg: sawing, chiselling 2. Turning -Used with lathe that cuts woods and metals on a horizontal axis where piecei s revolved and tools like chisels help remove waste material 3. Milling -Cuts slots, shapes from metal 4. Abrading -Wearing away material by friction [Shaping Techhiques] 1. Laser Cutting 2. Injection Moulding -Polymer injected into mould -Mould hardens 3. Compression Moulding -Powder is played between 2 mould halves and compressed 4. Blow Moulding -Heated granular form of plastic placed into the mould -Air is forced inside, forcing plastic to sides to create shape of mould -Mould is cooled 5. Rotational Moulding -Mould is loaded with plastic powder -Mould clamps together and rotates -It is heated and powder forms around mould 6. Vacuum Forming -Sheet of plastic is heated -Mould is pushed from beneath -Vacuum turns on and pumps air out -Sheet moulded to mould shape *Thermoforming is a type f vacuum forming that allows a greater detail (there is a mould on the top and bottom) 7. Plastic Extrusion -Plastic is placed into a machine where it is pushed through a heated section and out -As it moves out the forming tube, it is cut to required length 8. Sand-Casting -Patterned box is made and filled with sand -Pins are placed on top and additional mould is added above -Molten metal poured into pins and cooled -It is later cut to extract product [Joining Techniques] -Can be: 1. Permanent -Friction welding that generates heat via friction between a moving and stationary component (no melting but is common with thermoplastics) -Pop riveting (joning of two thin metal pieces, the pin & rivet) -Cold rivets (used to join two plates together where a rivet is placed through holes in two pieces of materials and hammered over) -Adhesives (eg: tensol cement for plastics where 24 hr clamping = permanent joint, epoxy resin that can join wood & plastic, contact adhesive that joins two surfaces tgt, PVA that joins wood together, cascamite that joints wood in household applications, super glue for industrial/medical/household use) -Tungsten Inert Gas Welding where TIG generates heat via electricity that melts joint edges (popular for joining titanium) -Brazing where permanent joints in metals are made by a brazing rod at 880ºC (flux is first brushed along to prevent oxidation and joint is heated until red, then the brazing rod prods it and refines the melt) 2. Temporary -Bolts -Velcro -Cable ties -Nails

CAD Modelling Strategies

[Bottom Up Modelling] -Requires the designer to draw parts INDIVIDUALLY and then assembling them together -May require constraints (eg: mate and flush) -Unless they are drawn to change/adapt, they may not fit requirements of design (eg: may cause problems if a screw does not fit/has to be redrawn) [Top Down Modelling] -The design originates as a concept and gradually evolves into a complete product with components and sub-assemblies -May also begins with a design criteria and the creation of components to meet these criteria -Tends to be more difficult/more work needed but better for people designing products from scratch *Many assemblies are hybrid models containing both techniques -eg: All parts and components designed will be modelled top-down -eg: All purchased components will be inserted using bottom-up

Concept Sketching vs Formal Drawing

[Concept Drawing] -The spontaneous representation of ideas on paper without technical aid -Used very early in design process with range of freehand drawings -Brief notes or annotations often included to explain thinking/convey ideas quickly -May include 3pt perspective, 2D drawings (front, side, top view), exploded views, tone, shade and rendered perspectives! [Formal Drawing] -Represents a more resolved idea, something that the designer has settled on or wishes to further investigate (often use instruments if completed by hand) -Tends to be used in development phase of design process -These drawings include isometric (3D) projection & perspective drawing *There are fixed rules to such drawings *Both are considered working drawings that are used to guide product's production

Roles of the Involved in Eco-Design

[Designer] -Plan the product's obsolescence and how it will be used -Designers should have a firm understanding of their responsibility to reduce ecological impact of the planet [Manufacturer] -Has a lesser involvement with lifecycle -Mainly responsible for the production and distribution/packaging of the product [User] -Has no involvement regarding making/selling of the product, but its utilisation and disposal

Innovation Strategies for Market // Diffusion

[Diffusion of Innovation] -A theory seeking to explain how/why and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures -Occurs through a 5-step decision making process through series of communication channels overtime along members of a similar social system, aka Roger's 5 Stages of Diffusion [Roger's 5 Stages of Diffusion] 1. KNOWLEDGE 2. PERSUASION 3. DECISION 4. IMPLEMENTATION 5. CONFIRMATION *Takes place once the product/system/service is adopted and runs through a hierarchy of potential user groups -Once an innovation achieves widespread diffusion, two things can happen: 1. Mature Innovation -Continues to sell with minor modifications and unchallenged by serious competitors 2. A radical new invention is devised and sets off another cycle of the innovation process, challenging what already exists

Strategies of Sustaining Innovation

[Feature Fixes/Additions] -Most next generation products come with a handful of fixes/new features that address previous issues [Cost Reductions] -Design enhancements that simplify the product make it cheaper -Product may also use less expensive materials [Product Line Expansion/Proliferation] -At launch, most new products don't have a full suite of products to meet each user's needs -They only add extra additional sizes, colours, etc afterwards

Moulding Processes

[Hand Lay Up] -An open molding method suitable for making a wide variety of products like boats, tanks, bathware -Production volume per mould is low and feasible to produce substantial production quantities with multiple moulds [Spray Lay Up] -Open mould method suitable for making products in a large variety of shapes/sizes -Chopped laminate has good conformability -Sometimes faster than hand lay-up in creating complex shapes

Characteristics of Classic Design

[Image] -Impression of the product to the public/its recognizable aesthetic -The very best design classics seamlessly blend form & function -There is a good balance of creativity, conceptualization and freeform thinking with considerations of practical & industrial constraints -Design classics often have built-in emotional triggers that make it more desirable [Culture] -Classics often reflect cultural influences and may mark particular transition points within a culture -Influences may be national, religious, youth culture, popular movements, etc -Classic designs are often recognized across culture and hold iconic status [Status] Iconic status of a classic design is often attributed to them being breakthrough products (products that set new standards or new meanings) -Everyday classic designs include iPod, post-it notes, baking mixer as they have stood the test of time, were easily adopted by the vast majority of people, and are so user-friendly that they seamlessly integrate into our daily routine -Others gain classic status because they have a dominant position in the market, its aesthetic qualities and its desirability [Ubiquitous/Omnipresence] -A classic design often has a constant presence in a rapidly changing context -When an object becomes part of our everyday lives, we become familiar and comfortable with its presence and style, it becomes a part of our lives and we attach emotions/feelings/experiences to it *This increases product demand even when new products with better function enter the market *This continued demand despite alternatives creates the classic design status [Dominance] -A dominant design is the emergence of a product that possesses a particular feature deemed essential -May be linked to the Roger's Diffusion Theory where getting a product to the market means it diffuses quicker than competition, hence reaching users faster *Through this, businesses experience buyer loyalty & brand retention, increasing difficulty of other products to attract customers -Classic designs that are dominant in the market are difficult to change (users cannot see any advantage to upgrading to a newer model due to emotional attachment)

Consumer Types

[Innovators] -First to adopt an innovation -Willing to take risks -They purchase online and recognize opportunities via social media -2.5% [Early Adopters] • 2nd fastest • Purchase online from conversations via social media -13.5% [Early Majority] -Requires more consideration time -More inclined to draw feedback from early adopters before taking risks of purchasing new products/systems -Purchase online/in store, listen carefully to social media/newspaper reviews -34% [Late Majority] -Adopts innovation after establishment in the marketplace -Seldom willing to take risks with new innovation -Heard about innovations via many media sources and through discussion -Purchases in store/online -34% [Laggard] -Last to adopt innovation -Been convinced by a colleague or friend, purchases in-store -Reluctant to take risks

Stakeholders in Invention in Innovation

[Inventor] -An individual working outside/inside organization who is committed to the invention of a novel product -Often becomes isolated because they are too engrossed with idea and resist change by others -Inventors may also be the product champion and/or entrepreneur *However, this requires specific skill sets and actions *This is the MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH (eg: James Dyson of the Dyson company worked alone and later developed experience of taking invention to market and championing his design, gaining the entreprenurial skills to take his business to international acclaim and success) [Product Champion] -Influential individual usually working within an organization who develops enthusiasm for idea -They champion it within the organization [Entrepreneur] -Influential individual who can take invention to market by financing development/production/diffusion into marketplace

Glass Applications

[Laminated Glass] -Consists of two thin glass sheets with sheet of plastic between (the interlayer) -When glass is put under pressure, the glass fractures are retained by the plastic bonded sheet, which stops propagation of cracks -Can also be used to create bulletproof glass where bullet can't pass through as plastic laminate absorbs the moving bullet's energy [Toughened/Tempered Glass] -Glass that has been heat treated, with the outside of glass held in compression while the inside is in tension -This is achieved by heating the glass to an almost melting point, then chilling outside with air jets while the centre remains hot and plastic *As the glass cools, it will contract at different rates, leaving the outside in compression and inside in tension! -Toughened glass shatters into small granular pieces and not sharp shards when broken eg: Gorilla Glass is used for mobile devices designed to be thin, light and damage-resistant [Soda/Soda-Lime Glass] -Most manufactured glass is a soda-lime composition used for bottles, tableware, plate glass, lamp bulbs, window glass -It is a cheaper glass with poor thermal shock resistance (crack/shatter with rapid temperature change) since different parts of glass expand at different rates [Pyrex] -A composition of glass that has been altered to improve thermal shock resistance properties - It expands and contracts less than soda glass -It is used for design of measuring jugs, thermometers, lab equipment [Plate Glass] -Thick, fine-quality glass typically used for shop windows and doors -Both becoming more popular in wall/flooring due to its: 1. Mechanical Properties -Resistance to tensile and compressive forces, -Good thermal conductivity -Transparency 2. Aesthetic Properties -Allows natural light into buildings and visually links spaces to create more interesting interiors = psychological benefit [Pharmaceutical Glassware] -Glass is non-pourous and can be made incredibly smooth, which allows it to be easily sanitized and sterilized -It is a hard material, making it resistant to scratches and blemishes that are germ havens -Glass is resistant to chemicals so it won't react with substances that come in contact with it -Glass remains inert at very high temperatures, allowing it to be sanitized with heat/placed in heat sources to foster chemical reactions in test tubes -If tempered, glass that resists thermal shock can be produced

Strategies of IP Protection

[Patent Pending] -A warning that inventors are entitled to use for their product/process once application has been filled and prior to its issue -Serves to notify those copying invention that they may be liable for damages (eg: back-dated royalties) once patent is issued [Patent] -Agreement from a government office to give someone the right to exclusively make/sell a new invention for a certain number of years -Excludes others from making/using/selling/importing their products -Refers to an invention [Copyright] -A legal right created by country's law that grants creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use/distribution (usually for a limited time) with the intention of allowing the creator to receive compensation -For creative works -eg: Post-it Notes have copyrighted its products [Trademark] -A recognisable sign/design/expression distinguishing products/services of a particular trader from similar services [Registered Trademark] -Used to exclusively identify the commercial source of products/services (It is essentially a badge of origin) -The use of a trademark is called trademark use -Certain exclusive rights are attached to the register mark [Service mark] -A trademark used to identify a service rather than a product

Types of Obsolescence

[Planned/Built-In] -Deliberately planning/designing a product with a limited useful life -Designers have a moral responsibility and need to be mindful of the potential product damage to the environment [Style/Fashion] -Occurs when designers change product style so customers purchase products more frequently due to perceived outdated fashion of old items -Especially evident in clothing/accessories/footwear industry -Technical specifications may also be redesigned with aesthetics for overall improvements [Functional] -Reduction in usefulness/desirability of an object due to its outdated design feature (one that is hard to change) -eg: home entertainment centres like replacing bulky televisions to flat-panel televisions [Technological] -A form of functional obsolescence caused by rapid technological change *When this occurs, it overshadows all other forms of obsolescence -eg: VCR replaced by cable TV

Anthropometric data can be classified as primary v secondary

[Primary] -Aka field research -The collection of data that doesn't yet exist -Conducted via questionnaires, telephone interviews, etc *important to consider conditions of ata collection [Secondary] -Aka desk research -Involves summary/synthesis of existing data *important to ensure data is appropriate to age, gender, race and geographics

Recovery & Glass Disposal

[Recycling] -Glass can be recycled endlessly -Adding crushed glass (CULLETS) to the melt promotes melting of sand and lowers furnace temperatures, therefore reducing amount of raw material and energy required -Using 25% cullet will reduce energy required by 5% [Disposal] -It takes approximately 1mil years for gas to degrade -However, it does not contaminate soil as other materials [Recovery] -Off-cuts and faulty glass products are turned to CULLETS and reused by mixing them with virgin materials to form a batch -There is no degradation of glass quality so it can be repeated indefinitely -There is usually very little wastage during manufacture

Rapid Prototyping Types

[STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (SLA)] - An additive manufacturing (3D printing) technology used for producing models, prototypes, patterns and parts -Objects made from SLA generally have smooth surfaces (but quality depends on machine quality) -Time for completion depends on machine size: *Small objects with small machines: 6-12hrs *Large objects of several meters in 3D: Days -SLA machines do not extrude ink/liquid *Starts with an excess of liquid plastic (some cured/hardened) to form a solid object -SLAs have 4 main parts: 1. A tank that can be filled with liquid plastic/PHOTOPOLYMER 2. Perforated platform that is lowered into tank 3. UV laser 4. Computer controlling platform and laser [LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)] -Takes the sliced CAD data from a 3D model and cuts out each layer from material roll using laser/plotter cutter *Sliced layers are glued together to form model, which is built on a moveable platform or on locating pins (when using card) [PROCESS] -Sheet is adhered to a substrate with heat roller -Laser traces desired dimensions of prototype -Laser cross hatches non-part area to facilitate waste removal -Platform with completed layer moves down out of the way -Fresh sheet of material rolled into position -Platform moves up into position to receive next layer Process repeats! [FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING (FDM)] - 3D printers build parts layer by layer from bottom up by heating and extruding thermoplastic filament -Uses a 3D CAD file -Begins by processing STL file, mathematically slicing and orienting model for build (If required, support structures are generated) -Plastic filament/metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle that can turn the flow on/off -Nozzle is heated to melt material and can be moved horizontal/vertical by numerically controlled mechanisms, directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing software package [SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING(SLS)] -Additive manufacturing technique that uses a high-power laser (eg: CO2 laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal ceramic or glass -Objects from SLS are made with powder materials (eg: plastic; nylon which are dispersed in a thin layer on top of a build platform inside an SLS machine) -A laser is controlled by a computer and tells what object to print -Pulses on platform and traces a cross-section of the object onto the powder

Types of Design

[Service Design] -Activity of planning and organizing people, infrastructure, communication and material components of a service to improve its quality and the interaction between service provider and customers -The purpose is to design according to the needs of customers or participants so that the service is user-friendly, competitive and relevant to the customers [Systems Design] -Relates to the logical design of a system -An abstract representation of the data flows, inputs, and outputs of the system -Often conducted via modelling, using an over-abstract graphical model [Design Products] -Created by designers who conceptualize and evaluate ideas and turn them to tangible inventions -The product designer's role is to combine art, science, and tech to create new products that are functional and aesthetically appealing -The materials and skills required to develop conceptual models vary depending on context, reason and style of communication between user and designer -When the purpose of the model is to communicate an idea, the materials are irrelevant

Green legislation can be...

[Short Term] -Less than 10yrs -Cost effective -Mostly 2-5yrs [Long Term] -20-30yrs -Governments doing this aim to achieve sustained economic growth with broader env & social objectives

Single Tasked vs Multi Tasked Robots

[Single] -Designed to imitate skilled labour -Perform a specific job -Fixed inputs & outputs = task cannot be easily changed [Multi] -Multiple tasks can be carried out -Flexible inputs/outputs -Can react to outside stimulus (eg: sight, sound, distance) in a variety of ways) through movement, sound, display -eg: Lego NXT

Scales of Production

[Small] -Craft production where manual skill is required -Includes: 1. One-Off -A single product is designed to client's wishes -Good for LEDCs where vernacular design of where local people produce using local materials 2. Batch -Set quantity is created -Requires high lvl of design [Mass] -Industrial-scale -Usually involves production line -Standardized products -Includes: 1. Continuous Flow Manufacturing (CFM) -1000s of identical products are made -Production line = 24/7, 7days/week to maximize production -Highly automated 2. Mass Customization -Delivers products that are customized with near mass production efficiency -eg: Nike design your own shoes

Natural Timbers

[Softwoods] -Come from coniferous trees (eg: evergreen, needle-leaved like pine and fir) -May be harder than hardwood (eg: Douglas Fir has a higher tensile and compressive strength than Balsa Wood) -Often grown in temperate regions [Hardwoods] -Come from broad-leaved trees (eg: European Beech) -Tend to grow in subtropical/tropical regions (sub-tropics of Africa and Asia and RF in South America) -Are slow-growing (up to 100yrs to mature), making them harder and more expensive