IHUM 243 Exam 3
According to the Bauls, ________. a. people should worship within their homes b. people should actively learn about all religions c. All the statements are true. d. people do not need to worship in temples or mosques
people do not need to worship in temples or mosques
The way Shakespeare came to South Asia
A crucial thing to keep in mind while discussing Shakespeare in India is that Shakespeare comes to India through a different route from the one it takes to China, Japan or Korea. Indians read Shakespeare in English and not just in translation. His texts are part of the curriculum of schools and universities. As a result of the victory of the Anglicists over those who thought Indian universities should teach the classics, as was the case in England, the colonial Indian curriculum was mainly humanities-based and included Shakespeare. Thus, English literature, including Shakespeare, was taught in India before it was introduced in the English universities . . . It comes as no surprise, then, that Sukanta Chaudhuri claims that "[o]utside the Western world, India has the longest and most intense engagement with Shakespeare of any country anywhere (4).
Which of the following is a country in South Asia? a. Afghanistan b. Vietnam c. Malaysia d. Thailand
Afghanistan
Partition
After many decades of anti-British resistance, Britain relinquished control of India in 1947. The final act of the British rulers was to partition the subcontinent, which resulted in the displacement of millions of people, an enormous refugee crisis, widespread violence, and hundreds of thousands of people dead. The hostility that arose from Partition has continued to trouble the relationship between India and Pakistan up to the present day. Turning to literature for insights into this tragic part of South Asian history, one of the great novels about Partition is Midnight's Children by acclaimed author, Salman Rushdie. The novel does not chronicle the bloodshed and horror of Partition per se; instead, Midnight's Children presents a highly engaging and fantastical story about a Muslim family's journey in the years previous to, during, and after Partition. A very different portrayal of British, Muslim, and Hindu characters, this novel provides a fascinating depiction of interracial and interreligious relationships from the point of view of a modern writer of Muslim descent. While we will not cover the novel in this class, it is highly recommended as an excellent piece of literature (winner of the Booker prize in 1981 and "Best of the Bookers" in 1993 and in 2008, respectively) as well as a remarkable portrayal of many of the unanticipated human problems associated with Partition.
According to Wilson, which of the following statements about the British Raj is true? a. All of the statements are true. b. After World War I, the British faced a fiscal crisis. c. Britons have engaged in a kind of self-justifying rationalization about imperial rule for centuries. d. Indian nationalists renewed their opposition of British rule following World War I.
All of the statements are true.
Which of the following statements about the Bauls is true? a. Their name comes from a Sanskrit word. b. Their name means "mad for God." c. They are sometimes described as "Vatul" or crazies. d. All of the statements are true.
All of the statements are true.
Which of the following themes is commonly reflected in Tagore's literary works? a. time travel b. chance c. the importance of heritage d. All of these themes are commonly reflected.
All of these themes are commonly reflected.
People from Bengal and Bangladesh ________. a. speak the same language b. engage in cultural syncretism, mirroring the agricultural fertility of the area c. experience an intermingling of Hindu and Muslim elements in the performing arts d. All the statements apply to people from Bengal and Bangladesh.
All the statements apply to people from Bengal and Bangladesh.
Which of the following statements about Kathputli is true? a. Over time, the story has been de-emphasized in favor of clever puppetry techniques. b. The story features a seventeenth-century Rajput prince named Amar Singh Rathor. c. All the statements are true. d. It is a genre that features elaborately-dressed wooden puppets.
All the statements are true.
Which of the following statements about the Little Traditions is true? a. They benefited from Tagore's patronage and leadership. b. They played a role in uniting South Asians against the British. c. They legitimized nationalistic feelings. d. All the statements are true.
All the statements are true.
Which of the following statements describes Tagore's role as a modern Indian? a. All the statements describe his role as a modern Indian. b. He was an inheritor and inventor of Eastern values. c. He could partake of the secular ethos of literature while also viewing it from the outside. d. He was a colonial subject and a progeny of the Enlightenment.
All the statements describe his role as a modern Indian.
Bollywood and the Little Traditions
Although it might be tempting to try and put some blame on the British Raj for the current vulnerability of folk traditions in South Asia, the greatest threat to genres like Kathputli and the Painted Ballads comes from Bollywood films. While we will discuss Bollywood as a modern cinematic and musical genre in more detail in unit 4, the following 35-minute film clip about the Bollywood phenomenon speaks about (among other things) the inter-relationships between folk traditions and the Indian cinema, and the subsequent decline of folk traditions in the face of the modern mass media. Please also note how many describe Bollywood as "escapist." There is a difference between entertainment, which can briefly relieve us of the tedium of everyday life, and escapism, which is behavior that becomes obsessive and impedes one's ability to function optimally in life. When, do you think, entertainment might become escapism? South Asia's vast number of Little Traditions might be compared to a richly-colored mosaic. As a vital form of communication for non-literate peoples, folk traditions have been essential for enculturation, entertainment, and political resistance. They are also excellent examples of the way folk traditions involve virtually all art forms—from the paintings of the ballads and the craftsmanship of the puppets to the singing and dancing of the performers and the communication of stories through oral language. These multimodal cultural forms are, however, endangered by modern cinematic (as well as a variety of digital) media.
Which of the following statements about the music of the Bauls is true? a. Bauls mix male and female performers within the context of a performance. b. All the statements are true. c. It became popular among American and British musicians in the 1950s. d. Women cannot sing as soloists in the Baul tradition.
Bauls mix male and female performers within the context of a performance.
Folk or "Little Traditions"
As mentioned in topic 13, the musical forms of South Asia might be hierarchically organized in a kind of pyramidal shape, with the Great Tradition on the top and the thousands of Little Traditions making up the base of the pyramid. Although South Asia comprises seven different countries (India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka), there are many more diverse cultures. In contrast to classical and religious traditions, which are common to broad geographical areas, the Little Traditions of South Asia represent an astonishing number of discrete cultural genres. Topic 17 focuses on several examples from the northeastern part of India and the neighboring country of Bangladesh, demonstrating that distinctive cultural forms often traverse national boundaries. NB: The Little Traditions are powerful examples of the shared features of the oral tradition: they are rule governed, use special languages and performance arenas, employ flexible patterns that aid memory and transmission, fulfill a clear function in their societies, and have an expressive power from their ability to vary within the limitations of different performance settings.
Folk Traditions in Bengal and Bangladesh
At the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, folk music and poetry became important in galvanizing Indians to challenge the British occupation. As mentioned in topic 14, one of the key figures who promoted South Asian arts and folklore as a political tool was Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who became the most famous South Asian writer of the British colonial era. Tagore became passionate about indigenous cultural forms—particularly from his native Bengal—and he urged authors all over India to write in their vernacular or spoken (as opposed to classical) languages. Tagore also founded an unusual university called Shantiniketan in which Indian folk music, dance, drama, and literature constituted part of the curriculum. As a result of his attentions, a popular folk aesthetic developed in India
In Lean's adaptation of A Passage to India, what happens with Azziz? a. Azziz is charmed by the elderly Mrs. Moore. b. Azziz is friends with Mr. Fielding throughout the film. c. Azziz is convicted of sexual assault. d. Azziz is helped substantially in his trial by the efforts of Godbole.
Azziz is charmed by the elderly Mrs. Moore.
"The Story of Pabuji" (Pabuji-ki-phad)
Because of the role of the Rajputs in defending the vulnerable northwestern part of the subcontinent, Rajasthani folklore has always been especially important in South Asia. (Remember Ravi Shankar's reminiscences of his mother's stories about brave heroes from Rajasthan in the film clip we saw for this class.) These stories are essential for non-literate peoples because they provide a connection to their past and a historical perspective not otherwise available to those who are unable to read or attend school. They also teach important cultural and religious values and, as mentioned in the last topic, they provide a voice of resistance for those who are oppressed or under-represented. Stories: The stories are about Pabuji, a fourteenth-century Rajput chieftain who is now regarded as a deity—or at least a folk hero— by many villagers.The story can take as many as thirty hours to tell, taking place over many nights.Episodes involve treachery, intrigue, romance, revenge, and loyalty.
Bhatiyali
Boat songs Inspired by the folk music from Bengal, Tagore was deeply influenced by the bhatiyali or boat songs popular in eastern Bengal/Bangladesh, where there is a network of rivers and streams connected to the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. More than simple folk song lyrics, the lyrics of Bengali boat songs provide contemplative metaphors about deliverance and journeys as mankind rows on wide rivers and deep seas. "A long time ago, when man did not obstruct rivers to suit his petty needs, the river channels served as goodwill ambassadors to extensive geographical areas—a river originating in one country flowing through another, joining another river, forming a filigree of merging and diverging rivers—with the social and cultural heritage of one region blending into another, each drawing on the rich yet varied perspectives in the whole process of cultural evolution. Playing on the silvery song of the rivers, an invisible musician has with his delicate touch composed the song of its heart—the Bhatiyali. Several areas remain submerged in rainwater for almost six months in a year, with the boat the only mode of transport...separated from their families for months on end, they have for their companion only the river on which they row their boats, with the waters merging into the horizons, and the azure heavens above."
Themes Performing Shakespeare in India
Deconstruction, The English language, How Shakespeare is viewed by South Asians, Exploration of the complexities of cultural syncretism, The way Shakespeare came to South Asia , Conflicting meanings
Given the hostile reception to British presence, how was this occupation allowed and why was it able to endure as long as it did?
Driven by the economic advantages the British enjoyed through the profits made by the East India Company, the British justified their occupation by touting the advantages of learning the English language and assimilating the alleged intellectual benefits associated with British culture for its Hindu subjects. Embree explains that the British occupiers proclaimed that by promoting the English language among its Indian subjects in the late eighteenth century—after having established the East India Company for several decades—the Indian subjects would be converted to "rational thinking" and learn the civilizing effects of British values, and the British rulers would achieve the maximum economic gains without having to learn any of the Indian languages (84-86). Despite the condescension, violence, decimation of culture, and acrimony that resulted from British occupation, the subsequent dominance of the English language has allowed modern South Asians to communicate the tragedy of their story globally, as well as enjoy decided economic benefits in the modern global economy.
Deconstruction of Shakespeare
Even as the conscious project of dismantling colonialization and its intellectual apparatus in various forms was going on from the nineteenth century onwards, the Indian literati, intellectuals, scholars and dramaturges were engaged in deconstructing the ultimate icon of colonial presence: Shakespeare. This project was both the text and the subtext of cultural enterprise like translation and stage performance and later, cinema (1).
Examples of Baul Songs
Example 1 Temples Block the Road to You "The road to you is blocked By temples and mosques I hear you call, my Lord, But I cannot advance. Prophets and teachers bar my way. Since I would wish To burn the world With that which cools my limbs, My devotion to unity Dies divided. The doors of love may bear many locks; Scriptures and beads Madan, in tears, Dies of regret and pain." Example 2 Prayers through Song Even if you forbid, dear friend, I am helpless; my songs contain my prayers. Some flowers pray through the radiance of their colors and others, being dark, with fragrance. As the vina [long-necked, plucked string instrument] prays with its vibrating strings, do I with my songs.
Examples of Bhatiyali
Example 1 By Ritwik Ghatak, translated by Rongili Biswas "I cried my heart out, by the river of the mundane Who is there to help you cross over, o my mind. I spent my good days And now I have come to the river O boatman, I do not know your name Whom would I call? I do not know your name." Example 2 By Jasimuddin, whose poetic description of the genre is quoted above "You have set me adrift, You are drowning me, This endless river which has no shores . . . Steer it cautiously, boatman, this tattered boat of mine with its broken rim."
True or false: There is one major cultural tradition that traverses the boundaries of South Asian countries. True False
False
Jon Wilson summarizes the patronizing and contentious British rule in India as follows:
For the centuries of its existence, there was something self-justifying and circular about the reasoning Britons used to justify the family business of imperial rule. The empire's few grand statements of principle came when the livelihood of British officers seemed under greatest threat. Then, political leaders responded with exaggerated rhetoric, but that rhetoric often meant little in practice . . . After the First World War, the British faced a fiscal crisis and a revival in opposition from Indian nationalists. The government felt it had no choice but to allow Indians to start sharing power with their masters, not least to partly justify the claim that the First World War had been fought to defend liberty against autocratic powers . . . We tend to see empires as systems of effective economic and intellectual power, as structures aiming to subordinate as much of the world as they can to their commercial power and values . . . In fact, in India, the British empire was never a project or a system. It was something far more anxious and chaotic. From beginning to end, it was ruled by individual self-interest, by a desire for glory and a mood of fear, by deeply ingrained habits of command and rarely any grand public reason. It consisted of fiercely guarded outposts of British sovereign power; it did not possess a machinery able to impose British authority evenly across Indian land. To see the real life of Britain's strange imperial state at work, we need to look beneath the abstract statements of great imperial officers trying to persuade their peers of their power and virtue. We need to tell the story instead of how British and Indian lives became entangled, often fractiously, sometimes violently, on Asian soil" (8-9).
Which of the following statements about British rule in South Asia is true? a. Exaggerated rhetoric enabled the British subjects to accept British rule. b. The effects of World War I encouraged a greater desire to expand the empire. c. Grand statements of principle came when the careers of British rulers were under the greatest threat. d. All of the statements are true.
Grand statements of principle came when the careers of British rulers were under the greatest threat.
Which of the following statements about E. M. Forster is true? a. He believed the British were behaving appropriately in India. b. He attempted to portray a fair and balanced view of the troubled relationship between Indians and British. c. He was highly respected in India. d. He was violently opposed to the presence of the British in India.
He attempted to portray a fair and balanced view of the troubled relationship between Indians and British.
According to the material in topic 14, which of the following statements might explain Tagore's interest in time travel? a. He believed in the notion of reincarnation in Hindu theology. b. He was deeply influenced by Einstein's theory of relativity. c. He was a voracious reader of science fiction. d. He was fascinated with Indian history.
He believed in the notion of reincarnation in Hindu theology.
Which of the following statements about Tagore's cultural contributions is false? a. He founded Shantiniketan. b. He was a prolific writer. c. He promoted literature in the vernacular. d. He was against Gandhi and Nehru.
He was against Gandhi and Nehru.
Which of the following about Tagore is true? a. He was the founder of a new religion. b. He was influenced by European romanticism. c. He frequently organized protests against British colonialism. d. He was uninfluenced by the British Raj.
He was influenced by European romanticism.
Which of the following statements about Tagore's nationalist activities is true? a. He eventually decided to shift his support to the British Raj. b. He was called the "Great Sentinel" by British leaders. c. His activities were respected by both Nehru and Gandhi. d. He regularly staged rallies to support Gandhi's efforts.
His activities were respected by both Nehru and Gandhi.
Sari-gan
In addition to the poetic imagery of the boat songs, Tagore also loved the lively, simple work songs of his native Bengal—songs that are designed to help workers (usually boatmen) handle the tedium of their day-to-day activities. The following video provides an example of one of these lighter songs with a lively rhythm punctuated by shouts. Pay attention to the following: the primarily syllabic singing style until the very last vocal flourish, which is highly melismatic the use of drum and harmonium as accompanying instruments the short hummable melody Note: the music of the Little Traditions is mostly syllabic and includes lots of repetition. Bengali folk songs—particularly the boat songs— provide a bit of a challenge to that generalization since they do include some melismatic flourishes, particularly at the ends of phrases.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)
In Bengal, he was a beloved native son who both championed Indian chauvinism and was deeply influenced by European romanticism. He was a curious figure who was as much a product of the British Raj as an ardent defender of Indian nationalism against British occupation. A novelist, poet, philosopher, painter, promoter of vernacular literature (literature written in the language of the common people), and founder of a university, many would argue that his greatest contributions were his songs. Tagore himself felt that "his greatest gift was for music, and it was this that he should try to communicate to the outside world" (Radice, p. 30). Of all of his published works in Bengali and English, his collection of devotional song lyrics—Gitanjali (1910)—is probably his best-known work, for which he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913 as the first Asian laureate. Because of the influence of the English language and British literature (discussed in topic 13), Tagore became a beneficiary of the bi-literary culture for educated South Asians during the Raj. Despite a brief period of international recognition after winning the Nobel prize, Tagore remained underappreciated in the West. Even among his own countrymen, Radice explains that "there was a loftiness, a refusal to compromise, that eventually distanced him from the Indian nationalist struggle, though Gandhi and Nehru acknowledged their debt to him to the last, Gandhi calling him 'The Great Sentinel,' the conscience of the subcontinent . . . [and] Nehru . . . describing him, with Gandhi, as one of the two outstanding personalities in the world in the last quarter of a century" (29).
Which of the following statements about sari-gan is false? a. The singing is primarily syllabic, with occasional melismatic flourishes. b. The melodies are usually short and hummable. c. Drums, harmoniums, and other instruments may be used as accompaniment. d. It is identical to bhatiyali.
It is identical to bhatiyali.
Which of the following statements about Midnight's Children is false? a. It is written by an Indian Muslim writer. b. It chronicles the story of a Hindu family before, during, and after Partition. c. If offers a remarkable story about the relationships between peoples of different religions in India and about the effects of British rule from the perspective of a native Indian. d. It won the Booker Prize and the Best of the Bookers on two occasions.
It chronicles the story of a Hindu family before, during, and after Partition.
Which of the following statements about bhatiyali is false? a. Occasional melismatic flourishes grace the otherwise syllabic singing style. b. It is the same as sari-gan. c. It may be performed by classically trained singers. d. It is a boat song popular in Bengal and Bangladesh.
It is the same as sari-gan.
Which of the following statements about Gitanjali is false? a. It is a collection of protest songs against the British Raj. b. It is a collection of devotional song lyrics. c. It was translated by Tagore from Bengali into English. d. It is the work for which he won the Nobel Prize.
It is a collection of protest songs against the British Raj.
Which of the following statements about the Sahaja sect of Buddhism is false? a. Hinduism integrated with a remnant of Buddhism during the eighth through twelfth centuries, creating this sect. b. The Sahaja sect is still practiced among a small percentage of the population. c. It is an example of cultural syncretism in South Asia. d. It is a remnant of Buddhism that integrated with Sufism in the eighth century.
It is a remnant of Buddhism that integrated with Sufism in the eighth century.
Which statement about Vaishnavism is true? a. It is associated with Krishna and mystical Sufi traditions. b. It promotes the union of Buddhists and Muslims. c. It is a syncretic blend of Hinduism and Buddhism. d. It is a syncretic blend of orthodox Islamic beliefs and Hinduism.
It is associated with Krishna and mystical Sufi traditions.
Which of the following about vernacular literature is true? a. It is basically the same as the oral tradition. b. It refers to literature that is based on spoken language. c. It refers to literature that may be written in Sanskrit. d. It is a kind of literature that was shunned by Tagore.
It refers to literature that is based on spoken language.
Which of the following statements about Partition is true? a. It helped to enhance relationships between Hindus and Muslims throughout South Asia. b. It enabled trade to flourish between Pakistan and India. c. It resulted in a political and humanitarian disaster. d. It was considered a disastrous move by the British leadership.
It resulted in a political and humanitarian disaster.
Which of the following regarding Bangladesh is true? a. It is now part of the Hindu Republic of India. b. It housed radicals who challenged the British Raj before 1947. c. It used to be part of Pakistan before 1971.
It used to be part of Pakistan before 1971.
Which of the following statements about Lean's film is true? a. Lean fought with his producer about the screenplay. b. Lean re-wrote the screenplay. c. After reading Santha Rama Rau's screenplay, he was anxious to use it in the film.
Lean re-wrote the screenplay.
According to Amit Chaudhuri, which of the following statements about Tagore's views on literature is false? a. We know what literature cannot exist without, but we do not know what literature is. b. Literature pales in importance to the oral tradition. c. Literature is like the essence of life. d. The essence of literature does not allow itself to be trapped within a definition.
Literature pales in importance to the oral tradition.
Which of the following statements about the characters in Lean's film is true? a. Mrs. Moore disapproved of Mr. Fielding. b. Miss Quested was engaged to Mrs. Moore's son. c. Mr. Fielding never liked Azziz. d. Azziz was guilty.
Miss Quested was engaged to Mrs. Moore's son.
According to the readings in topic 14, ________. a. Nehru, along with Gandhi, recognized Tagore's outstanding personal greatness b. the American press was obsessed with Tagore's poetry c. King George called Tagore "the conscience of the subcontinent" d. Gandhi did not appreciate Tagore's importance as a writer
Nehru, along with Gandhi, recognized Tagore's outstanding personal greatness
Introduction to Shakespeare in India
One of the best short introductory summaries of Shakespeare in India is Professor Poonam Trivedi's post on Oxford University Press's OUPblog, entitled "Shakespeare and India," posted on March 13, 2016. As you read it (after the Reflection Question), pay close attention to the following stages of development: The first Shakespearian productions were designed as entertainment for the British elite. Shakespeare eventually became part of the "civilizing mission" of the colonialists as they sought to enculturate South Asian subjects. Native populist adaptations followed, without much attention to details from the original plays. In the wake of the populist adaptations came an interest in and a desire to produce faithful translations into local languages. During the period of resistance against British rule—from approximately 1919 to 1947—there was a lull in performances of Shakespearian adaptations. Creative adaptations on film and on stage have flourished in the post-colonial world, as has the scholarship on Shakespeare in India; productions of Shakespeare in English and adaptations of Shakespeare in Indian languages have proliferated.
E.M. Forster's A Passage to India.
One of the ways to ascertain the entanglement of British and Indian lives is to look at literary accounts of the British Raj—and one of the most lauded accounts in English (a language we are obviously restricted to because of our predominantly English-speaking backgrounds) Most scholars agree that Forster's novel portrays the frustration felt by Indian subjects and British occupiers from the point of view of a British author who sincerely wanted to be sympathetic to Indian subjects (Armstrong, Chaudhuri, Singh). Despite Forster's earnest attempts to be fair and balanced, however, Indian author U.R. Rao explains that Forster never questioned the right of the British to be in India; rather, Rao's main criticism of the British rule was that it was an order of force and will, not of love and understanding (83). Indian-American writer Santha Rama Rau adapted Forster's 1924 novel into a play of the same name in 1960, with the blessing of Forster himself. When David Lean became interested in adapting the novel into a film, his contract stipulated that Rau would write the screenplay, which she did. However, neither Lean nor his producer John Brabourne were pleased with the manuscript because of its excessive wordiness. Lean himself rewrote the screenplay in 1982, and the film was eventually released in 1984.
Kathpuli storytelling
Other performers: In addition to the sutradhar, the drum player (who may be his wife) plays the dholak while singing, provides commentary, and interprets the speech rendered by the boli. Other performers (who are also members of the jati) may participate both behind the scenes and in front. The stage: Standing two borrowed cots end-to-end and hanging a large cloth over them, the troupe puts together a stage for each performance. The puppets: Displayed in front of the backdrop, which also conceals the sutradhar and other puppeteers, the puppets become the central feature of the performance. Puppetry technique: In addition to the ornate clothing worn by the puppets, another interesting feature of the puppetry is the sudden transformations from male to female or from god to demon that are accomplished by turning puppets upside down. The following clip provides an example. Songs: Of the songs performed during the puppet drama, some are relevant to the action, and others are taken from the general repertoire of folk songs and even from the repertoire of film songs. Mobility: When finished, the troupe members pack up the puppets into boxes, return the borrowed cots, and set out for the next village.
Little Traditions in Rajasthan
Painted Ballads and Kathpuli
Painted Ballad performances
Performers: Stories are performed by a bhopa and his wife, the bhopi. The bhopa and bhopi, as members of a professional caste (jati), own their repertory and maintain restrictions and rights. The bhopa recites declamatory verse, plays the fiddle, and sings. The fiddle he plays is called the ravanhattha, which is used during the narration. Relevant parts are pointed out with a lamp (during the nights) or with the bow of the ravanhattha. The bhopi is completely covered, carries the lamp that provides illumination during night-time performances, and also sings along with her husband. Children of the couple may also dance and sing when they are old enough to perform. (See the second video clip.) Mural: The couple travels from village to village in the western state of Rajasthan, spreading out a large cloth (up to twenty feet in length) on which tales of gods and heroes are painted. This image (on the right) is of Pabuji on a mural. Melodies: Melodies are taken from folk songs that exist independently of the narrative context. Oral transmission: The tradition is another example of the oral tradition—a kind of "orature" for non-literature people. Enculturation: The performance also exemplifies as a way to teach social and cultural values, as well as entertain. Multimodality: The folk traditions of India also display a dynamic relationship between music, visual arts, drama, dance, and poetry—an example of what we call "multimodality." Performance settings: Settings vary since the itinerant performers must travel throughout Rajasthan in order to make enough money to provide for themselves. The first video clip highlights a rural performance and the second shows a performance in an urban setting.
The English language
Shakespeare is implicated in the biggest and most significant colonial construct in India—the English language—with all its cultural baggage. The language issue is an inevitable refrain in all considerations of Shakespeare in India, mainly through the two modes of the literary translation and the innovations and adaptations in performance. The question of language is both unavoidable and inescapable in a region where vast numbers of theatre and cinema audiences were—and still are—illiterate or unschooled in the English language. The agenda of a people's education is almost always a hegemonic exercise and, in a linguistically diverse context like India, the instrumentalization of Shakespeare for education is fascinating because it yields results that are divergent and go far beyond the colonial goal of showcasing the best of the English language or imperial culture (2).
Tagore's greatest gift
Tagore himself felt that "his greatest gift was for music, and it was this that he should try to communicate to the outside world" (Radice, p. 30).
Painted Ballads
Teaching and narrating with pictures is one of the oldest forms of religious enculturation and folk entertainment in South Asia. The earliest records of storytelling with illustrations indicate Buddhist origins in the third century, and the cave paintings we studied from Ajanta represent a later visual record of Buddhist storytelling in the sixth century.
Which of the following groups of art forms is represented hierarchically by a pyramid? a. The Great Tradition, Qawwali, and The Little Traditions b. All the Little Traditions c. South Asian Sufi genres d. North and South Indian classical music
The Great Tradition, Qawwali, and The Little Traditions
Bengal and Bangladesh
The area of Bengal in the northeastern part of the Hindu Republic of India and Bangladesh, "country of Bengal," (formerly East Pakistan, which gained independence from Pakistan in 1971) enjoys abundant rainfall. This fertile part of the subcontinent has consistently supported a high population and has also developed rich cultural traditions that mirror its agricultural abundance. Thus, part of the richness of Bengal's and Bangladesh's cultural heritage is due to many examples of cultural syncretism. For example, a remnant of Buddhism integrated with Hinduism during the eighth century and through the twelfth century, resulting in the Sahaja sect of Buddhism—a sect that is still practiced among a small percentage of the population. Another example of cross-fertilization is Vaishnavism, which is a blending of Sufism and Hinduism that dates back to when the mystical practices of Sufism were introduced in the thirteenth century. As a Hindu sect that teaches the union of God and man through devotion and love (bhakti), Vaishnavism became associated with Krishna while adopting some of the mystical practices of Islamic Sufism. Despite the fact that Bengal is part of the Hindu Republic of India and Bangladesh is a separate Islamic country, the relationship between Muslims in Bangladesh and Hindus in Bengal runs deeper than in many other places in India because of their shared language, history, and culture
Exploration of the complexities of cultural syncretism
The creative interface between Shakespeare and the existing, as well as emerging art forms in India, continue to produce fresh points of entry into the Shakespearean text. The "Shakespearean moment" in India is thus marked by a release of energy in various directions. Technological advances and newer art forms such as cinema have only enriched the experience (3).
Amit Chaudhuri explains
The fact that Literature—specifically English literature—was a university discipline first invented for the colonies is fairly well-known today. In the 1880s, English literature became an object of study leading to a degree at the University of Calcutta, well before any such development had taken place elsewhere, let alone Oxford or Cambridge. But the incursion of English and European literary texts into Bengal had begun a century earlier. The study of literature cannot be seen simply as an instrument of imperialist pedagogy from 1820s onward . . . By the early nineteenth century, Bengalis, especially when naming literary and cultural societies, were reflecting on what literature, or, in Bengali, sahitya, might be . . . Tagore, in his first essay on the subject [sahitya] in 1889, defines it in negatives: 'The essence of literature does not allow itself to be trapped within a definition. It is like the essence of life: we know what it cannot exist without, but what it is we do not know.' These are the words of a poet who has come into his own at a cusp in history . . . Tagore's complex and difficult position as a modern Indian, a colonial subject, an elite cosmopolitan, an inheritor and inventor of Eastern civilizational values, and a progeny of the Enlightenment allows him to partake of the exclusive secular ethos of literature but also to view it from the outside, as a process . . ." (xxii-xxiii).
Which of the following statements about the study of British literature is false? a. The first English degrees were offered at the University of Oxford. b. In the 1880s, you could earn a degree in English literature at the University of Calcutta. c. English literature was a university discipline first invented for the colonies. d. Bengalis had the benefit of accessing English and European texts a century before one could earn a degree in English literature.
The first English degrees were offered at the University of Oxford.
Trivedi's quote on Shakespeare
The levels and types of engagement with Shakespeare in India are diverse and increasing. Purists may be appalled at the post-modernist piecemeal encounters, but they need not be seen as desecrations of a literary icon. Rather, they reveal a truth which has to be universally acknowledged that Shakespeare is now a world author; and in the Indian context, detached from the colonial baggage, he continues to speak in strange and wondrous forms to newer generations.
Purna Chandras Das Performance
The next very short clip is a highly melismatic Baul performance that is influenced by Sufism, demonstrating a kind of cultural syncretism that blends Hindu and Muslim beliefs within a single tradition. Notice also that the soloist is a female performer performing with male accompanists—something not done in a traditional orthodox Islamic performance.The Bauls play an unusual instrument called a Khamak, an instrument with one or two strings attached to the head of a small chamber. Played with a plectrum, the strings are alternately tightened and slackened to produce an amazing variety of rhythmic and tonal patterns. The Bauls also use more traditional instruments, such as the harmonium and tabla. The Bauls were popular among musicians from the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, and have performed worldwide with singers such as Mick Jagger, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, and others. This piece is an example of Prem-tattva (love of God). The vocal style of this piece, performed by the famous Baul Purna Chandra Das in the 1970s, is syllabic with many melismatic embellishments. The next very short clip is a highly melismatic Baul performance that is influenced by Sufism, demonstrating a kind of cultural syncretism that blends Hindu and Muslim beliefs within a single tradition. Notice also that the soloist is a female performer performing with male accompanists—something not done in a traditional orthodox Islamic performance.
The Bauls
The religious tradition of the Bauls provides a second, very different example of Bengali Little Traditions from the boat songs and folk songs. The origin of the word "Baul" comes from the Sanskrit word "Batul," meaning "mad for God." The word "Vatul" (or "crazies") is another word often used to describe the people associated with this religious tradition. As underground, Bob Dylan-like folk heroes who live and perform in the areas of Bengal and Bangladesh, the Bauls have a unique approach to life. They believe that God is hidden in the heart of man, so one does not need temples, mosques, or churches—which can actually hinder one's search for truth. Although Bauls outwardly reject organized religion, their music and poetry nonetheless reflect influences from the Sahaja sect of Buddhism, Vaishnavism, and the mystic beliefs of Sufism. They openly adopt an unorthodox, non-conformist, non-institutionalized spiritualism, and their music regularly contests mainstream Islamic and Hindu cultural values. In many ways, their poetry and music are further examples of Gregory Bateson's notion of art as a corrective, providing a kind of wisdom that may challenge any and all aspects of Hindu or Muslim groups with which they take issue.
How Shakespeare is viewed by South Asians
There are many schools of thought on the presence of Shakespeare in India and, as an instance of the varied approaches to Shakespeare, we consider two of those here. The first is the notions of Shakespeare as the bishwokobi or world poet, a writer to whom all Indians feel a natural affinity. The other is that there is nothing timeless or universal about Shakespeare. His works are not those to which Indians automatically relate . . . Shakespeare is, in fact, a sign of neocolonial hegemony, something that the colonial rulers slyly used to make their Indian subjects docile and obedient. The latter school believes that the Shakespeare text cannot be separated from its historical moorings. It cannot be disassociated from the social and political upheavals of the post-colonial world. They argue that Shakespeare enters India as a colonial tool and ends up as a sign of market forces in academic and cultural phenomena (3).
Which of the following about Kathputli performers is true? a. They rely only on the main puppeteer to provide all the narrative commentary. b. They borrow cots from local people in order to create their stages. c. They use the sound of the boli for comedic effect. d. They refuse to adapt their performances to the tastes of modern audiences.
They borrow cots from local people in order to create their stages.
Which of the following statements about the Little Traditions is true? a. Their entertainment function has been their sole purpose. b. Their stories are always changing with the times. c. All the statements are true. d. They have often functioned as a voice of resistance for oppressed people.
They have often functioned as a voice of resistance for oppressed people.
What do modern Kathputli performances do? a. They perform in large indoor venues whenever possible. b. They incorporate Bollywood tunes into their performances. c. They use animation instead of puppets. d. They create modern storylines in order to attract audiences.
They incorporate Bollywood tunes into their performances.
Which of the following about the role of female performers is true? a. They may not sing as soloists in the Baul tradition. b. They may perform as actors or sing as playback singers in Bollywood. c. They may not perform with men in Bengali folk songs.
They may perform as actors or sing as playback singers in Bollywood.
True or false: According to Amit Chaudhuri, the study of English literature in India cannot be seen simply as an instrument of imperialist pedagogy from the 1820s onward. True False
True
True or false: Because of the British emphasis on the English language and on British literature, Tagore, as an educated South Asian, became a beneficiary of a bi-literary culture. True False
True
True or false: The current Islamic Republic of Pakistan used to be West and East Pakistan, which included the country now known as Bangladesh. True False
True
True or false: The relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal and Bangladesh is a defining characteristic of the people from these regions. True False
True
Where the Mind Is Without Fear
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high Where knowledge is free Where the world has not been broken up into fragments By narrow domestic walls Where words come out from the depth of truth Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit Where the mind is led forward by thee Into ever-widening thought and action Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake
Boli
a small reed instrument in his mouth; the boli's shrill sounds represent the utterances of supernatural characters.
Which of the following statements best describes the British Raj? a. a time when E.M. Forster advocated for South Asian independence b. a time when the British ruled the South Asian subcontinent c. a time when the Rajput kings swore allegiance to the British throne d. a time when Britain chose to adopt South Asian practices in its parliament
a time when the British ruled the South Asian subcontinent
Which of the following best describes the East India Company? a. a Mughal company that wanted to trade with Britain b. a company from Eastern India that supported British rule c. the first official foreign presence on the subcontinent d. an English company that initiated trade with Mughal India
an English company that initiated trade with Mughal India
The East India Company
an English company that initiated trade with Mughal India in the eighteenth century—the first official British presence on the subcontinent. Taking advantage of the waning Mughal empire, the British formally occupied the subcontinent in 1857, when the East India Company was transferred to British rule. After a tumultuous occupation of nearly a century, the British left India in 1947, resulting in "Partition"—the painful birth of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (including East and West Pakistan) and the Hindu Republic of India. In 1971, East Pakistan became the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
Khamak
an instrument with one or two strings attached to the head of a small chamber. Played with a plectrum, the strings are alternately tightened and slackened to produce an amazing variety of rhythmic and tonal patterns.
Shantiniketan
an unusual university founded by Tagore in which Indian folk music, dance, drama, and literature constituted part of the curriculum
Kathputli
another popular form of Rajasthani storytelling that is based on the exploits of the seventeenth-century Rajput prince named Amar Singh Rathor, using elaborately dressed wooden puppets. Over the course of time, the story has been de-emphasized and short sketches involving clever techniques in manipulating the puppets have become the focus of attention.
Vaishnavism
blending of Sufism and Hinduism that dates back to when the mystical practices of Sufism were introduced in the thirteenth century. As a Hindu sect that teaches the union of God and man through devotion and love (bhakti), Vaishnavism became associated with Krishna while adopting some of the mystical practices of Islamic Sufism.
The British justified their presence on the Indian subcontinent by ________. a. suggesting that Indian subjects would someday be able to participate fully in governing of the subcontinent under the direction of the British b. proclaiming that Indian subjects would eventually be able to become British citizens and work in Britain c. claiming that Indian subjects would learn English, which would allow them to learn how to think rationally and behave according to British values
claiming that Indian subjects would learn English, which would allow them to learn how to think rationally and behave according to British values
Partition ________. a. divided the subcontinent into two domains—India and Pakistan (East and West) b. allowed millions of people to peacefully join their families in other parts of the subcontinent c. had been planned by the British for decades d. saw minimal violence because of British benevolence
divided the subcontinent into two domains—India and Pakistan (East and West)
Tagore's Themes
fascination with heritage chance and play time, memory, the moment the unity and continuity of creation (as seen through the notion of Brahman) time travel, return, and arrival the notion of the "beautiful"
Considering the examples we heard in topic 15, which of the following instruments may be used to accompany bhatiyali? a. shahnai b. flute, sarangi, and tabla c. sitar and sarod
flute, sarangi, and tabla
Since the Little Traditions involve all the arts—including visual, musical, dramatic, and oral elements—one could say they are ________. a. multilingual b. multipurpose c. multimodal d. multicultural
multimodal
According to the film There'll Always be Stars in the Sky, ________. a. folk performers feel as though they must imitate aspects of Bollywood films in order to draw in audiences b. Bollywood disdains folk performances c. music is not as important as the storyline in Bollywood films d. female actors in Bollywood must be modestly dressed
folk performers feel as though they must imitate aspects of Bollywood films in order to draw in audiences
In making his adaptation of A Passage to India, Lean ________. a. enjoyed the support of Forster b. was not supported by his cast and crew c. worked with Santha Rama Rau as the producer d. had a contract stipulating that Santha Rama Rau write the screenplay
had a contract stipulating that Santha Rama Rau write the screenplay
Shantiniketan ________. a. was founded by Gandhi b. was founded by Nehru c. was a military training school for British leaders d. had a curriculum that included the study of indigenous art forms
had a curriculum that included the study of indigenous art forms
The khamak is an instrument that ________. a. came originally from the Gupta court b. was played by Gandhi in many of his rallies against the British c. has two or three strings attached to the head of a small chamber d. was played by Muslim musicians in the Mughal period
has two or three strings attached to the head of a small chamber
Which of the following accomplishments did Tagore consider his greatest gift? a. essays b. music c. poetry d. paintings
music
When did Partition take place? a. in 1900, at the instigation of Hindu nationals b. in 1947, following the end of the British Raj c. in 1957, after the British had relinquished power on the subcontinent d. in 1918, following the Spanish flu pandemic
in 1947, following the end of the British Raj
Pabuji-ki-phad is a story that ________. a. involves treachery, romance, intrigue, revenge, and loyalty b. is about the life of a Rajastani queen c. can be told within one afternoon d. is about a rebellious servant at court who tries to overthrow the king
involves treachery, romance, intrigue, revenge, and loyalty
In the Sanskrit language, "Sahitya" refers to ________. a. religion b. knowledge c. philosophy d. literature
literature
According to Radice, Tagore ________. a. often felt himself above others b. always actively supported Gandhi's political activities in resisting the British c. eventually joined the Indian nationalist struggle
often felt himself above others
The real reason British rulers preferred having Indians speak English was because ________. a. they enjoyed hearing English spoken with an Indian accent b. the British could have translators whenever they needed them c. the British would not have to learn any Indian languages d. their Indian subjects could have the chance to learn another language
the British would not have to learn any Indian languages
sutradhar
the name of the main puppeteer as well as a title used in classical Sanskrit drama that means "the one who holds the thread." In addition to manipulating the puppets, the sutradhar in kathputli also wears a string of bells on his hands and plays the boli (a small reed instrument) in his mouth; the boli's shrill sounds represent the utterances of supernatural characters. A philosophical interpretation of the sutradhar and his puppet drama is that God controls all human existence by invisible strings.
The meaning of the word "sutradhar" is ________. a. the name of a story in the Kathputli tradition b. the playwright c. the one who holds the strings d. the harmonium player
the one who holds the strings
According to the film There'll Always be Stars in the Sky, folk traditions are vulnerable because of ________. a. infighting among popular folk singers b. the predominance of Western popular music c. the rise of nationalism d. the rise of Bollywood
the rise of Bollywood
Bhatiyali Music
the singing is primarily syllabic, with occasionally a few long melismatic flourishes. Additionally, a flute, a bowed fiddle (the saranagi), a rattle, and a drum accompany the singing. Classically-Rendered Bhatiyali The following clip is an 8-minute video example of a classically-rendered Bengali boat song, performed by the gifted classical singer Sangeeta Bandyopadhyay. Notice that this example blurs the lines between classical and folk traditions, defying the usual pyramidal distribution of folk and classical musical traditions that characterizes most of the of South Asian soundscape. While definitely based on the tune and lyrics of a folk song, this rendering is performed with the highly melismatic ornamentation of a classically-trained singer and accompanied by a tabla and a sarangi, both of which are instruments associated with Hindustani classical music. Notice how the sarangi player follows her lead in mimicking her ornamented singing style.
According to Wilson, the British empire ________. a. always tried to be benevolent towards its subjects b. possessed a strong machinery designed to impose authority evenly yet fairly c. was never a project or system, but was, instead, anxious and chaotic
was never a project or system, but was, instead, anxious and chaotic
