IC Psych - Chapter 1 Historical Background, Approaches/Perspectives

psychology in historical perspective

"why?" led to myths; myths lead to philosophy (explanation through natural causes) - psychology came out of the philosophical and biological tradition

William James (1842-1910)

- American - "what is the mind for?" functionalism - functionalism saw the mind and behavior as an individual adaptation to the environment - where structuralism asks "what" functionalism asks "why" - functionalism fit well with Darwin's Origin of the Species (1859) and natural selection

psychology as the science of all human behavior

- common misperception: psychology = study of abnormal behavior - reality is that psychology is the study of all behavior

descriptive research

- does not attempt to prove causation - types include observations, surveys, case studies

guidelines for reading psychology

- don't over generalize - group vs individual needs - look for answers in multiple, not single studies - avoid artificial causality - consider the source of information

more info on the psychodynamic approach

- early childhood experiences/relationships shape unconscious thought - Sigmund Freud (1917) and psychoanalysis

industrial review board

- evaluates the ethics of a study

assumptions & keywords associated with the evolutionary approach

- explain human behavior - adaption, reproduction, natural selection

animal research

- has lead to many diverse health benefits for humans - only 5% of APA researchers experiment on animals; 90% of those are rats and mice - researchers must behave in ethical ways, weighing possible benefits against possible harm to animals debate: "value free & moral neutral" vs "scientists are humans, thus science has values" there is A LOT of debate in psychology

assumptions & keywords associated with the humanistic approach

- human growth - freedom

ethics guidelines from APA

- informed consent - confidentiality - debriefing - deception if people know they are being watched or experimented on they act differently

more info on the behavioral approach

- interaction between creature and environment - observable behaviors, not thoughts and feelings John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner - rewards and punishments shape behavior

assumptions & keywords associated with the cognitive approach

- knowing how we do things (think, solve problems, etc.)

research setting

- location does not determine the type of research - you do not act the same way at the doctor's office as you do in your living room the laboratory setting: - gives optimum control over variables - drawbacks include: - participants know they are being studied - non-natural setting may lead to non-natural behaviors - people willing to enter this setting may not represent all people - some aspects of behavior are difficult/impossible to measure in lab

naturalistic observation

- occurs in real-world setting - more likely to get accurate results in a natural, normal location

more info on the humanistic approach

- people can consciously choose how to live, rather than be driven by unconscious drives or environmental determinants - appears in research on motivation, emotion, and personality psychology

assumptions & keywords associated with the biological approach

- physical - brain - focuses on the body

assumptions & keywords associated with the behavioral approach

- rewards - punishments - observe behavioral response and environmental determinants

scientific method

- science is not what it investigates, but how it studies five steps of the scientific method: - observation - formulate hypotheses and opinions - testing through empirical research - drawing conclusions - evaluating conclusions

more info on the evolutionary approach

- seeks to explain specific human behavior through an evolutionary lens - critics say theory doesn't adequately explain social roles and cultural diversity; these same critics generally do agree on evolutionary theory

correlational research

- shows relationships between variables, not causation - third variable problem - r = -1.0 ... +1.0 -example: longitudinal studies

assumptions & keywords associated with the sociocultural approach

- social and cultural environments affecting behavior - ethnic group - family - peers

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) father of psychology

- tried to discover the basic structure of mental processes (later known as structuralism) - used introspection

assumptions & keywords associated with the psychodynamic approach

- unconscious thought - conflict between biological drives and society's demand

more info on the sociocultural approach

- understanding behavior requires understanding its social context - example US students vs Asian students doing puzzles - how differences exist within different ethnic and cultural groups within a community

more info on the cognitive approach

- your brain holds a "mind" whose mental processes allow you to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative - sees the mind as an active and aware problem solving system - contrasts with behaviorists, who believe environment controls behavior

A researcher finds that as scores on optimism go up, scores on depression go down. Moreover, she finds a strong relationship between optimism and depression. Which of the following correlation coefficients would be most consistent with her findings? a. 0.38 b. 0.79 c. 2.11 d. 2.68

2.68

Amanda is participating in a psychological study as part of her Intro Psychology course. While filling out items on a questionnaire, Amanda finds that some of them embarrass her, and she decides to skip them. As she leaves the study, the experimenter notices these blank questions and asks Amanda to complete them because the research will be ruined without complete data from all participants. Which of the following accurately assesses the ethics of this situation? a. Amanda should really complete those questions. What's the big deal? b. Amanda is within her rights to leave any question blank if she chooses, and the experimenter has definitely "crossed a line." c. Amanda is ethically wrong because she agreed to be in the study, and so she must see it through. d. If Amanda read and signed the consent form, she is obligated to do as the experimenter says.

Amanda is within her rights to leave any question blank if she chooses, and the experimenter has definitely "crossed a line."

APA

American Psychological Association

the organization that provides ethical guidelines for psychologists is the a. American Psychiatric Association b. Institutional Review Board c. American Medical Association d. American Psychological Association

American Psychological Association

the individual most closely associated with behaviorism is a. B.F. Skinner b. Charles Darwin c. Wilhelm Wundt d. William James

B.F. Skinner

natural selection

Darwin's principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring

Charles Darwin's work is relevant to psychology because a. Darwin's research demonstrated that there are few differences between humans and animals b. Darwin's principle of natural selection suggests that human behavior is partially a result of efforts to survive c. Darwin stated that humans descended from apes, a principle that allows psychologists to understand human behavior d. Darwin created functionalism

Darwin's principle of natural selection suggests that human behavior is partially a result of efforts to survive

Emily, a committed environmentalist, reads a report that among a nationally representative sample, 60 percent of people polled support drilling for oil off the shores of California. The poll includes 1,000 people. Emily scoffs at the results, noting that all of the people she knows do not support offshore drilling. The poll must be flawed, she insists. How do you evaluate Emily's statement? a. Emily is likely to be wrong. A representative sample is more likely to reflect the general population than the small sample of Emily's friends. b. Emily is likely to be wrong because 1,000 people is a high number. c. Emily is probably right because, as an environmentalist, she is probably more in tune with these issues than any polling organization. d. Emily is probably right because even representative polls are usually biased.

Emily is likely to be wrong. A representative sample is more likely to reflect the general population than the small sample of Emily's friends.

Two psychologists, Clayton and Sam, are interested in studying emotional expressions. Clayton wants to determine whether emotional expression is healthy and if if has an influence on well-being. Sam is interested in describing the types of emotions people express and building a catalog of all the emotions and emotional expressions that exist. In this example, Clayton is most like _____ and Sam is most like _____. a. Wilhelm Wundt; William James b. William James; Wilhelm Wundt c. Wilhelm Wundt; Sigmund Freud d. Sigmund Freud; Wilhelm Wundt

William James; Wilhelm Wundt

structuralism

Wundt's approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes

science (quiz form)

_____ in contrast to art, is characterized by having systematic methods, utilizing careful observation, and drawing logical conclusions from those observations

the statement "I believe this research will demonstrate that students who study in groups will get better grades than those who study alone" is an example of a. a theory b. an observation c. a conclusion d. a hypothesis

a hypothesis

psychological approaches example: America's Got Talent

a person's peers, family, and upbringing convey what sort of performances are acceptable - sociocultural human beings have an unconscious desire to perform for others - psychodynamic talent less people perform on America's Got Talent because they have been rewarded in some way - behavioral some people who perform on this show clearly show brain damage - biological

a correlation of -.67 indicates a. a strong positive relationship b. a strong negative relationship c. a weak positive relationship d. a weak negative relationship

a strong negative relationship

Georgia believes that people are more likely to behave kindly toward others if they are in a good mood. She randomly assigns participants (who are psychology students participating for research credit) to one of two groups. In one group, participants are told to write for 10 minutes about the happiest moment of their life. In the other group, participants write for 10 minutes about a typical day in their life. a. Why did Georgia assign participants to groups randomly? b. In Georgia's study, what are the independent variable and the dependent variable, and how is each of these operationally defined? c. Identify the experimental group and the control group in Georgia's study.

a. b. independent variable: dependent variable: c. experimental group: control group:

the evolutionary approach

an approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors

the humanistic approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's destiny

the cognitive approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems

the behavioral approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants

the psychodynamic approach

an approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences

the biological approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

the sociocultural approach

an approach to psychology that examines the influences of social and cultural environments on behavior

A study on obesity had four groups, each with a different assignment. One group of participants read a brochure about diet and nutrition; another group had a 30-minute nutrition counseling session; a third group read the newspaper; a fourth group watched a video about exercise and fitness. The control group is a. the group that had a counseling session b. the group that read the newspaper c. the group that read the brochure d. the group that watched the video

control group: the group that read the newspaper dependent variable: weight

of the following experimental situations that a structuralist might conduct, the one that reflects the method of introspection is a. documenting subjects' descriptions of an experience b. asking subjects to remember a list of words c. testing rats in a maze to see how fast they learn d. rewarding subjects for solving problems

documenting subjects' descriptions of an experience

the last step in the scientific method, and one that never ends, is a. drawing conclusions b. evaluating conclusions c. testing through empirical research d. running a statistical analysis

evaluating conclusions

behavior

everything we do that can be directly observed

experimental research

experiment: carefully regulated procedure where researcher manipulates one or more variables believed to affect another - random assignment; groups are assigned by chance independent variable: the manipulated variable dependent variable: the outcome variable confederate: person used to help manipulate the social context of the experiment - example: people who are in the what would you do show experimental group: a group wherein the independent variable is manipulated control group: a group wherein there is no change in the independent variable experimental bias: experimenter's expectations after outcomes research participant bias: participants act according to how they think they should act for the experiment double blind experiments: neither the experimenter nor the participants know if the are in the experimental group of the control group

the type of research design that allows a researcher to test for causation is a. correlational design b. longitudinal design c. case study design d. experimental design

experimental design

critical thinking (quiz form)

four attitudes at the core of the scientific approach are _____, curiosity, skepticism, and objectivity

empirical method

gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning

psychological approaches example: petting a puppy

humanistic: "I like your puppy, Bob. It reminds me of my first dog..." cognitive: "This is a friendly dog. I like it!" evolutionary: "Puppies are just so cute!" sociocultural: "Would you mind if I pet your dog?" psychodynamic: "something about the dog just compelled me to pet it." behavirist: "I find that petting dogs relaxes me."

a study could possibly put participants at risk of harm, but the participants are not told about that risk. The ethical standard that has been violated is a. debriefing b. informed consent c. deception d. confidentiality

informed consent

a drawback of laboratory research is that a. it is hard to conduct without the participants' knowledge that they are being studied b. people unfamiliar with the university environment and culture may be intimidated and thus underrepresented c. the lab setting is unnatural and may thus cause participants to behave unnaturally. d. all of the above.

it is hard to conduct without the participant's knowledge that they are being studied

the mind is complex

mental processes and your brain are intrinsically linked, both affect the other

more info on the biological approach

neuroscience: study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the neurosystem -emphasizes that the brain and nervous system are created to understand behavior, thought, and emotion - physical basis for thoughts and emotions

three types of psychological research

note: these three types of research could all be done for any research topic - causation is where 'x' causes/leads to 'y' 1. descriptive research - doesn't prove causation 2. correlational research - not causation 3. experimental research - only type to establish causation

assumptions (quiz form)

one of the goals of psychology is to test _____; another is to bring data to bear on questions of interest to human beings

the beginning of psychology as a science began in the discipline of a. philosophy b. physics c. sociology d. biology

philosophy

Alfonso is in a study testing the effectiveness of a new type of medication. He is given a pill that contains no actual medicine (a sugar pill). After taking the pill, he reports significantly fewer symptoms. Which of the following is at play? a. experimenter bias b. placebo effect c. external validity d. internal validity

placebo effect

the entire group of people about whom a researcher wants to draw conclusions is the a. sample b. random sample c. population d. field

population

research sample

population: entire group you want to make generalizations about sample: subset of population being studied - must be representative of the population if conclusions are to be valid - random sampling is used to help get a representative sample - avoid bias (gender, ethnic, et cetera)

relationships based off graphs

positive - upward slope negative - downward slope strong - close and compact to line - +(.67 - 1.00) or -(.67 - 1.00) moderate - somewhat compact yet spread out - +(.33 to .66) or -(.33 to .66) weak - spread out away from line - +(0 to .32) or -(0 to -.32)

of the following, a characteristic that is not at the heart of the scientific approach is a. skepticism b. critical thinking c. prejudging d. curiosity

prejudging

the approach to psychology that is most interested in early childhood relationships is a. evolutionary psychology b. cognitive psychology c. psychodynamic psychology d. behavioral psychology

psychodynamic psychology

psychological frame of mind

psychology tests assumptions, bringing data to bear on questions of interest to human beings four attitudes at the core of the scientific approach: 1. critical thinking 2. curiosity 3. skepticism 4. objectivity empirical method: gaining knowledge through observation of events and logical reasoning - evidence, not hunches

an example of selecting a random sample is a. randomly choosing a group of 50 students from a roster of all students in a school b. randomly choosing a classroom from all classrooms in a school c. randomly choosing students who attended a soccer game d. choosing each 50th student who enters the building's front entrance

randomly choosing a group of 50 students from a roster of all students in a school

when a researcher decides to study a particular group, such as Latino factory workers, the researcher is specifically determining the study's a. population b. sample c. research setting d. scope

sample

the approach to psychology that views psychological distress as a result of persistent negative thoughts is a. the humanistic approach. b. the behavioral approach. c. the sociocultural approach. d. the cognitive approach.

the cognitive approach

Structuralism focuses on _____, and functionalism focuses on _____. a. thoughts; behaviors b. the components of the mind; the purposes of the mind c. pragmatism; idealism d. natural selection; environment

the components of the mind; the purposes of the mind

external validity

the degree to which conclusions drawn on the sample can be accurately applied to the population

the approach to psychology that focuses on self-fulfillment, altruism, and personal growth is a. the cognitive approach b. the behavioral approach c. the psychodynamic approach d. the humanistic approach

the humanistc approach

critical thinking

the process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence

structuralism (quiz form)

the psychological attempt to discover the basic structures of mental processes in the human mind, later became known as _____

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

internal validity

the test measures what it thinks it is measuring

mental processes

the thoughts, feelings, and motives that people experience privately but that cannot be observed directly

science

the use of systematic methods to observe the natural world, including human behavior, and to draw conclusions

the correct statement among the following is a. there are many controversies in the field of psychology b. psychologists on the whole agree among themselves on most aspects of the field c. psychologists do not engage in critical thinking d. there are a few controversies in the field of psychology

there are many controversies in the field of psychology

mental processes (quiz form)

things we experience but cannot directly observe, such as thoughts, feelings, and motives are all types of _____

of the following, the topic that would be of most interest to a psychodynamic psychologist is a. altruism b. unconscious drives c. the adaptiveness of behaviors d. people's thought processes

unconscious drives

any changeable phenomenon that a scientist studies is called a a. differential b. predictor c. variation d. variable

variable

Paul believes that physically attractive people are selfish. He conducts a study to see if he is right. He goes up to five people he thinks are good-looking and asks them for spare change. They all turn him down. Paul concludes, "Aha! I knew it all along." The operational definition of selfish in Paul's study is a. physical attractiveness b. whether people gave Paul spare change c. whether Paul thought the person was attractive d. asking for spare change

whether people gave Paul spare change

In 2007 a father posted a video clip of his young sons on YouTube. Widely known as "Charlie Bit My Finger," the clip, which quickly went viral, shows a British baby laughing hysterically as he bites his crying brother's finger. The clip is the most viewed nonprofessional music video YouTube. If you haven't seen it, take a look: http://www.youtube.com/watch?vhe5fpsmH_2g. What explains the clip's enduring appeal? Each of the contemporary approaches we have reviewed might offer an explanation. Which of the following is most like what a psychodynamic thinker might say? Human beings have been rewarded for watching children bite each other. a. Adorable children are universally loved. b. Human beings have an unconscious desire to harm their siblings, which is disguised by the humor of the clip. c. This clip demonstrates that cuteness is an important adaptation. d. Cute kids are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Human beings have an unconscious desire to harm their siblings, which is disguised by the humor of the clip.

functionalism

James's approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment

providing research participants with information about the purpose of a study at the study's conclusion is called a. informed consent b. deception c. debriefing d. confidentiality

debriefing

an experimenter told a research participant that the purpose of the study was to examine people's reaction to media violence. In reality, the purpose was to examine group dynamics. A potential ethical problem for this study would be a. debriefing b. confidentiality c. informed consent d. deception

deception