Igneous Rocks & Volcanoes, first chapter science, Weathering, Soils, and mass wasting test

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loam

best for plant life, in middle of triangle, has 20% clay, 40% sand and 40% silt so it retains enough water for plants, but too much (porous with drainage)

how is magma created at hot spots?

decompression melting bc of mantle plumes

what process shapes the canyon

mass wasting

pahoehoe lava

smooth ropey texture

origin of mountains in glacier national park

subduction of western US

convergent

subduction zones where they are moving towards each other (cascadia)

shape of water table

subdued replica of surface topography

mass extinction

sudden disappearance of large population of species ( K-T boundary, DINOS)

is the mantle solid or liquid?

solid

if there is no precipitation for long time what happens to water table

it will lower (2012 draught)

fracking

mudstone contains oil and gas, forced to fracture thus making it more porous and allowing gas to be extracted

special about grand canyon

nice, flat layers of rock, rock history exposed, well-defined plateau area, canyon shape, bare rocks

do all faults have earthquakes?

is yellowstone going to erupt again?

no indications of increased potential for volcanic eruptions

dead faults

no longer active and don't move; no earthquake

are plates perfect?

no they may have several faults within the plate

is the number of earthquakes increasing?

no! just more people to report them now

is grand canyon largest canyon?

no, Great Canyon in himalaya

types of artesian wells

nonflowing and flowing

partially altered rock

how do physical and chemical weathering help each other?

physical breaks rock and increases surface area that increases chemical weathering

why are there mtns, volcanoes and earthquakes?

plate tectonics theory

why do they move in the first place?

plates want to sink bc they are dense

epicenter

point of earths surface directly above the actual earthquake (focus) source at depth

river

popular term for a large stream

a rock can have high porosity but low permeability bc ...

pores are not connected (pumice) pores are too small (mudstone)

flowing well

pressure surface is above ground

Arete

ridge

tensional stress

tends to elongate or pull apart a rock

weathering

the -in-place physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks at or near the earths surface (doesn't include much removal of material)

the higher the velocity...

the greater the competence

base level

the lowest elevation a stream can erode; sea level is the ultimate base level

larger the slip and stiffer the rock:

the more energy released

volcanic dome

thick dome shaped lava

overturned fold

on its side, started as antiform then turned sidewys

brittle deformation

once elastic limit is gone it fractures

ductile deformation

once elastic limit of rock is surpassed it flows

why does water witching work

only bc water is everywhere

how do streams erode

only erode where they come in contact with ground, especially during heavy rainstorm

is it scientific?

only if it makes testable prediction

why is there an upper limit to the size of earthquakes?

only so much friction and tension build up, there's a limit

controls on soil formation

parent material (bedrock), time, climate, plants and animals, topography

porosity

percentage of total volume of rock a sediment that consists of pore spaces/ determines how much groundwater can be stored in rock or sediment (clay is very porous but granite isn't)

columnar jointing

phenomenon that is fairly common in thick lava flows and plutonic bodies/ as rock cools, they shrink and cause fractures to form

whats causes change in metamorphic rock?

pressure and temperature

directed stress

pressure is greater in a certain direction

cinder cone volcano

pyroclastic fragments, cone shaped, small, short life, parasite of shield and strato

johnsons shutins

pyroclastic rocks and possible lahars

what minerals are stable at earths surface?

quartz and sandstone

physical and chemical weathering produce what?

regolith

slumps

regolith slips along a curved surface leaving a curved scar upslope (West county Mall)

What is the Colorado Plateau?

relatively flat area of high elevation that was largely unaffected by regional geologic events of earlier compression and later extension

most common causes of layers (strata) in sedimentary rocks

repeating relatively quick event (storm, flood, turbidity current) deposits sediment; transgression and regression of seas

viscosity

resistence to flow (high don't flow well)

strain

resulting deformation

thrust fault

reverse fault that has dip less than 45 degrees

pacific ring of fire

ring of volcanoes bc of several plate meet ups in subduction zone

losing stream

river loses water to the ground below (eventually will run dry)

types of landslides

rock falls, rock slides, avalanches, flows and slumps

rock falls

rock free falls in air from cliff (Yosemite)

law of cross-cutting relations

rock or structure that truncates other rocks or structures must be younger

elastic deformation (strain)

rock returns to nearly its original size and shape when stress is removed

rock slides

rock slides along a sloped surface (1925 gros ventre, WY)

factors that affect weathering

rock type, climate, topography

steps to weathering

rocks are weathered, material is eroded by landslides, material is then transported by streams eventually to the sea

disconformity

rocks below and above the uncomformity are parallel

nonconformity

rocks below are plutonic or metamorphic, above are sediment (The great unconformity)

metamorphic rock

rocks that form from other rocks through changes in mineralogy and or texture in the solid state

Aa lava

rough, spiny texture

when did canyon form

same time as basin and range (cave mammilaries)

what is a better filter than limestone?

sand and silt

bed load

sand, cobbles, boulders

what controls shape of canyon

sandstone and limestone on top: steep walls, shale: gentle slopes (easy erodes)

Law of Original Horizontality

sedimentary layers are deposited in a nearly horizontal orientation

angular unconformity

sedimentary rocks below have been folded then eroded, then covered by sedimentary rock

origin of rocks at glacier national park

sedimentary, with connection to east Antarctica bc of rodinia (antarctica and america were connected)

infiltration

seeping into ground

theory

set of ideas that explains MANY observations and has been tested lots of times and makes LOTS of predictions (evolution through natural selection and plate tectonics)

s wave

shear wave; travles only through solidsl about half the speed of p wave

2. phyllite

sheet silicates become larger, fine grained

biggest natural disaster

shensi, china

compressional stress

shortens a rock body

3.schist

silicates become visible and grain is enlarged

law

simple statement that explains ALL occurrences, no exceptions (newtons law of motion)

creeping faults

slip along the fault happens continuously, no earthquakes (Calaveras fault in Holliste, CA)

locked faults

slip suddenly and release large amounts of energy (San Andreas fault in point keyes)

velocity of groundwater flow will increase as...

slope of water table increases (constant permeability)

aftershock

small earthquakes occurring around main patch that slipped

Is the asthenosphere solid or liquid?

solid, tho weaker than lithosphere

volcanic rock

solidified at surface and bc of rapid cooling, tends to be very fine grained (aphanitic texture) or glassy

how to solve foundation issues?

solve drainage problems first (don't buy expensive treatments)

rock type (force)

some rock types (limestone) deform more ductilely than other rock types (granite) at similar conditions

rock type

some rock types contain minerals that are stable at earth's surface and others are reactive

solifluction

special type of creep that happens in areas of permafrost (ground that never thaws) caused by slow downslope movement of water saturated soil, soil remains wet bc it cant drain down into permafrost

hypothesis

statement that explains an observation (SHOULD MAKE A PREDICTION)

topography

steep slopes favor removal of loose material, exposing fresher material to weathering

how do boulders get there

stream was not in flood stage, where big rocks can be moved

runoff

surface movement of water, mainly in streams

uncomformities

surfaces that represent a fairly large break in geologic time bc of missing rock record (disconformity, non and angular)

dikes

tabular plutons that cut across structures (like sedimentary layers) in rocks from fractures (can feed cinder cones)

declination

tells you if continent rotated, angle between geo north and mag north

factors that influence how rock will deform

temperature, confining pressure, strain rate, rock type

silica content

the more silica there is the slower the movement (high visc)

greenhouse effect

the portion of sun that gets reflect back into space hits the extra CO2 in atmsphere and stays instead of leaving (WARM)

hydraulic gradient

the water table slope, determined by dividing the vertical difference between the recharge and discharge points by the length of flow between these points (h1-h2/d)

streams do what

they deliver excess water on land back into oceans

block lava

thick flow made up of large angular blocks (broken up lava crust)

sticky magma and low gas

thick lava flows, domes and volcanic spines (not exploding)

laterites

thick soils with lots of leaching produced in tropical climates

fluid magma and low gas

thin, fluid lavas that can flow very far (quiet)

what have the army corp of engineers decided?

to stop the meandering of river so they put up levees to protect houses and buildings from it

convection

transfer of heat through movement of mass

conduction

transfer of heat through solids

surface waves

travel along earths surface

body waves

travel within the earth

how to produce lots of laterites?

tropical climates and gently rolling topography

magnetic field

two poles, and changes location

unweathered parent material

zone of aeration

upper boundary of the water table (air in between)

how do we determine distance to the focus of earthquake?

use difference between P and S wave arrival times

moment magnitude scale

uses the total area of rupture of the fault, the displacement of ault, and rigidity of rock to calculate magnitude

water witching/ dowsing

using a y shaped stick that will turn down when above groundwater

avalanches

usually very rapid downslope movement of regolith probs supported by cushion of air (have long runouts, usually with snow)

gradient

vertical drop over a certain distance (steeper gradient=higher velocity)

sticky magma and lots of gas

very explosive eruptions (deadly), strato)

ash

very fine material coming out of eruption column or pyroclastic flow (lighter- goes into atm)

volcanic spine

very steep (vertical) sided lava

who hypothesized seafloor spreading?

vines and matthews explaines stripes on seafloor

why are there different lavas?

viscosity of lava and volatiles present

vesicular texture

volatiles that form bubbles trapped in rock when it solidified

types of mountains

volcanic, fold/thrust, fault block and differential (in Mo, but are really hills)

how are earthquakes caused

volcanoes, man-made or tectonic plate movement

effects of dams

water not flowing so builds artificial reservoir, get filled with sediment quickly, sediment never reaches oceans

transpiration

water released by plants to atmosphere

asthenosphere

weak mantle, solid that flows bc hot

who proposed continental drift

wegener 1912

how do you ensure continuous supply of water?

well must penetrate well below water table

plunging folds

when top of fold is not horizontal (ex. sheep mthn, WY)

perched water table

where an aquitard creates a local zone of saturation above the main water table

mantle begins to melt at subduction zones why?

will melt at lower temps bc of water added from minerals

zone of accumulation of leached material (subsoil)

zone of eluviation and max leaching

zone of saturation

zone where all open spaces in sediment and rock are completely filled with water (groundwater)

differential heave is caused by what

asymmetric landscaping practices which lead to uneven soil bc more h20 on one side then the other is dry

how fast do plates move

average of inch a year (fingernail growth)

what gas is a much more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide? (a) water (b) methane (c) sulfur dioxide (d) carbon monoxide (e) nitrogen

what was on the west side of north america when the mtns of glacier national park were forming? (a) divergent (b) convergent (c) transform (d)hot spot (e) no plate boundary

13. A permeable rock formation capable of storing groundwater is called ________. (a) perched water table (b) aquitard (c) spring (d) aquifer (e) laterite

23. The main factor causing the difference in lithosphere and asthenosphere mentioned above is (a) composition, (b) pressure, (c) water content, (d) age, (e) temperature

25. The table below gives the distances to the epicenter of an earthquake determined from three different seismic stations: W, Y, and Z. The figure below is a map with a scale and showing the locations of the three stations (black squares). Which cross "+" indicates the approximate location of the epicenter of the earthquake?

27. Levees and deltas are depositional features due to what factor? (a) an increase in gradient of the stream, (b) a widening of the channel, (c) and increase in the total load, (d) a lowering of the suspended load, (e) a drop in the competence of the stream

3. After the initial observation of a high iridium content in the K-T boundary clay, the hypothesis of a large meteorite impact was proposed. Which of the following was a prediction of that hypothesis? (a) the high iridium clay layer should be global (b) the composition of the clay layer should be different from clay found in the limestone above and below, (c) there should be a crater from the meteorite impact, (d) there should be melt spherules in the clay layer, (e) all of the above

artesian well

groundwater under pressure rises above the level of the aquifer in a well (b/w aquitard on top and bottom)

example of sheeting

half dome in Yosemite national park

if fault is NOT vertical

hanging wall (rock above fault) and footwall (rock below fault)

normal faults

hanging wall moves down (extension of crust, product of tensional stress); divergent boundaries; Basin and Range

reverse fault

hanging wall moves up; convergent boundaries; shortening of crust; due to compressional stress; fold and thrust; Himalayas

lithosphere

heat transferred by conduction

Asthenosphere

heat transferred by convection (more uniform T)

what triggers landslides

heavy rains (adds additional weight), earthquakes, over-steepend slopes (man made or river erosion), removal of vegetation, combo of all the above

What is decompression melting?

high pressure PREVENTS melting bc high pressure favor denser solids; if pressure is lessened, then it melts

temperature of magma

higher T makes magma more fluid (low visc)

climate

hot and wet climates favor chemical weathering, climates with multiple freeze-thaw cycles favor physical weathering

example of hydrothermal explosion craters

hot springs, fumaroles (steam), mud pots (little water but hot mud), geyser (hot water and steam)

strain rate

how quickly one deforms a rock; rapid rates require higher stress; rock is ductile when it has more time

events leading to eruption of mt st helens

hundreds of earthquakes underneath volcano, steam explosions, huge bulge on side of volcano, magnitude 5.1 earthquake shook mtn (not related) and caused bulge to collapse

risks at yellowstone

hydrothermal explosion craters

origin of landscape in glacier national park

ice age, glaciers moving created landmarks

continental drift

idea that earth's continents have moved over surface of earth

seafloor spreading

idea that new ocean is created by spreading out of crust from continental axis

apparent polar wander path

if one continent had more than 1 pole of magnetism the path made are called

creep

imperceptibly slow downslope movement of solid regolith

main causes of foundation damage

improper drainage (slope of yard) faulty roof and gutters, leaking water lines, too much irrigation ((TOO MUCH MOISTURE))

example of scientific method

initial ob: coastline of africa and south america match, one giant continent

scientific method

initial observation, question, hypothesis, prediction, test hypothesis, results, accept/reject hypothesis

why is flipping magnetic field bad

intensity of mag field drops and so harmful UV rays can get into atms

Batholiths and stocks

irregular blobs of solidified magma; former magma chambers of volcanoes

since sediment doesn't reach ocean bc of dams...

its starves the river of sediment (Mississippi river delta in LA, land has shrunk; Colorado river delta is barren )

evidence of continental drift

jigsaw fit of continents, distribution of mtn ranges and structures, distribution of animals and plants, distribution of climate belts (certain rocks in each one), paleomagnetic data

local base levels are determined by what

lakes and main streams

pater noster lakes

lakes feed streams, milky and look like rosary beads

examples of mass wasting

landslides and creep

Bombs (pyroclastic)

large blobs of lava that are thrown out of volcano and cool in air with crust but molten interior (round)

delta

large body of sediment deposited when a stream enters a lake or ocean

composite volcano (stratovolcano)

large classic cone shaped volcano; adjacent to pacific ring of fire; both lava flows and pyroclastics; very violent pyro eruptions and lava outpouring (mt. Fuji, mt. st. helens)

caldera

large volcanic collapse structure of magma chamber (shield or strato, ex. Crater lake, OR)

size and shape of channel

larger size=higher velocity (think of straws and pipes, the deeper and bigger, more materials)

bauxite

laterite enriched in aluminum, extracting is very electrically expensive (Iceland does it) and environmentally hurtful

fluid magma and lots of gas

lava fountains or lava river, not explosive (shield)

lava domes

lava is very sticky and not viscous no gas

larger the earthquake

less frequent It is (and vise versa w/ small ones) bc it takes long time to build up energy

Mercalli intensity scale

lets you know how much damage occurs

city of new orleans is largely below sea level, why?

levees has been raised so much to keep river in place

crust

lighter silicates oceanic crust and continental crust

what minerals are reactive at earths surface?

limestone in acid rain

drainage divide

line separating two drainage basins (ex. continental divide in US separates streams that go into pacific and atlantic)

evaporation

liquid water to vapor in atmosphere, happens for oceans and lakes

magma made up of

liquid, solid, and volatiles

what is a good soil?

loam

loose decaying organic matter (topsoil)

regolith

loose material above bedrock (unweathered) soil is part of regolith its the uppermost part

shield are lava explosions bc..

lots of volatiles but has fluid magma, not viscous

what is the reason for volcanism at subduction zones

lowering of melting point of mantle due to addition of water (wet melting)

34. Which of the following lines would the water table most look like if there were a prolonged drought?

lowest line

velocity

lows of 1 km/hr to >30 km/hr; velocity is main factor determining the size of particles the stream can transport

ad hoc

made for purpose

taum sauk

made of volcanic ash from pyroclastic flows

increasing the height of levees has...

made some floods worse

what is a supervolcano

mag 8 or above on VEI, tho trivial compared to flood basalt eruptions

lava

magma above ground, no explosion

of the 3% freshwater,

majority is in glaciers, then in groundwater then in lakes and streams

yellowstone is produced by what

mantle plumes, hot spot

although streams are main transporter of material from land to sea..

mass wasting does more erosion of the surface of earth

why is a place that is undergoing erosion not necessarily being lowered in elevation?

mass wasting, streams, glaciers, wind, biological agents

flows

material moves downslope as viscous fluid, usually water saturated (LAHARS)

competence

max. size of particles a stream can transport

intensity

measure of the effects of a quake at a certain location; depends on distance from epicenter

magnitude

measure of total energy released by earthquake; only ONE magnitude, does not depend of distance

what caused mass extinction of dinos

meteor impact plus prior eruption of deccan flood basalts

is there a possible cause for an earthquake larger than 9.5?

meteor strike

predictions from K-T hypothesis

meteroite caused influx in IR and formed dust cloud that blocked out sunlight; crater in MX; tsunami in southern US; should have scattered molten rock on land, spherules and micro tektite ; this along with deccan flood basalts caused extinction

mineral matter and humus; slight leaching (topsoil)

where does this water come from?

minerals in oceanic crust

lahar

mixture of volcanic debris and water (most deadly and destructive volcanic phenomenon)

less the competence

more deposition (shallow)

temperature

more ductile behavior at high temp and increases with depth

confining pressure

more ductile behavior at higher pressure and increases with depth, uniform

greater the competence

more erosion (steeper)

suspended load

mostly clays; silt/ very fine materials

core

mostly iron

divergent

motion away from each other (east african rift, africa and arabia)

dip slip faults

motion of fault is directly up or down the fault (normal, reverse, and thrust)

32. The figure below shows the large extent of the Basin and Range Province of the U.S. and Mexico. Which type of fault (choose from figure above) is prevalent in this area?

normal fault (divergent boundary)

why is north slope gentler than south slope?

northern sees more sunlight in winter which causes more freeze-thaw cycles and phys weathering

types of convergent boundaries

oceanic-continental (western US), oceanic-oceanic (marianas trench), continental-continental (Himalaya)

what boundary has most explosive volcanoes?

convergent!

CO2 increase greatly since

industrial rev

elephant rock

granite batholith; magma chamber

what provides energy for groundwater movement?

gravity

how would we know if yellowstone would erupt again?

ground inflation, shallow earthquake, increase in output of gases that are magmatic (SO2)

liquefaction

ground loses strength and becomes slush

global problem

groundwater depletion

why is there a flat are to the west of yellowstone?

bc of previous volcanic eruptions

hanging valley

leaves water falls

nonflowing well

pressure surface is below ground level

what is critical part of scientific process?

previous knowledge

erosion

process by which materials near the earths surface are removed and transported to another location by natural agents (wind, water, ice)

shear stress

produces a motion similar to cards sliding past each other when pushed from sides

soil

product of weathering of rock at earth's surface, upper layer of regolith

magnetic field does what for us

protects from harmful solar radiation, its why we see northern lights bc get trapped in atms

landslide

rapid downslope movement

transform

slide past each other (san andreas fault, dead sea transform)

antiform

upfolded or arched rock layers

how deep should slopes be in res yards

6 inches per 10 feet

how is earths water distributed?

97% salt water, 3% fresh water

meandering stream

A river or small stream that curves back and forth across its valley

tree roots

(phys) cracks rock and sidewalk

whats closer to equator 10 or 80?

Most liquid freshwater is found:

As groundwater

first national park

Yellowstone

how are most earthquakes caused?

by sudden movements along brittle faults

1. slate

distinct foliation, dull and fine grained

dissolved load

ions in water; salt

solids

mineral crystals that have begun to form

fastest plate?

pacific

sills

tabular plutons that are parallel to structures and where rocks are weak

largest earthquake ever

1960 southern chile-9.5 magnitude

soil profile

O, A, E, B, C, R

where does aluminum come from?

bauxite

dissolution

(chem) (acid rain) calcite and other carbonate minerals readily dissolve in acidic water bc of carbon dioxide mix with water to make carbonic acid (limestone easily dissolved)

formation of clays

(chem) clay comes from feldspar (feldspar is most abundant mineral in crust)

spheroidal weathering

(chem) happens more vigorously along edges and corners of jointed rocks (elephant rock park, MO)

whats happening to our coral reefs

(chem) increase of CO2 in atms has created carbonic acid and dissolve the coral skeleton, calcium carbonate, so they are weakening

oxidation

(chem) iron (Fe) in steel has oxidized to mineral hematite which is deep red because of mix of oxygen and water (Fe can be weathered to limonite which is yellow as well)

mass wasting

(erosion) downslope movement of material under influence of gravity. material is not carried within or on or under another moving medium

soil loss

(erosion) due partly to deforestation and is a global problem (roots keep soil in place and if removed, so is soil)

heating/cooling

(phys) especially in desert environment, expanding and contracting

frost wedging

(phys) frozen water expanding and cracks of rock

sheeting/exofliation

(phys) occurs when deep-seated rocks are brought to surface (onion like peeling of rock bc of fractures)

dendritic

(tree like) when rocks underneath are all the same strength (ex. granite or flat laying sed. rock)

trellis

(vines) formed on rock with alternating erosionally-resistant and easily eroded rock (sandstone and mudstone, on faults and ridges)

radial

(volcanic) formed on rock with fractures 9ex. mt. rainier)

why is strato half pyroclastic and lava?

*soda can* gas released first its explosive and then still has leftover magma to spill and it lost its volatiles (lava flows, domes and spines)

how do we know about recharge and discharge areas?

1) direct from dyes 2)indirect by drilling many wells and measuring heights of water

soil consists of

25% water, 25% air, 45% mineral matter and 5% organic matter

Permo-Triassic Extinction

252 Ma; 90% species gone, fungus only thing survived

how many stations need to locate epicenter to determine actual epicenter?

horn

3 glaciers meet up and leave 1 peak (ex. matterhorn)

science

A way of learning about the natural world

the rocks in the St. Francois mtns of south MO are mostly (a)igneous (b)meta (c) sedimentary (d) sedimentary and meta (e) mostly soil

4.Why is there magmatism at divergent plate boundaries?

As the plates move apart, the asthenosphere rises (to replace the material moving away). As the asthenosphere rises, the pressure goes down. As the pressure goes down, melting is triggered,lower pressure favors melting. (The geotherm crosses over to the melting zone of the melting curve.)

creationism

Belief that all life was created by God. fails as a scientific method bc it doesnt make a testable prediction

Milankovitch cycles

Changes in the shape earth's orbit and tilt that cause glacial periods and interglacial periods. (predicts what the temp should be)

24. Which of the following comes closest to the typical speed of the tectonic plates on Earth? (a) growth rate of fingernails, (b) growth rate of grass, (c) speed of a snail, (d) speed of a turtle, (e) walking speed of a typical grandmother

1.What is the name of the most common mechanism or process that causes/produces magma?

Decompression melting , or, pressure release melting

How is magma formed at divergent boundaries?

Decompression melting of the asthenosphere

law of superposition

In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer is older than the one above it and younger is on top

better understanding of elastic rebound theory

San Francisco 1906 quake

25. Which of the following plates does not contain any continents? (a) Nazca plate, (b) India-Australian plate, (c) South American plate, (d) Antarctic plate, (e) Eurasian plate

26. What type of plate boundary existed between India and Asia prior to their collision? (a) convergent, (b) divergent, (c) strike slip, (d) there is no plate boundary between India and Asia, (e) hot spots

as litho thins,

astheno rises and lowers pressure, thus melting

27. Explosive / violent erupting volcanoes are characteristic of which type of plate boundary? (a) convergent boundaries, (b) divergent boundaries, (c) strike slip boundaries, (d) hot spots, (e) all of the above

3.Deeper in the Earth, is the asthenosphere more likely to be solid or liquid? Why?

More likely to be solid, because the deeper you g, the higher the P, and the higher the P to more favored the solid state is.

famous pyroclastic flows

Mt. pete, mt. Vesuvius (Pompeii)

is volcanic activity increasing?

largest quake in continental US

New Madrid, MO

example of ductile deformation

asthenosphere

2.The rock described above is said to have a: (a) phaneritic texture, (b) pyroclastic texture, (c) aphanitic texture, (d) volcanic texture, (e) plutonic texture

saltwater intrusion

groundwater near seashore; cone of depression - inverted cone of suction

example of volcanic neck

Shiprock, New Mexico & devils tower, WY

largest explosion

Siberian flood basalts 4 mil km3 (90% wiped out pop)

prior to temp increase...

Temp was actually going down (maybe next ice age)

2.Is the asthenosphere all solid or all liquid or ... ?

The asthenosphere is mostly solid (all solid is acceptable too)

Evapotranspiration

The combined amount of evaporation and transpiration

27. Why is there an upper limit to the size of an earthquake? (a) Because rocks/faults have an upper limit to their strength or frictional resistance, (b) Because there is an upper limit to what seismometers can measure, (c) Because there is an upper limit to the speed that tectonic plates move, (d) Because rocks begin to deform by ductile deformation at a certain depth, (e) all of the above.

glacier valleys are

U shaped

23. The series of figures below shows a map view of a fault (black line) with eight markers that were placed in the year 2000 (left most figure). The next three figures show the points as they were surveyed over the next 12 years. This fault has not produced an earthquake in a long time. Should the people living near this fault be concerned?(a) Yes, because the fault is active and appears to be locked, (b) Yes, because the fault has not produced an earthquake in a long time, (c) Yes, because all faults should be considered a threat, (d) No, because the fault appears to be just creeping, (e) No, because the last earthquake must have been a big one and will not recur for a long time.

springs

Water from some aquifers naturally comes up, natural source of freshwater (can be from perched table or karst)

Examples of Batholiths

Yosemite national park within sierra nevada

10. Folding and foliation in metamorphic rock are often found together because: (a) they are both produced by directed compressional stress, (b) they are both produced at high temperature, (c) they are both types of brittle deformation, (d) they are both produced in metamorphosed sandstones, (e) they are both the result of high confining pressure

10. The most common first phenomenon that usually indicates that a volcano is undergoing unrest and may erupt is (a) earthquakes, (b) emission of steam, (c) emission of carbon dioxide, (d) emission of sulfur dioxide, (e) bulging of the volcano

10.The explosive volcanoes of the Pacific Ring of Fire are: (a) stratovolcanoes, (b) cinder cones, (c) shield volcanoes, (d) calderas, (e) shield volcanoes and cinder cones

13. After a large explosive volcanic eruption like Pinatubo, the initial effect on the Earth over the following few years is (a) cooling down of global temperatures, (b) rising of global temperatures, (c) lowering of total carbon dioxide, (d) increase in ozone, (e) increase un ultraviolet radiation

17. The type of deformation wherein a rock returns to its original shape and the rock does not fracture. (a) elastic deformation, (b) brittle deformation (c) ductile deformation, (d) normal deformation (e) reverse deformation

19. What material is often found right above the bedrock? (a) the regolith, (b) zone of leaching, (c) the crust, (d) the zone of accumulation, (e) zone of aeration

2. Why are stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes called such? (a) They are composed of both lavas and pyroclastics, (b) they are made up of stratified basalt lava, (c) they are usually very tall, (d) they usually erupt ash into the stratosphere, (e) none of the above

28. A fault is discovered to be running through a neighborhood and it is found to be active (the blocks of crust are moving) but locked. They learn that you've taken an earth science class and ask you if the fault is dangerous in terms of earthquakes. What's the best answer? (a) almost certainly, (b) possibly, (c) unlikely, (d) no, (e) maybe

29. Which of the following phenomena best marks or outlines all the boundaries or edges of the plates? (a) earthquakes, (b) volcanoes, (c) hot spots, (d) strong magnetic fields, (e) strong reversals in the magnetic field

3. Aluminum is mined from a particular type of soil called (a) bauxite, (b) laterite, (c) regolith, (d) A-horizon, (e) zone of accumulation

30. If one were to measure the magnetic inclination preserved in the ancient continental glacial deposits described by Wegener, like those preserved in India, the inclination would likely be (a) nearly vertical, (b) nearly horizontal (zero), (c) reversed, (d) around 45 degrees, (e) unrelated to where the glaciers formed

33. The core of the Earth is made up mostly of (a) iron, (b) dense silicates, (c) less dense silicates, (d) liquid rock, (e) the liquid equivalent of the mantle

34. A global map of earthquakes would most look like (a) a map of the tectonic plates, (b) a map of the continents, (c) a map of the continental shelves, (d) a map of the mid-ocean ridges, (e) a map of hot spots

34. All of the following are, or are part of, a fold-and-thrust mountain belt except: (a) Mt. St. Helens, (b) Mt. Everest, (c) the Alps (d) the Appalachians, (e) the Rocky Mountains

36. Which of the following is not a factor that goes into calculating the Moment Magnitude of an earthquake? (a) maximum acceleration at the epicenter, (b) area of fault that slipped, (c) amount of fault displacement, (d) rigidity of the rocks at the fault, (e) none of the above.

37. If an area of a continent contains a lot of coal, what would you expect the magnetic inclination of those coal deposits to be? (a) nearly horizontal, (b) about 30 degrees, (c) about 60 degrees, (d) nearly vertical, (e) there is no expected relationship between abundant coal and the magnetic inclination

38. Five rocks have the following magnetic inclinations: (a) 10, (b) 30, (c) 45, (d) 60, and (e) 80. Which one formed closest to the equator?

39. An igneous rock is composed entirely of tiny crystals that are not visible with the naked eye. This implies that: (a) the rock formed from magma, (b) the magma cooled very rapidly, (c) the lava erupted slowly, (d) the lava erupted in the form of a long lava flow, (e) the rock comes from the mantle

39. Approximately how much stream water arrives at the mouth of the Colorado river at its delta in the Gulf of Mexico? (a) almost none, (b) 10%, (c) 50%, (d) 75%, (e) almost all of it

4. Which of the following combinations of magma composition and volatile content results in thin, long lava flows? (a) fluid magma with little water, (b) fluid magma with a lot of water, (c) viscous magma with little water. (d) viscous magma with a lot of water (e) none of the above

4. Which of the following is a statement explaining a set of observations that needs to be tested? (a) a hypothesis, (b) a theory, (c) a law

4.Almost always, the first sign of an awakening volcano is: (a) earthquakes under the volcano, (b) steam from the crater, (c) landslides around the volcano, (d) plate motion around the volcano, (e) unusual quiet around the volcano

40. Where does most shallow groundwater come from? (a) from the air (rain/snow), (b) from the ocean, (c) from streams, (d) fromdeeper underground, (e) from glaciers

41. Which of the following lavas is the result of the most fluid lava? (a) pahoehoe, (b) aa, (c) block lava, (d) lava dome, (e) any of the above could be due to fluid lava

44. If the Earth's magnetic field has undergone magnetic reversals or flips, then which of the following is true? (a) rocks throughout the world should record the reversals, (b) the Earth's magnetic field should weaken over time, (c) the inclination should increase towards the poles, (d) the declination should change with time, (e) the number of species on Earth should get smaller over time

45. The East African Rift is an example of which of the following? (a) a new divergent boundary, (b) a young ocean, (c) an old subduction zone, (d) a continent continent collision zone, (e) a large transform fault

47. The metamorphic rock that forms from limestones is called (a) marble, (b) slate, (c) schist, (d) gneiss, (e) phyllite

5. Evolution, the idea that life--as preserved in fossils--has changed over time is considered a fact: (a) because anyone can go see for themselves (make the observation) that fossils have changed over time, (b) because Darwin said so, (c) because DNA analyses support evolution, (d) because it makes many testable predictions, (e) Evolution is not a fact.

5. In the figure below why does there appear to be a decline in volcanic eruptions during World War I and World War II?: (a) People were busy fighting the war(s) and therefore did not report volcanic eruptions (b) there actually is no decline in reported eruptions during those two wars (c) bombs that were exploded during these wars released volcanic gases from the ground preventing violent eruptions (d) More dust in the atmosphere from bomb explosions increased atmospheric pressure preventing eruptions (e) None of the above

5. What is thought to be the cause of the "Year without a summer" in 1816? (a) the eruption of Tambora in Indonesia, (b) the eruption of Yellowstone "super volcano", (c) the eruption of the Siberian flood basalts, (d) the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, (e) a relatively small meteorite impact

5.At Mt. St. Helens, the first sign that an eruption might happen was: (a) earthquakes under the volcano, (b) steam from the crater, (c) landslides around the volcano, (d) plate motion around the volcano, (e) unusual quiet around the volcano

50. What are Japanese scientists using as a short-term alert for the arrival of an earthquake? (a) The arrival of the P-wave, (b) the arrival of the S-wave, (c) The P- and S-wave arrival time difference, (d) the epicenter of the earthquake, (e) the magnitude of the earthquake

6.Arrange the following types of lava in order of increasing viscosity (resistance to flow): (a) pahoehoe, aa, block lava, volcanic dome, volcanic spine, (b) block lava, aa, , volcanic dome, volcanic spine, pahoehoe, (c) volcanic spine, block lava, volcanic dome, pahoehoe, aa, (d) pahoehoe, volcanic spine, block lava, volcanic dome, aa, (e) volcanic spine, pahoehoe, volcanic dome, block lava, aa

7. What is a key factor that can help someone who is using the scientific method help her come up with good hypotheses, good predictions, and effective ways to test the predictions? Lack of this factor might prevent a Nobel Prize-winning physicist from being a great geologist, say. (a) previous knowledge, (b) age, (c) country of origin, (d) race, (e) number of published papers

7.What is a "laterite" soil? (a) a soil in which the zone of leaching is enriched in iron and/or aluminum, (b) any soil that is good for agriculture, (c) any soil produced by tropical climate weathering, (d) a dry, cracked, desert soil, (e) a soil produced primarily by physical weathering

8. If streams were the only agents of erosion, what would be the shapes of valleys? (a) they would be steep-sided slot canyons, (b) they would be wide, V-shaped valleys, (c) They would be very wide and flat, (d) they would be wide and box-shaped, (e) they would be irregular

8. The area of the Red Sea is an example of which of the following? (a) divergent boundary, (b) convergent boundary, (c) transform boundary (d) hot spot, (e) collision zone

9. Which of the following is the most common way that magma forms? (a) melting of the mantle due to pressure release. (b) increase in pressure and increase in temperature in the crust causing melting (c) release of large amounts of CO2 into the crust (d) heating of the mantle from meteorite impacts (e) addition of water lowering the melting point

According to news reports, the areas that have experienced recent forest fires in are now susceptible to "mudslides" (muddy debris flows). Why do you think this is so? (a) vegetation has been removed by the fires, (b) earthquakes happen in California, (c) fire has steepened slopes, (d) the heat from the fires will trigger heavy rain, (e) the heat from the fires softened the regolith

Downslope movement that occurs rapidly and with no, or very little, water (a) Rock slide, (b) Creep, (c) Solifluction (d) Mudflow, (e) Debris flow

Imperceptibly slow mass wasting is called (a) creep, (b) slump, (c) avalanche, (d) rock slide, (e) weathering

In Florida, who pays for a sinkhole problem if a homeowner has a sinkhole problem? (a) The homeowner, (b) the original land owner, (c) the developer, (d) the local government, (e) the Federal government

In the video, what was the reason given why developers who buy large tracts of land don't determine if their land is susceptible to sinkholes? (a) Because if the land is susceptible to sinkholes, it may become worthless, (b) Because they have no idea if the area might have sinkholes, (c) It is too complicated to determine if there are sinkholes, (d) It takes too long to determine if there are sinkholes, (e) It would be unethical to determine if there are sinkholes.

In the video, what was the reason given why local governments in charge of large tracts of land don't determine if the land is susceptible to sinkholes? (a) Because if the land is susceptible to sinkholes, the local government may lose tax paying residents, (b) Because they have no idea if the area might have sinkholes, (c) It is too complicated to determine if there are sinkholes, (d) It takes too long to determine if there are sinkholes, (e) It would be unethical to determine if there are sinkholes.

In the video, what was the reason given why owners of large tracts of land don't determine if their land is susceptible to sinkholes? (a) Because if the land is susceptible to sinkholes, it may become worthless, (b) Because they have no idea if the area might have sinkholes, (c) It is too complicated to determine if there are sinkholes, (d) It takes too long to determine if there are sinkholes, (e) It would be unethical to determine if there are sinkholes.

Which of the following climate conditions would favor the least amount of weathering? (a) below freezing and dry all year round, (b) hot and wet all year round, (c) a climate with four seasons, (d) a warm climate with wet and dry seasons, (e) a cold, wet climate with temperatures that fluctuate between below freezing and above freezing.

Why does pumping out a lot of groundwater trigger sinkholes? (a) Because water can hold up the rock/soil above better than air can, (b) Because the vibrations from pumping trigger sinkhole collapse, (c) Because lowering the water table always lowers the land surface, (d) Because it causes salt water intrusion, which triggers sinkholes, (e) Because removing water also removes rock causing the sinkhole

the rocks forming the mtns at glacier national park are mostly (a) sedimentary (b)igneous (c) plutonic (d)volcanic (e) meta

why are scientists confident that current rise in avg temp is due to man-made CO2 (a) computer calc are unable to produce current temps w/o man-made CO2 (b) bc temp has never been this high (c) bc the atms never had CO2 prior to industrial rev

why did geologists infer that there was once a continent next to north america west of glacier national park (a) bc rocks there are truncated on the west side (b) bc paleomagnetic data indicated that there was a continent there (c) bc the rocks are more than ~500 MA (d) bc fossil data required it (e) all of the above

there are some earthquakes that motion are all toward the source, what produces thi?

a collapse

inclusion

a piece of an older rock that becomes part of a new rock

gaining stream

a stream that receives water from the zone of saturation (groundwater)

permeability

ability of rock/sediments to transmit fluid through pores (water can flow most readily through a rock or sediment w/ high permeability)

what rocks make up canyon?

above: sedimentary, inner gorge: igneous and metamorphic

how do glaciers form

accumulation of snow is greater than melting so when it gets thick, the bottom compacts and under pressure turns to ice

what is happening to plates

always movie relative to each other

why is the temperature on earth going up and down?

amt of sunlight that earth receives and how much atms warms up depends on eccentricity, obliquity, precession (T rises, CO2 rises)

aquitard

an impermeable layer that hinders or prevents water movement (mudstone, clay or shale)

paleomagnetism

ancient magnetism, when rocks form they lock in the magnetic field of the time

inclination

angle bw magnetic field direction and horizontal (at equator is 0, increase as you get north or south to 90)

water cycle

annual transfer of water from various locations near earth surface

slowest plate?

antarctic

common folds

antiform, synform, overturned folds, plungling folds

pluton

any body of igneous rock that solidified at depth (4 of them), no eruption

hot spot

any place where there is magma but no plate boundary, its bc of mantle plumes (Hawaii)

what causes creeps

any process that causes cyclic expansion and contraction of regolith

igneous rock

any rock that forms from magma

tributary

any stream that connects to a larger stream (branchs)

levees

area of higher ground running along the banks of a river (natural and man made)

drainage basin

area that receives precipitation that ends up in a given stream (ex. Mississippi river drainage basin)

cinder cones (magma)

as magma leaves chamber, it becomes more thicker and colder

what are the connections between basin and range and igneous rock?

as the crust is pulling apart, decompression melting of astheno to allow igneous rock form

left lateral strike slip fault

as you face the fault, the opposite side of the fault moves to the left

right lateral strike slip fault

as you face the fault, the opposite side of the fault moves to the right

environmental effects of volcanism

ash blocks sunlight, SO2 and H2O produce fine aersols that block sunlight, SO2 makes acid rain

how do we know that transgressions occured?

ash cloud from volcanic explosion covers everything at same time

flood basalts

associated with breakup of continents and by huge mantle plumes

1. Which of the following pairs of steps in the scientificmethod is in the correct order for the scientificmethod? (There may be missing steps, but the two are in the correct order) (a) question, initial observation (b) initial observation,hypothesis, (c) prediction,hypothesis, (d) test the prediction, question, (e)reject/accept hypothesis, test the prediction

1.An igneous rock is composed entirely of fairly large crystals that are clearly visible. This implies : a) the rock formed from magma, (b) the magma cooled very slowly, (c) the lava erupted rapidly, (d) the lava erupted violently producing pyroclastics, (e) the rock comes from a pahoehoe lava

1.If you had a volume of 10 liters of good loam soil and you squeezed out all the air and water, approximately how much volume would the sample of soil now occupy? (a) 10 liters, (b) 5 liters, (c) 2 liters, (d) 1 liter, (e) 0.5 liter

10. In the original paper published by the Alvarezes in 1980, how many locations on Earth did they find that had evidence of a meteorite impact? (a) one, (b) three, (c) ten, (d) dozens, (e) tens of thousands

11. The figures below show cross sections of a stream channel. The upper figure shows the stream during normal flow. The lower figure shows the stream during flooding. Which of the labeled locations would have the highest velocity? (a) a, (b) b, (c) c, (d) d, (e) e

14. Where was the first site that the Alvarezes measured Ir in the K-T boundary clay layer? (a) Denmark, (b) Italy, (c) New Zealand, (d) Mexico, (e) Texas

15. The cause of melting at subduction zones is (a) heating of the mantle, (b) addition of water that lowers the melting point, (c) decompression melting, (d) rising of a mantle plume, (e) frictional heating

16. In earth science or physics, stress is defined as: (a) The deformation one sees in rock (b) A force applied to an area (c) the maximum force a rock can sustain (d) something that tends to compress a rock (e) a force that causes rock to flow like a plastic

17. The phenomenon of "spheroidal weathering" has produced the interesting landscape found in (a) Johnson Shutins Park, (b) Elephant Rock State Park, (c) Taum Sauk Mountain, (d) the area around St. Louis, (e) the Rocky Mountains

18. The Deccan flood basalt volcanism happened at about the same time as the meteorite impact near the end of the Cretaceous period. One hypothesis stated that the impact caused the volcanism. What evidence/finding proved this hypothesis to be wrong? It was discovered that (a) the impact happened before the volcanism, (b) the impact happened after the volcanism began, (c) no iridium was found in the volcanic rocks, (d) the volcanic rocks were unaffected by the impact, (e) the paleomagnetic data showed that the volcanic rocks had reversed magnetism

19. Recently, how have scientists been testing whether the meteorite impact (which was pretty sudden) or whether the Deccan volcanism (which lasted about 1 million years at the end of the Cretaceous) was the main cause of the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period? (a) By measuring the Ir content of fossils, (b) by looking at how rapidly species died out, (c) by measuring the paleomagnetism in the clay layer, (d) by looking at how many species died in total, (e) by comparing land fossils with marine fossils

2. What is weathered rock combined with some organic matter where plants can grow? (a) Bauxite, (b) soil, (c) laterite (d) regolith, (e) clay

22. Prior to modern plate tectonics, there was another theory that the Earth was/is expanding thereby causing stretching and pulling apart of the Earth's outer crust. If this were true, which of the following would you expect then: (a) We should only have mostly folds and thrust mountains in the crust (b) We should have only normal faults (c) we should only have folds and strike slip faults (d) we should only have brittle deformation in the crust (e) We should only have ductile deformation of the crust.

22. The difference between lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily a difference in (a) composition, (b) strength, (c) pressure, (d) water content, (e) plate boundary

28. How many different plates are subducting around the Pacific rim to produce the "Pacific Ring of Fire"? (a) one large plate (the Pacific plate), (b) about a dozen plates, (c) several dozen plates, (d) None. The volcanism is caused by divergent boundaries, (e) None. The volcanism is caused by hot spots

28. If you have two wells, A and B, in a flat area and the wells are at exactly the same depth, and there is normal uniform precipitation (no drought) and no other wells are in the area, can well "A" cause well "B" to run dry without well "A" running dry itself? (a) yes, (b) no

32. The deepest part of the ocean floor, along the Mariana trench, is due to (a) a deep depression where two plates pull apart, (b) a depression due to the down bending of the plate as it subducts, (c) a large area of erosion where the seafloor is damaged by faulting (d) a large crater due to explosive volcanism, (e) the lack of magmatism in that area of the seafloor.

33. Prior to modern plate tectonics, there was a theory that the Earth was/is shrinking thereby causing wrinkling of the Earth's outer crust that produced mountains much like the wrinkling of a dried out apple's or grape's skin. If this were true, which of the following would you expect then: (a) We should only have volcanic mountains in the crust (b) We should only have mostly fold and thrust mountains in the crust (c) We should have only normal faults (d) we should only have folds and strike slip faults (e) we should only have brittle deformation in the crust

35. Approximately how many major tectonic plates are there on Earth? (a) 3, (b) around a dozen, (c) around 50, (d) close to 100, (e) much more than 100

35. Which of the following is a measure of the amount of damage that occurs at a particular place due to an earthquake? (a) focal power, (b) intensity, (c) epicentral distance, (d) magnitude, (e) elasticity

36. The North American plate is moving roughly westward away from the Eurasian plate. On its east side, what type of plate boundary would you expect? (a) convergent, (b) divergent, (c) transform, (d) any of the above, (e) cannot be determined

38. All of the following are true about the New Madrid seismic zone except (a) it is occurring along old faults that are being reactivated (b) it is at a major plate boundary (c) it is currently difficult to say if there is a major threat from the zone (d) the zone has had periods of activity and periods of quiescence. (e) the faults producing the earthquakes are buried underneath a lot of sedimentary rock

38. The Mississippi, like other streams, makes a delta when it enters the ocean by deposition of sediment. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has been keeping the Mississippi in its current channel by raising the levees. Why then, if the stream has been kept in place for so long, is the Mississippi delta eroding away? (a) Because the levees have been preventing sediment from going down the river, (b) because dams have prevented sediment from going down the river, (c) because stronger storms have prevented sediment from going down the river, (d) because higher sea level has prevented sediment from going down the river, (e) because less erosion is providing sediment to the river

40. Numerous holes or small voids in a volcanic rock are usually frozen bubbles that were caused by (a) crystals, (b) volatiles, (c) magma, (d) slow cooling, (e)pyroclastic material

42. Which of the following is not true about the Earth's magnetic field? (a) north has become south and south has become north many times, (b) its strength has remained constant, (c) the magnetic lines of force can be preserved in rocks, (d) the inclination varies with latitude, (e) it deflects the solar wind

43. The hypothesis of seafloor spreading predicts that (a) the ocean floor should be very old, (b) the ocean floor gets younger towards the mid-ocean ridges, (c) the mid-ocean ridges should have reversely magnetized rocks, (d) the Earth's magnetic field should weaken, (e)the lithosphere should be thickest at the mid-ocean ridges

46. The layered fabric of a metamorphic rock is called (a) pyroclastic texture, (b) foliation, (c) strain fabric, (d) slate, (e) directed pressure

48. The "magnetic stripes" on the seafloor are caused by (a) a combination of continental drift and seafloor spreading, (b) the combination of seafloor spreading and magnetic reversals, (c) the combination of plate tectonics and continental drift, (d) the combination of subduction zones and transform boundaries, (e) the combination of magnetic reversals and hot spots

5.Which of the following is the soil horizon right below the zone of leaching? (a) partially altered rock, (b) zone of accumulation, (c) zone of mineral matter and humus, (d) layer of loose decaying organic matter, (e) regolith

50. How many plates are involved in a divergent boundary? (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 6, (e) 12

6. The largest volcanic eruptions to ever happen on Earth are called: (a) supervolcano eruptions, (b) flood basalt eruptions, (c) pyroclastic erutpions, (d) subduction zone eruptions, (e) hot spot eruptions

6.Which of the following important metals is mined from a type of soil? (a) chromium, (b) aluminum, (c) copper, (d) gold, (e) silver

7. Impermeable rock formations that impede/prevent groundwater flow are called ________. (a) perched water tables (b) aquitards (c) springs (d) aquifers (e) laterites

8.Shield volcanoes are characterized by all of the following except,: (a) lava flows, (b) about half pyroclastic material, (c) lava fountaining and lava flowing, (d) shallow slopes, (e) very large size

In Florida, why are many of the underground cavities (caves) filled with water? (a) Because most of Florida is surrounded by the ocean, (b) Because the water table is very shallow, (c) Because people are pumping water into the ground, (d) Because large rivers are supplying water into Florida, (e) All of the above

The weird shapes of rocks in Elephant Rocks State Park in Missouri is due to (a) sheeting, (b) spheroidal weathering, (c) expansive soils, (d) landslides, (e) creep

Which of the following is the best soil for agriculture? (a) silty loam, (b) loam, (c) sandy silt, (d) clay-rich (e) loamy sand

the hydrothermal phenomenom wherein hot water continuously comes out of the ground is called (a)mud pot (b) hydrothermal spring (c) fumarole (d)geyser (e) lava dome

the term supervolcano is now a formal scientific term describing some types of eruptions. Which of the following is true? (a) the term was based on eruptions of the Siberian flood basalts (b)the term was first used by the BBC (c) the term refers to eruptions that cause mass extinctions (d) they refer to cinder cone eruptions (e) they are the largest eruptions to have happened on earth

compaction causes what

back fill becomes compacted and can cause inward slope causing water to run into house

what happens during a flood cycle?

bank storage (river gains, loses and gains again)

richter scale

based on maximum deflection on seismogram corrected for distance (seismometer can max out beyond a certain size, not reliable anymore)

how can depth of water table change at any time?

bc of seasonal precipitation and temperature variations

why are streams not only erosional, but depositional?

bc of velocity (more velocity more erosive)

why do there appear to be more eruptions then?

bc technology is better to detect them and more people to observe them now

we create magma how?

be lowering pressure, not by raising temperature

what happens to climate after eruption?

blocks solar radiation and cools down planet

types of seismic waves

body waves (P and S) and surface waves

earthquakes show what

boundary of plates

cirques

bowl shaped valley

physical weathering

break up of rock w/o changing minerals

chemical weathering

breakdown of minerals and creation of new minerals (esp. in granite deep in earth)

evidence of continental drift

broad distribution of ancient rocks match up with trend lines of folded rocks (ancient mtn belts)

shield volcano

broad, inverted shield shape; large areas; mild eruption; basaltic lava (ex. Mauna loa)

how do seismologists know if quake was caused by an explosion or if it was caused by a fault?

by the motion, if away -explosion, if away and towards-fault

12. In the original 1980 paper, what prediction did the authors make that they themselves tested and confirmed? (a) that tsunami deposits should be found, (b) that the crater should be in Yucatan Peninsula, (c) that the clay layer should have a different composition as clay elsewhere in the limestones, (d) that melt spherules should be found nearby, (e) that no dinosaurs should be found above the clay layer

12. The deadliest (i.e., the type that has caused the most human deaths, globally) volcanic phenomenon is (a) lava flow, (b) pyroclastic flow, (c) lahar, (d) ash fall, (e) lava dome

14. The cause of melting that generates magma at a divergent boundary is (a) heating of the mantle, (b) addition of water that lowers the melting point, (c) decompression melting, (d) rising of a mantle plume, (e) frictional heating

15. What area in the figure below will most likely be susceptible to landsliding after the road is cut (dashed line) into the mountainside?

16. According to the astronomer Carl Sagan, extraordinary claims require what in order for those claims to be taken seriously? (a) an extraordinary amount of people claiming the same thing, (b) extraordinary predictions from the claim, (c)extraordinary evidence, (d) extraordinary time to be proven, (e) all of the above

2. Of the part of loam soil that is mineral matter (not air or water), what is the proportion of clay to sand to silt? (a) 90:5:3, (b) 50:25:25, (c) 20:40:40, (d) 10:45:45, (e) equal proportions

2. Which of the following is the key step in the scientific method that best separates it from nonscientific methodologies? (a) formulating a reasonable question, (b) coming up with a hypothesis based on an observation, (c) making a testable prediction that comes from the hypothesis, (d) making careful and complete observations, (e) stating facts that have been agreed to by all

2.Shiprock in New Mexico is thought to be a called: (a) dike, (b) sill, (c) volcanic neck, (d) batholith or stock, (e) volcanic spine

20. The lithosphere consists of: (a) inner core and outer core, (b) asthenosphere and mantle, (c) crust and uppermost mantle, (d) crust and outer core, (e) asthenosphere and crust

21. If the hanging wall of a fault moves up relative to the footwall, what type of fault is it? (a) right lateral strike slip fault, (b) left lateral strike slip fault, (c) reverse fault, (d) normal fault, (e) thrust fault

21. The "plates" in plate tectonics are made of (a) crust, (b) mantle, (c) lithosphere, (d) asthenosphere, (e) core

22. Besides the work of streams, what other process makes valleys "V-shaped"? (a) earthquakes, (b) weathering, (c) mass wasting, (d) erosion by glaciers, (e) groundwater flow

24. The figure below has both the P and S wave travel time curves. An earthquake occurs. If the P-wave arrived at station "A" at 10:32 AM and the S-wave arrives 10:38 AM, approximately how far away was the epicenter? (a) 1,000 km, (b) 2,000 km, (c) 4,000 km, (d) 6,000 km, (e) 8,000 km

29. The figure below shows the map view of a fault. The gray area of the fault just caused a large earthquake. Which area along the fault is likely to produce the next big earthquake?

3.The most active volcano (most number of eruptions) in the Cascadia subduction zone is: (a) Mt. Baker, (b) Mt. Rainier, (c) Mt. St. Helens, (d) Mt. Shasta, (e) Crater Lake volcano

36. What component in soils is responsible for large expansion and contraction of soil? (a) sand, (b) silt, (c) clay, (d) organic matter, (e) air

40. If one determines the relative position of the magnetic pole relative to a continent as it changes through time (as determined from the paleomagnetism of the rocks) one gets an "apparent polar wander path." The apparent wandering of the magnetic pole is due to (a) the flipping of the magnetic poles from N to S and vice versa, (b) The motion of other continents relative to the continent which contain the rocks, (c) motion of the continent which contains the rocks, (d) movement of the Earth magnetic field, (e) variation in Earth's gravity field

47. Which of the following events may cause a convergent plate boundary to "die" (stop converging)? (a) opening of a new ocean, (b) splitting of a supercontinent, (c) collision of two continents, (d) volcanism from a mantle plume, (e) a large glacier on the continent

7. When a road is built in a mountainous area, why might the building of the road trigger landslides? (a) the road will prevent water from entering the ground, (b) ground shaking from the heavy equipment will trigger landslides, (c) building the road may over steepen the uphill side of the road, (d) building the road removes vegetation from the road,

7.The volcanic phenomenon that has done the most damage and caused the most deaths throughout history are: (a) ash falls, (b) pyroclastic flows, (c) lahars, (d) pahoehoe lava flows, (e) aa lava flows

8. Fine-grained material that remains in the water of a stream (i.e., that doesn't sink to the bottom) is called (a) channel material, (b) bed load, (c) suspended load, (d) dissolved load, (e) meander

8.Tropical climate is necessary to produce thick laterite soil, but is insufficient. What else is necessary? (a) a lot of vegetation, (b) a lot of creep, (c) gently rolling topography, (d) a lot of groundwater, (e) occasional forest fires

9. The layered appearance of many metamorphic rocks is called "foliation." Which of the following produces a widespread foliation in an area of metamorphic rock? (a) high temperature, (b) high confining pressure, (c) directed pressure/stress, (d) a and b, (e) low temperatures and pressure

In which soil horizon is bauxite found (the ore of aluminum)?(a) O - organic-rich layer (b) A - mineral+organic mixed layer (c) E - zone of leaching (d) B - zone of accumulation (e) C - partly weathered regolith

The loose, weathered, and partially weathered material near the Earth/s surface is called (a) soil, (b) bedrock, (c) regolith, (d) soil horizon A, (e) laterite

The process that creates V-shaped valleys is (a) earthquakes, (b) stream erosion, (c) mass wasting, (d) normal faulting, (e) glaciers

Why is Florida especially susceptible to sinkholes? (a) It has a lot of salt deposits that are easily dissolved by water; (b) It receives a lot of wet weather and dry weather, (c) It consists of a lot of porous limestone and a very shallow water table, (d) It is surrounded by ocean, (e) It is flat and therefore the water table is also flat

Why is clay common in soil? Because ...(a) clay is abundant in most rocks, (b) clay is produced by organisms in the soil, (c) clay is formed by weathering of feldspar, the most abundant mineral in the crust, (d) clay is formed in the zone of leaching, (e) clay is actually NOT common in soil

all of the following are false about yellowstone except (a) a large eruption is expected soon (b) it is an area of low heat flow (c) there is a lot of hydrothermal activity (d) it mostly in the state of CA (e) there are few earthquakes happening here

the mtns in glacier national park are (a) volcanic mtns (b) fault block mtns (c) fold and thrust mtns (d) differential erosion mtns (e) not mtns, but plateau

what is the name of the supercontinent that existed about 1 billion to 700 MA? (a) pangea (b)gondwana (c)rodinia (d) siberia (e) antarctica

which of the following is true about glacier national park? (a) the glaciers are growing (b) the rocks are mostly strongly meta rock (c) it marked the former western edge of north america (d) it was once connected to Europe (e) it shares a border with mexico

which of the following is true about the Grand canyon? (a) it is the deepest canyon on earth (b)it is cut into the basin and range (c) the layers preserve millions of years of geologic history (d)sedimentary rock occurs throughout all the way to the bottom (e) sedimentary layers are heavily folded

which of the following structures separates the igneous and meta rock at the bottom of the Grand Canyon from the sedimentary rocks above? a)anticline (B) normal fault (c) unconformity (d) cross-cutting relation (e)transgression and regression of the sea

5. In the cross section figure below, a well at "X" is pumping out a heck of a lot of water from groundwater. Which of the five other wells is likely to go dry first as a result of the excessive pumping at X? (a) a, (b) b, (c) c, (d) d, (e) e

c bc its closest

9. In the map figure below, the level of the water table above sea level is given for 3 points (circles/dots). Which direction will groundwater likely flow (from the point where all the arrows meet)?

c bc its lowest

grand canyon

canyon being cut into the colorado plateau by colorado river

what is causing global warming/climate change

carbon dioxide from anthropogenic sources

missouri has lots of what

caves and springs (largest: big spring) but this limestone is bad

karst terrain

caves caused by dissolution of limestone from lowering water table

a delta can...

change locations (deposit is too thick) and is dynamic to spread out sediment

discharge

channel width x depth x velocity; tells you how much water moves through the stream per unit

terrane

chunk of crust that travelled far from current location and is geological distant from adjacent crust (many isalnds added to western US this way)

why don't calderas form in cinder cones?

cinder cones don't have a magma chamber, parasitic of shield or strato

typical minerals in soil

clay, hematite, limonite, quartz

what supported seafloor spreading?

cold war sonar showed alternating magnetic intensity symmetrically on ridge, paleomagnetism

sinkhole

collapse at earths surface caused by a cavity underground

P waves

compressional eave; travel through solids and liquidsl fastest wave

folds are result of

compressional stress (convergent boundaries)

potential plumbing problems of wells

cone of depression due to over pumping

liquid

contains silica, tetrahedral and variety of cations

how did plate tectonics theory form?

continental drift and seafloor spreading

why are plates moving?

convection of cold and dense plates wanting to sink into hot asthenosphere

eruption of mt st helens

created many modern volcanology tech

problems with expansive soil

creep, differential heave, expansion into foundation

oxbow lakes

crescent-shaped lakes formed in river valleys as a result of meandering streams

lithosphere (made of)

crust and rigid mantle, strong and rigid outer most layer (PLATES)

plutonic rock

crystallized at depth. Because of slow cooling, tends to have crystals that are easily visible (phaneritic texture)

phenocrysts

crystals already in magma prior to eruption

4.gneiss

crystals are visible and rock developed a compositional banding

1. The volume of water passing a certain point of the stream per unit time is called (a) channel, (b) bed load, (c) suspended load, (d) discharge, (e) the velocity of the stream

1.A pluton that is thought to be the solidified magma chamber of a volcano is called: (a) dike, (b) sill, (c) volcanic neck, (d) batholith or stock, (e) volcanic spine

11. Today, approximately how many sites on Earth have evidence of a meteorite impact at the K-T boundary? (a) one, (b) three, (c) ten, (d) dozens, (e) tens of thousands

stream

general term for any channelized flow of water (rivers, brooks, creeks)

17. Meteorite cratering on the Moon is abundant and obvious. Why are craters not so obvious on Earth? Because (a) meteorite impacts have been much rarer on Earth, (b) The Moon's gravity attracted most meteorites away from Earth, (c) There have been many meteorite impacts on Earth but they are small and not obvious, (d) erosion and plate tectonics on Earth have removed a lot of the evidence of meteorite impacts, (e) none of the above

18. What is the effect of temperature on the style of deformation of rock? (a) higher temperatures promote brittle behavior, (b) higher temperatures increase the strength of rock (c) higher temperatures promote fracturing of rock (d) higher temperatures promote ductile behavior (e) higher temperatures cause shrinking and fracturing of rock

19. What is the role of confining pressure on the style of deformation of rock? (a) higher confining pressure promotes brittle behavior (b) higher confining pressure increases the volume of rock, (c) higher confining pressure promotes fracturing of rock, (d) higher confining pressure promotes ductile behavior, (e) higher confining pressure causes shrinking and fracturing of rock

23. Which of the following comes closest to the percentage of the US land area covered by the Mississippi River drainage basin? (a) 0.1%, (b) 1%, (c) 5%, (d) 50%, (e) 99%

24. The following choices give the drop in elevation of a stream over a certain distance. Other things being equal, which stream would have the fastest velocity? (a) 1 inch per 1 mile, (b) 2 inches per 2 mile, (c) 4 inches per 4 miles, (d) 10 inches per 5 miles, (e) all should have equal velocities.

26. Which of the following is a measure of the total energy released in an earthquake? (a) focal power, (b) intensity, (c) epicentral distance, (d) magnitude, (e) elasticity

29. Building up a stream's levees is one way to prevent flooding in an area. What is a possible problem that may be caused by raising levees? (a) The flood will be more severe if the levee breaks, (b) the flooding may be worse downstream, (c) the stream may fill with sediment, (d) a and b, (e) a and c

3. Which of the following combinations of magma composition and volatile content results in violent eruptions? (a) fluid magma with little water, (b) fluid magma with a lot of water, (c) viscous/sticky magma with little water. (d) viscous magma with a lot of water (e) none of the above

31. Which of the following states have sinkhole problems? (a) Missouri, (b) Florida, (c) Kentucky, (d) all of the above, (e) none of the above

6. The figure below shows the same situation as above with the well at x pumping a lot of water. A toilet has been placed as shown with a septic tank below. Which is the worst location to sink a drinking well due to possible contamination from the septic tank? (a) a, (b) b, (c) c, (d) d, (e) e

6. Which of the following is thought to have caused the largest ever extinction on the planet? (a) A large pre-historic eruption of Yellowstone caldera, (b) The Deccan flood basalts in India, (c) The eruption of Long Valley caldera, (d) The Siberian Traps flood basalts, (e) the eruption of Mt. Pele in Martinique

6. Why is "intelligent design" not a scientific idea/hypothesis? (a) It was not proposed by scientists, (b) It's a new idea, (c) It's not based on an initial observation, (d) It doesn't make any testable predictions, (e) all of the above

7. In the figure above, why is the curve for "all eruptions" (volcanic eruptions) increasing with time, whereas that for "large eruptions" is level? (a) the number of small eruptions is actually increasing with time, while large eruptions are not, (b) the World Wars have caused an increase in small eruptions, (c) Each large eruption tends to produce more smaller eruptions, (d) More small eruptions that were previously unnoticed are getting reported whereas large eruptions have always been noticed, (e) none of the above

8. The Alvarezes were not out to determine the cause of the end-of-Cretaceous extinction, but instead intended to measure sedimentation rates. Which of the following statements describes their initial expectation? (a) they did not expect any relationship between the amount of iridium (Ir) and the sedimentation rate, (b) the thicker the layers of sediment, the greater the sedimentation rate, (c) the lower the concentration of Ir, the slower the sedimentation rate, (d) The higher the concentration of Ir in the sediment, the slower the sedimentation rate, (e) they expected no major changes in the concentration of Ir.

9. Which of the following comes closest to the percentage of the US land area covered by the Mississippi River drainage basin? (a) 0.1%, (b) 1%, (c) 5%, (d) 50%, (e) 99%

9.The combination of viscosity ("stickiness") and volatile (gas) content of magma that leads to explosive eruptions is : (a) low viscosity, low gas content, (b) high viscosity, low gas content, (c) low viscosity, high gas content, (d) high viscosity, high gas content, (e) all the above

A lahar is an example of (a) rockfall, (b) rockslide, (c) slump, (d) debris flow, (e) rock avalanche

Clay is the main product of chemical weathering on Earth. Which of the following is another product of chemical weathering?(a) sheeting, (b) feldspars, (c) quartz, (d) hematite,(e) Smaller fragments of the original rock

climate has fluctuated a lot in the past. Whats the big concern then regarding current burning of fossil fuels? (a) we are adding Co2 at rapid rate (b) we are adding more CO2 than the atms has had in past 400,000 yrs (c) pops may not have time to adjust to climate change (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

volcanism at divergent boundaries

decompression melting, thinning lithos

mantle

dense silicates

pyroclastic flow

denser than air mass of ash-rich volcanic debris flowing down volcano ~100 mph (from either direct eruption or collapsing of lava dome)

why can soil classification be confusing?

depends on who does it and their interests

how to get unconformity

deposition, folding and uplifting, erosion and weathering, subsidence and renewed deposition (sea level rise and fall)

damage effects of earthquake

direct shaking of structures; tsunami; landslides; liquefaction; fire

volatiles

dissolved gasses, including water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide (bubbles)

synform

downfolds or troughs of rock layers

lithosphere is made up of

dozens of pieces/ plates

best proof of how earth evolved

drilling

Fold and thrust

due to compression (alps and Himalayas)

fault block

due to extension (grand tetons, WY)

10. The following choices give the drop in elevation of a stream over a certain distance. Other things being equal, which stream would have the fastest velocity? (a) 1 inch per 0.5 mile, (b) 2 inches per mile, (c) 4 inches per 2 miles, (d) 10 inches per 5 miles, (e) all should have equal velocities.

11. The volcanic phenomenon/product that is usually confined to the crater area of a volcano because it does not flow very far is (a) fluid lava flow, (b) pyroclastic flow, (c) lahar, (d) ash fall, (e) lava dome

12. Still referring to the figure above, which location has the lowest velocity? (a) a, (b) b, (c) c, (d) d, (e) e

13. Tiny "spherules" (microtektites) have been found at the K-T boundary and at other impact sites. What is the origin of these spherules? (a) they are tiny fragments of the meteorite, (b) they are pieces of Iridium, (c) they are fossils that died out during the impact, (d) their origin is still unknown, (e) they are solidified droplets of rock melted due to the meteorite impact.

15. Below is the data published by the Alvarezes in their Science paper, which shows the concentration of Ir (in parts per trillion) in the samples versus the position of the samples in meters in the sedimentary rock. At what approximate position does the K-T boundary occur? (a) 0 m, (b) around 30 m (c) 150 m, (d) 305 m, (e) 348 m

16. The reddish color of many soils is caused by the presence of (a) expansive soil, (b) clay, (c) aluminum, (d) loam, (e) hematite

18. Which of the following climate conditions would favor the most frost wedging? (a) below freezing and dry all year round, (b) hot and wet all year round, (c) a climate with four seasons, (d) a warm climate with wet and dry seasons, (e) a cold, wet climate with temperatures that fluctuate between below freezing and above freezing.

20. Why do you think earthquakes are rare at depths greater than a few kilometers below Earth's surface? (a) Because there is magma everywhere at depth preventing earthquakes, (b) Because earthquakes can only be generated in the mantle, (c) Because water is required to generate earthquakes, (d) Because mountains need to be present for earthquakes to occur, (e) Because brittle faults tend to be confined to areas of lower confining pressure and lower temperature

21. Approximately what percent of Earth's near-surface water is liquid freshwater? (a) >95%, (b) ~50% (c) ~10%, (d) ~5%, (e) less than 1%

3.In a good loam soil, the role of sand and silt is to allow excess water to drain away. What is the role of the clay? (a) to allow the water to drain away even further, (b) to allow the soil layer to expand, (c) to provide organic material to the soil, (d) to make the soil richer in oxygen, (e) to retain water in the soil

3.The components of a magma that prefer to be in the gaseous state near the Earth's surface are called: (a) crystals, (b) liquid, (c) pyroclasts, (d) ash, (e) volatiles

30. Sinkholes often form in limestone areas, but can also form in other rock types like gypsum rock and salt rock, as seen in the NOVA video. What do all these rocks have in common that make them form sinkholes? (a) They all form in the ocean, (b) They are all fine-grained, (c) They are all very porous, (d) They are all very young rocks, (e) They are all relatively soluble in water

32. What rock type is targeted for oil and gas in the process called "fracking"? (a) permeable sandstones, (b) easily dissolved limestones, (c) easily eroded soil-rich rock, (d) coal-rich sediment, (e) impermeable mudstone/shale

33. What cheap preventions can be done to prevent your basement from getting wet/flooded or getting the foundation damaged/cracked? (a) make sure your gutters are clean, (b) make sure your downspouts drain far away from your basement, (c) make sure the yard outside your house slopes away from the basement, (d) make sure you water the lawn evenly, (e) all of the above.

39. If the paleomagnetic pole measured from one continent is different from the paleomagnetic pol measured from another (of the same age), then this implies that (a) the magnetic poles have moved, (b) there has been large declination in the magnetic field, (c) the Earth's spin axis has shifted, (d) the magnetic poles have flipped, (e) at least one of the continents has moved

4."Vesicles," which are holes in a volcanic rock are due to which component in a magma?: (a) crystals, (b) liquid, (c) pyroclasts, (d) ash, (e) volatiles

4.Which of the following is a factor in soil formation? (a) parent material, (b) time, (c) climate, (d) topography, (e) all of the above

41. How many times has the Earth's magnetic field flipped throughout Earth's history? (a) once, (b) 3 times, (c) 7 times, (d) about a dozen times, (e) way more than a dozen times

46. The fantastic light show called the "Aurora" is caused by what? (a) the Earth's magnetic field, (b) the small inclination of the magnetic field near the poles, (c) ozone at the polar regions, (d) lightning interacting with the air, (e) particles from the sun exciting the atmosphere

49. Which of the following best describes the theory of plate tectonics? (a) the idea that earthquakes occur at the edges of large pieces of lithosphere, (b) the idea that earth's magnetic field has flipped and has interacted with the lithosphere, (c) the idea that earthquakes and volcanoes are related, (d) the idea that a lot of motion occurs on earth, (e) the idea that the earth's lithosphere consists of several pieces that are moving relative to each other

49. Yosemite National Park is an area consisting almost entirely of what rock type? (a) slate, (b) basalt, (c) marble, (d) lahars, (e) granite

5.Volcanic ash : (a) is the result of explosive eruptions, (b) is the smallest type of pyroclastic material, (c) makes up most of a volcanic eruption column, (e) all of the above

6.At any particular area, what is exposed at the Earth's surface, whether it's a volcano, a volcanic neck, a batholith, or whatever volcanic or plutonic feature, depends largely on: (a) how active the volcano is, (b) how much magma there was at depth, (c) how explosive the volcano is/was, (d) how long the volcano is/was active, (e) how much erosion has taken place in the area

7. Which of the following factors will make a rock behave more ductile rather than brittle? (a) higher temperature, (b) higher confining pressure, (c) lower strain rate, (d) a rock type prone to ductile behavior, (e) all of the above

8. The Basin and Range province in North America is a place where the crust is being pulled apart. What types of structure would you expect to be forming in this area? (a) folds, (b) thrust faults, (c) reverse faults, (d) strike-slip faults, (e) normal faults

9. What was the initial observation made by the Alvarezes that led to the meteorite impact hypothesis? (a) the strange composition of the clay in the clay layer, (b) a very low amount of Ir in the clay layer, (c) the lack of any Ir in the clay layer, (d) the extreme thickness of the clay layer, (e) a very high amount of Ir in the clay layer

Downslope movement of regolith driven by gravity wherein the material is not carried in some moving medium like air, water, or ice, is called (a) creep, (b) landslide, (c) avalanche, (d) slump, (e) mass wasting

If you find a very widely scattered layer composed of a jumble of rocks without any muddy material in-between the rocks, the deposit was likely produced by a (a) rockfall, (b) rockslide, (c) slump, (d) debris flow, (e) rock avalanche

Landslides are triggered by (a) heavy rain, (b) earthquakes, (c) over-steepened slopes, (d) removal of vegetation, (e) all of the above

Sinkholes often form in limestone areas, but can also form in other rock types like gypsum rock and salt rock, as seen in the video. What do all these rocks have in common that make them form sinkholes? (a) They all form in the ocean, (b) They are all fine-grained, (c) They are all very porous, (d) They are all very young rocks, (e) They are all relatively soluble in water

Which factor triggers landslides? (a) Heavy rains, (b) Earthquakes, (c) Over steepened slopes, (d) Removal of vegetation, (e) All of the above

global warming is causing what

glaciers to melt , decrease of freshwater

what is velocity controlled by?

gradient and size and shape of channel

which of the following is a fact? (a) in the past, as temperature rose, CO2 rose (b) the recent rise in CO2 is man-made (c) CO2 is a greenhouse gas (d) prior to recent rise in temp, avg temp was declining (e) all of the above

which of the following is not a fact: (a) avg temp of earths atms has been increasing since industrial rev (b) prior to the industrial rev, the temp of atms was declining (c) atms temp have been fluctuating over the past 400,000 yrs (d) increase in atms CO2 since industrial rev (e) none of the above

yellowstone is at a (a) divergent (b) convergent (c) transform (d) both divergent and convergent (e) hot spot

4. The figure shows the same water table as above. If a septic tank (where sewage is dumped) is placed at X, where is the safest place to sink a drinking well? (a) a, (b) b, (c) c, (d) d, (e) e

e bc its deepest

stripes on seafloor

earths magnetic field had reversed several times, new seafloor being created symmetrically from ridge by volcanic activity at divergent bound

elastic rebound theory

elastic energy stored in rock as they are slowly strained near a fault, once strength is exceeded, the fault slips, releasing energy

where do earthquakes get their energy?

elastic rebound theory

all rocks will deform (...) initially

elastically (look at picture in notes)

why were dams created?

electricity and to prevent flooding!!!!

why do streams exist

evaporation in oceans exceeds precipitation; precipitation on land exceeds evaporation

movement of groundwater

exceedingly slow, typical rate of movement is a few cm per day

expansive soil

expand and contract aprreciably, they are 2nd cause of property damage in US, clay rich

soil in STL

expansive soil

hypothesis about K-T extinction

extra terrestrial bc of high levels of iridium (cosmic dust) which means slow sedimentation when meteor struck in rock

strike slip faults

faults where the motion of blocks is horizontal (right lateral or left lateral); transform boundaries;

volcanic necks

feeder of the magma chamber to the volcano

how do they prevent sidewalks from cracking?

fill with rubber materials so water doesn't get in

what have relationships?

folds and foliation

why do they fold, fracture or fault?

force acting on rocks

stress

force applied to an area

slot canyon

form when there is very little mass wasting ; main erosive force is stream

aquifer

formation that stores and transmits water such as wells and springs

rectangular

formed on rock with fractures

faults

fractures in rocks along displacement that has taken place

prediction

from hypothesis, if...then... (if there is no prediction, then it is NOT scientific hypothesis)

why do rivers continue to flow even though there has been no rain or snow melt for long periods of time?

gaining streams

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Score for this attempt: 0 out of 100 Submitted Feb 6 at 2:57pm This attempt took 30 minutes. UnansweredQuestion 1 0 / 5 pts A Trojan is a malicious program that uses a computer network to replicate. False True A worm is a malicious program that us