Infant and Child Development- Exam 2
A child lacks the mental capacity to solve a two-digit by two-digit multiplication problem. Which example below serves as a representation of scaffolding?
A teacher helps the child learn the first step in the multiplication problem, which allows the child to then solve the next step.
Which is an example of behavior demonstrating means-end analysis?
Baby Derell pushes aside a pillow to get to his favorite toy.
At what age does infant gaze start?
By 18 months
What impact does socioeconomic status (SES) have in the context of language and literacy?
Children from low SES households have nearly half the vocabulary compared to those from high SES backgrounds, largely due to differences in their exposure to language from caregivers.
Disease can impact any person regardless of where they are in the world or what their status is. According to a figure by Braveman and Barclay (2009), what relationship does family income have with health conditions?
Children in homes with poor economic resources have higher rates of disease.
Poverty affects children across all ethnicities but in certain groups may lead to more risk for negative health outcomes. Which of the following is true for children who experience child maltreatment, neglect or exposure to violence?
Children in low-income homes have greater odds of experiencing or seeing all forms of abuse.
Chomsky believed that children are innately endowed to learn language. From the options, which provides support to back Chomsky's claim?
Children show creative uses of language and an ability to generate an infinite number of sentences they never heard.
Researchers have found that theory of mind can actually help children with deception and persuasion. Which explanation best explains this connection?
Children who understand theory of mind recognize they can create false-beliefs in others.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), which is responsible for the most deaths throughout the world?
Chronic disease
Conjunctions such as "when" "but" or "and" are increasingly used by children as they develop their language skills. What do these conjunctions allow children to do?
Conjunctions allow children to construct complex sentences with nested clauses.
Which theory attempts to explain how children develop the ability to draw meaningful associations among various related words and concepts?
Connectionist theory
As caregivers read books to their children, they provide children with opportunitiesto develop many skills. However, not all reading interactions are similar. Which statement best captures the idea of dialogic reading?
Dialogic reading is a style in which adults ask questions to prompt children to participate and engage.
Which has not been observed in cross-cultural research of infant emotional development and attachment?
Differences in whether infants actually form an attachment with their caregivers
Which school activities fosters children's reasoning about the motives, beliefs, and emotions of people?
Literary activities
Why do information-processing researchers sometimes examine infants' heart rate as an index of attention rather than (or in addition to) infants' gaze?
Looking at something alone does not necessarily mean that the infant is processing information about the stimulus.
According to a report by the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), an estimated 674,000 children were identified as victims of abuse in 2017. Which form of abuse was most reported?
Neglect
Younger children compared to older children tend to be hospitalized more often as the result of unintentional injuries. Which is not an example of unintentional injury?
Neglect (physical and/or emotional)
A child at dinner time refuses to eat food that is "too green." One parent promises to reward the child with dessert and another parent threatens to take away the child's phone. Which approach will be more successful?
Neither tactic is optimal, threats or bribes do not allow the child to develop self-control.
A parent teaches her 2-year old to count to 5 by herself, but the child does not understand the meaning of the numbers when counting. Does this mean the child has a possible developmental delay in understanding number concepts?
No, children will not learn the meaning of number words (and how they map to the items in a set) until 3.5 or even older.
Some tasks that would appear simple to adults may be more challenging for children, an example being threading buttons of various shapes with a length of yarn. What type of skills would be needed to work with small objects?
Fine motor skills
A child is reading aloud in class. As he carefully reads the word giraffe he starts by breaking the word into parts and realizes almost instantly that the g in giraffe makes a j sound. What does this suggest about the child?
He has developed code-related skills such as phonological awareness.
Which is not true about rates of child maltreatment?
Improvements in tracking using recent technology advances allow for exact statistics on rates of maltreatment.
When will children typically begin experimenting with different sounds?
Infants begin making simple sounds and by 12 months of age can say a handful of words.
Which accurately represents what is known about basic emotions in infancy according to Darwin?
Infants from all cultures display basic emotions such as happiness and sadness early in infancy.
According to critics of the nativist view of cognitive development, which is a possible alternative explanation of infants' longer looking times during experiments?
Infants' attention may be drawn to perceptual features of the stimulus, rather than reflecting their innate expectations.
Which is true of cultural influence on emotional development?
Infants' interpretation of basic emotions differs in various regions around the world.
Which statement best describes the results of the multicultural study by Callaghan, et al. on the development of social cognition?
Infants/children in all situations achieved similar social cognitive skills, although there were some differences in the manner in which these skills were acquired.
In an approximate number sense experiment, researchers observed that 9-month-old Jasmine was able to distinguish number arrays that differed by a ratio of 2:3, while 6-month-old Kylie was not. What can we conclude about the about the two infants' number sense?
Jasmine has a more developed approximate number sense than Kylie.
Three-month-old Jessica smiles as her father walks into the room. This reaction is evidence that
Jessica has developed a social smile.
Judy DeLoache used a scale model to hide a toy under a toy couch identical to a life-size couch in the room. A 4-year-old could find the real toy under the life-size couch after realizing the scale model was a copy of the room. According to DeLoache, why were 30-month-olds unable to find the toy in the same way?
Lack of dual representational skills
Which will impact how phonemes combine into words?
Language
A study found doubling vegetable and fruit servings to children led to an increase in consumption of those foods but not calorie intake. What conclusions can be made?
Larger portions of healthy foods will increase healthy eating without risk to being overweight.
As children grow, developments in the brain include new synaptic connections and myelinization to help nerve impulses travel faster. Another change during early childhood increasingly allows for one side of the brain to control the other side of the body. What is this called?
Lateralization
Over recent decades, multiple studies have found that the nature of child-related injuries and accidental fatalities have changed. Which is a likely explanation for this change?
Laws and policies around safety and other guidelines have led to improved safety precautions, and injuries have declined.
Children living in impoverished neighborhoods are at greater risk for chronic lead exposure. Which statement about this exposure is true?
Lead exposure can lead to lower intelligence, verbal and visual-motor deficits, and physical ailments.
Which statement best explains the semantics of language as an interconnected system of words?
Learning a word like "ball" relates toother words such as "bounce" "round" or "kick."
Which development reveals a child's growing skills in pragmatics?
Learning social conventions and norms around language use
According to the reading, infants who have hearing disabilities tend to display what amount of canonical babbling relative to hearing infants?
Less frequent
Which represents the order in which infants typically learn different types of words?
Nouns, then verbs
Which is a noncommunicable, chronic disease?
Obesity, which leads to diabetes, heart disease and other issues
What percentage of deaf children in the U.S. are born to hearing parents who do not know American Sign Language? Correct!
Over 90 percent
_______ predicts preschoolers' theory-of-mind performance.
Parental sensitivity
Wellman and colleagues (2001) analyzed cultural data on theory of mind. What did they find about social-cognitive development in different cultures?
Patterns in development are very similar across all cultures.
Infants and young children require more sleep than older children, teenagers or adults. According to pediatric recommendations, how many hours of sleep is recommended for children younger than 6 years of age?
10-14 hours of sleep
Vaccines provide protection against infectious disease. According to multiple studies, approximately how many young children (depending on age) are actually vaccinated?
73% to 92%
The finding that "individuals who engage in joint attention in infancy tend to perform better on language acquisition tasks in childhood" is an example of
a cascade from social cognition.
According to research on the impacts of socioeconomic environment on infant development, infants from low-income households, on average, are at greater risk of not achieving full cognitive potential. This is most likely the result of
a combination of less stimulating home environments, poor nutrition, and limited access to learning materials.
A prime example of spatial cognition would be seen when a child understands that
a hexagon shape will not pass through a square-shaped hole.
A researcher who believes that infants are hardwired to understand certain concepts such as object permanence or gravity is most likely a proponent of
a nativist view.
Research on infant looking behaviors suggests that by 4-5 months of age, most infants show
a preference for prosocial behaviors in others.
Which is the chronological order of the characteristics of the first five sensorimotor substages as defined by Piaget?
Spontaneous movement → repeated action focused on own body and immediate environment → repeated action focused on objects → coordinated sequences of action → means-end analysis
______ is the degree to which something is attractive or noticeable to an infant.
Stimulus salience
Which is not an example of communicative accommodation?
Talking to other adults in the presence of an infant
Which statement best captures school influences on children's social-cognitive development?
Teachers expose children to mental state talk, which promotes theory of mind understanding.
Charity is caring for two infants in her home. One is 3 weeks old and the other 5 months old. As Charity sang, she noticed both infants smiling. What likely explains this behavior in both infants?
The 3-week-old is likely smiling in response to the sound while the 5-month-old displays a social smile to express happiness toward the familiar caregiver.
What do modified A-not-B experiments that involve manipulations of infants' posture demonstrate?
The impact of sensory feedback is an important consideration when conducting A-not-B experiments.
Young children raised in homes with professional parents may show more language development and larger vocabularies compared to children raised at or near poverty levels. What do researchers Hart and Risley suggest is a possible explanation for these differences?
The researchers estimate that young children in poverty have heard 30 million fewer words in their first years of life than peers in homes with more resources.
Cultural practices around reading and storytelling differ by community. Which cultural-specific example is true?
The strategy documented in European American middle-income families in the United States (actively involving children in the creation of stories through questioning and active participation) is not emphasized in Latinx, Chinese and other cultural communities where parents are more likely to control the story
Two-year-old Samuel has started to display anger when things don't go his way. His parents wonder if this is normal. Which would be an accurate statement to share with Samuel's parents?
This is normal as the expression of emotions like anger typically increases in the second year.
What is the purpose of false-belief experiments?
To determine whether infants/toddlers understand that others can have beliefs different from their own
Brennon and Dale are brothers who moved across the country after their father died. They are in a new state with little knowledge of the areas and had little time to process the sudden move. They are cared for and are generally supported with resources at home. For such a transition, what type of stress are they likely to experience?
Tolerable stress from the event of a father's death
A care center teaches preschool-aged children executive function skills such as improved memory, self-control, and attention. One reading task requires turn-taking. Selena holds a card with an ear because it is her turn to listen. Maria holds the card with a mouth because it is her turn to read the story. This inhibitory control task is part of which curriculum?
Tools of the Mind curriculum.
Thinking of hierarchical categorization of words (for example, the order from general to basic to specific), which would be considered a specific-level word?
Toucan
Which activity is considered a gross motor skill?
Turning and twirling on a playground
Which is not a tool that cognitive development researchers use to study infants?
Verbal reasoning tasks
Infant Ekaterina spends an hour each day watching videos on her tablet. However, she has trouble relating what she sees on the screen to the real world. According to research, what can Ekaterina's parents do to help her to better interpret and apply what she sees on the screen to the real world? Correct!
Watch with her and talk about the programs.
Which feature has not been studied as an example of infant-directed speech?
Whispers
Parents of eight-month-old fraternal twins, Adrienne and Addison, found that each child responds very differently to noises and activity levels in the room. Addison is bothered by increased activity while Adrienne appears to enjoy the extra activity. After noticing this, one parent will often take Addison off to a quiet side of the room, away from the high noise and activity. According to research, is this a wise decision?
Yes, this is an example of goodness of fit between parenting and child temperament.
Rothbart's research found that _______ correlated with adult personality of _______.
negative reactivity; neuroticism
According to the chapter, in order to encourage _______, parents were at one point recommended to _______ rather than _______ to their deaf children.
oral language, talk, sign
An infant's objective or conceptual self does not emerge until somewhere around the
second year.
A parent and toddler visit a new playground. The toddler alternates between watching their parent and investigating a very steep slide. After seeing a fearful look on the parent's face, the toddler moves away from the slide. The toddler's behavior can be described as
social referencing.
In the real-life example of the word apple, _______ can describe why infants are able to detect the likelihood of ap being paired with ple?
statistical learning
An experiment in which caregivers interact naturally with their infants for a brief period, followed by maintaining an unresponsive face for several minutes is known as the
still-face experiment.
The stage of attention when an infant starts to process stimuli and learning occurs is referred to as
sustained attention.
Malik is playing with a red triangular toy. He hears an adult use the novel word block. Malik is likely to think this new word refers to the toy, rather than its shape, it's color, or some other characteristic of it. This illustrates the concept of
whole object assumption.
Jason is an 18-month-old child. He sees his mother bump her foot and yell out in pain. Jason quickly pats his mother's foot. Jason's behavior
displays development of "moral goodness" reflected in prosocial behavior.
Researchers have used conjugate mobile experiments to study infants'
duration of memory.
A child stops themselves from throwing a toy when upset and instead walks away from the situation. This behavior is an example of
effortful control.
Lila covers her ears immediately as the fireworks show begins to avoid getting upset. Lila is displaying
emotional self-regulation.
Which example does not reflect a common overregularization in grammar?
At home, Dana asked to "talk" with grandma over the phone.
When might a child experience a "vocabulary growth spurt"?
After a few months of growth in vocabulary, around 18 months of age
Which is evidence that an infant understands goal-directed reaching? You Answered
After being habituated to a person reaching for a certain toy, baby Isaiah looks longer when the person reaches for a different toy.
Which is an accurate statement about the context of attachment?
Ainsworth's attachment categories are found consistently across various cultures and socio-economic groups.
What is a way that researchers infer that an infant or child is developing social cognitive understanding?
All of the above
Which behaviors are a part of infants' turn-taking during communication with others?
All of the above
Which explains why sleep problems in early childhood may be connected to childhood obesity?
All of the above
Infants can use nonverbal methods—their own and those of others—to
All of the above.
The limbic system controls children's emotional expression and emotion-regulation. The amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus. Which of these is central to registering emotions that are positive and negative, including the emotion of fear?
Amygdala
Thomas and Chess's temperament profiles were clustered into which three categories?
Easy, Difficult, Slow-to-warm-up
In a lab, a child was asked to cover her eyes. When asked if her mom can still see her, the child said: "no because my eyes are closed" What is this thought process referred to as?
Egocentrism
Which would you recommend to enhance the quality of parent-infant interactions?
Encourage parents to model or mirror the emotions of infants back to them.
Jamal, who is 32, cannot remember who his teacher was when he was 7 years old, but he remembers specific, vivid details from his classroom and the day he fell and needed to get stitches. What kind of memory has Jamal stored?
Episodic memory
As children physically develop, they gain greater control over their bodies. Which type of skills relies primarily on large muscle groups in arms, legs and torso?
Gross motor skills
Individuals with younger siblings are more likely to lie (O'Connor & Evans, 2018). What does this mean in terms of social-cognitive development?
Having siblings is associated with more advanced theory-of-mind performance.
Ashton has a hard time learning the alphabet and is behind the class. The teacher notices Ashton also has no supplies for school and wears the same outfit repeatedly. What conclusion could be drawn from this connection?
Poverty conditions may be impacting Ashton's ability to learn.
What factor contributes to children's improvements in phonology?
Practice talking and muscle coordination
Which kind of programs are most successful at the reduction of childhood obesity?
Programs that focus on nutrition combined with physical activity
Which is the best response towards young children who may be picky eaters?
Provide ample access to a variety of foods—without pressure—and encourage healthy eating
Which is not one of the four subtypes of child maltreatment?
Relational abuse
n habituation experiments, the fact that infants prefer to look at something new (novelty preference) is most often interpreted as the
infant having encoded a familiar stimulus during habituation and is remembering the familiar vs. novel object.
Cindy is a child who has a predictable routine with dinner, sleep time, going to school and repeating the process daily. Rupert has a similar routine at his mom's, but when he stays with his dad on weekends he stays up late and often skips breakfast. Which statement about Rupert's and Cindy's sleep is accurate?
Rupert may experience less sleep than Cindy, because irregular bedtime routines and inconsistent parenting may lead to less sleep on average.
A 6-year-old child who is visiting a restaurant expects a waiter to bring over a menu, describe the specials, take orders, and then serve food. What does this understanding reflect?
Scripts and semantic memory
A researcher notes that 9-month-old Sebastian is watching a picture and his heart rate has steadily slowed down from when the stimulus was first presented. What is the researcher's mostly likely interpretation?
Sebastian is processing the stimulus and is in the sustained attention phase.
Children and adults differ in average heights and weights in cultural communities throughout the world over historical time. Which term refers to such changes over an extended time?
Secular changes
Both Harlow and Bowlby's work help us better understand attachment. Which accurately reflects their research?
The work of both emphasized an evolutionary view of attachment.
Which is true about the language development of children who hear two languages from infancy?
Their course of development in each language mirrors the course of monolingual children.
One hypothesis on children's growing theory of mind is that with development, children modify their reasoning about the causes of behaviors in themselves and others. What is this explanation called?
Theory-theory
Children understood that stranger "A" knew how to fix a toy but did not know what the tools were called. Stranger "B" knew the names of things but couldn't fix them. The children were later more likely to turn to Stranger B for the label of an object they had never seen because.
They considered stranger B as a reliable source of information.
What behaviors suggest that a toddler might have an early understanding of their own gender identity?
They display greater interest in stereotypical own gender toys than other-gender toys
The single-touch and double-touch experiment was developed to better understand whether young infants
can distinguish their own actions from the actions of others.
accommodation
creating new schemes or adjusting old ones to respond more effectively to new challenges/stimuli/situations
The concept of goodness of fit
describes the alignment between the child's temperament and the expectations of that child's environment.
Baby Andreas watches his father shave and, hours later, mimics this behavior. This is an example of
deferred imitation.
The ability of an infant to re-enact an action that they observed earlier is called
deferred imitation.
The evolutionary theory that an infant's emotional tie to the caregiver is an evolved response that promotes survival reflects a(n)
evolutionary view of attachment.
As children acquire language skills during early childhood, they display impressive expansion in their vocabularies, which best reflects
growth in semantic networks.
Five-month-old Shaheen does not look longer when he sees an object "floating" in air without support. This would refute a claim that he
has an innate understanding of gravity and support.
The term social cognition refers to
infants' ability to process, store, and apply information about people and social situations.
Jayanthi stayed close to her mother upon entering a new home and became extremely upset when her mother left the room. Even when her mother returned to the room, Jayanthi was not easily comforted. The type of attachment relationship expressed by this behavior is most likely
insecure resistant
Chomsky suggested that children are innately endowed with the ability to learn language, which he attributed to
language acquisition device.
The channeling of language preference and perception to one's native tongue is an example of
perceptual narrowing.
Semantic development refers to
the meaning of words and word combinations.
Mothers of girls _______ their infants' crawling ability and mothers of boys _______ estimated their infants' ability.
underestimated; more accurately
Twelve-month-old Reese points at a puppy that has just entered the room. The caregiver interacts with Reese but does not look at the puppy. Reese continues to point persistently at the puppy. Researchers interpret such behavior as indicating that Reese
wants to elicit joint attention with the caregiver.
