international relations final
Globalization Under Trump
During his presidency, Donald Trump emphasized a more national focus for the U.S., questioning the future of U.S. alliance networks and criticizing some allies. Trump's withdrawal from multilateral agreements like the Trans-Pacific Partnership, Paris Climate Accord, and Iran Nuclear Deal influenced allies worldwide and strained relations with the European Union and NAFTA partners. Trump viewed the Trans-Pacific Partnership as a 'bad deal' for the U.S., intended to create a single market in Asia-Pacific, with proponents and opponents differing on its economic impact. Trump's decision to withdraw from the Paris Agreement, aimed at reducing global greenhouse gas emissions, was rooted in his criticism of its effects on U.S. competitiveness.
Human Development Index
(HDI) is the most accurate way to categorize the development of countries. Measurements of HDI: Life expectancy Per capita income Education Health Categories: Rich countries Medium-income countries Poor countries HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries)- (37 countries)
International Humanitarian Law
(laws of war or the law of armed conflict) Is a set of rules that seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict. IHL applies during armed conflict, while human rights apply in war and peace.
sources of international law
1. International Custom (Customary International Law) 2. Treaties 3. General Principles: Often derived from domestic legal systems-Recognized by civilized nations (The principle of "good faith") 4. Judicial Decisions 5. Scholarly Writings
3 Bretton Wood institutions and their purposes
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1944 2. World Bank (1944) 3. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) -1947
3 examples of International law
1. Law of the Sea 2. Outer Space Treaty 3. the Geneva Conventions
liberalist perspective on international law
1. Liberalists emphasize the role of non-state actors. 2. Some MNCs rival countries in size & influence. 3. International law shapes behavior of states, impacting domestic politics. 4. The mission of international law is to enhance the stability of international peace, to the protection of the rights of people, and to reducing evils and of abuses of international power.
Notable Provisions and Obligations of States
1. No intervention in affairs of another sovereign State. 2. Territorial gains by force won't be recognized. 3. Peaceful settlement of all disputes. 4. Uphold international agreements and customary international laws
realist perspective on international law
1. States are the primary actors on the global stage. 2. Great Powers shape international law. 3. Non-state actors have minimal influence. 4. States create law to pursue their interests, and will discard/violate them once they are no longer serve their interest
globalization under biden
After notifying the UN of withdrawal plans in 2019, the U.S. officially rejoined the Paris Climate Accord under President Biden in 2020. Biden's administration announced a $2 trillion plan to boost clean energy use and set ambitious goals for reducing fossil fuel emissions in the U.S. Biden's shift away from fossil fuels, like shutting down the Keystone XL pipeline, had a significant impact on oil prices and inflation in the U.S.
Peacekeeping, Peacemaking, and Peacebuilding
Began in 1948: Observing cease-fires in Kashmir and Palestine. Peacekeeping: Military units placed between two opposing armies to enforce peace Troops from multiple countries serving under the UN Security Council. Peacemaking: Peacemaking involves diplomatic actions taken to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement. (assisting countries in implementing peace agreements); Peacebuilding: Post-conflict initiatives promoting economic growth, national reconciliation, good governance, democracy, and human rights).
Emergence and growth of EU
Began with coal, iron, steel production cooperation in 1952 ▪1958- European Economic Community: six countries (Belgium, Netherlands, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg) ▪Deepening integration- from coal-steel production cooperation, to free trade, service, free movement of labor, unified set of tariffs on goods from non-members, a common monetary policy (restraints on fiscal and expenditure policies that a government pursue)
Supranational Organizations - Functionalism
Begin with cooperation on non-political areas and enhanced trust and positive experiences can 'spill over' to cooperation in political areas! In order to protect state sovereignty, functional agencies are voluntary and operate only within the territories of the states that choose to join them (e.g. World Health, World Food Program)
Broad measures of globalization
Capital: Open capital markets, measured through FDI flows, external bank claims, and the Chinn-Ito Financial Openness Index, impact productivity and the transmission of financial shocks to the real economy. Information: Globalization is not just about the movement of goods, services, and capital; it's also about the flow of information. This includes data, news, ideas, cultural expressions, and communication across the globe. People: International movement of people is crucial for global economic development, affecting factors like migration patterns, trade, technology transfer, cultural exchange, political and social awareness, and global workforce and labor markets.
Challenges for China in the Globalization Era
China's actions extended beyond the South China Sea, including Himalayan tensions with India, increased harassment of Taiwan, and domestic repression in Hong Kong and against the Uighurs. Economic espionage and intellectual property theft contributed to economic decoupling, worsened by the global impact of COVID-19. The immediate cost advantage of manufacturing in China has diminished due to rising wages and geopolitical tensions. President Trump's tariffs on Chinese imports forced businesses to seek alternatives. Despite a trade agreement between the U.S. and China, concerns about China's strategic rivalry and disruptions caused by the pandemic have continued to affect global production and trade in various sectors.
China's Military Buildup and South China Sea dispute
China's growing military budget is coupled with an aggressive stance in the South China Sea, where it claims vast territories encompassing valuable sea zones, natural resources, and major trade routes. The region sees over $3.37 trillion worth of goods and 40% of the global natural gas trade passing through it. Control over the South China Sea would grant China access to abundant oil and natural gas reserves and expand its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), allowing control over regional trade. China's claims in the South China Sea are contested by neighboring countries such as Taiwan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia. These disputes are rooted in historical accounts, geographical proximity, and interpretations of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). China's militarization of disputed islands complicates the situation, as it hinders U.S. intelligence activities in the region and consolidates Chinese military power in the South China Sea.
Comparative Advantage
Comparative advantage model: A country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in which it has a lower opportunity cost of production and import goods that it produces at a higher opportunity cost. Comparative advantage doesn't necessarily mean being the best. It's about being more efficient compared to what else you could be doing. Example: England (textile production) and France (wine production) both gain from specializing and trading.
Mercantilist interpretation of free trade and economy
Control of trade and resources, emphasizing national over global interests. Historical Example: British Empire's control over colonies and trade (16th - 18th century). Economic Nationalism: Strong state intervention to increase national exports. Protection and promotion of domestic monopolies like the British East India Company.
liberal interpretation of free trade and economy
Critique of mercantilist policies: promoting free trade over restrictive trade practices Adam Smith's advocacy for free trade as a path to economic prosperity. The concept of absolute advantage: specialization and exportation of goods produced most efficiently. (Countries should produce and export goods that are most efficient in them.) - This is when a country is the best at producing a certain product.
Dependency theory and Colonialism
Dependency theory: argues that colonialism played a significant role in creating dependence and underdevelopment in the developing world by exploiting land, resources, and local populations. Colonialism established a world capitalist system favoring richer countries, locking poorer nations into unequal power relations. European colonialism expanded globally, affecting regions like Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East differently based on factors like timing, indigenous societies, and administrative practices.
Globalization
Economic Factors: The establishment of international free trade agreements, like NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), which remove trade barriers between member countries, exemplifies an economic factor driving globalization. -Bretton Woods system- Technological Factors: The advent of the internet and digital communication technologies that connect people and businesses across the globe. For instance, the use of platforms like Zoom for international business meetings illustrates this. Sociocultural Factors: The widespread popularity of global brands and media, such as the worldwide influence of Hollywood movies or the global reach of fast-food chains like McDonald's.-Music/movie/food- Political Factors: The formation of international governing bodies such as the United Nations or the European Union, which promote cooperation and policy alignment among member nations, is a political factor contributing to globalization.
Supranational Organizations
Entities formed by multiple countries that have authority or influence beyond national boundaries and governments.(authority higher than states) As international connections intensify; states are drawn into supranational structures. Historical examples: NATO WTO International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Universal Postal Union (UPU) International Labor Organization (ILO).
Uniqueness of EU
European Court of Justice; the court can overrule national law when it conflicts with EU law; it hears cases brought by individuals, not just governments (from discrimination in the workplace to the pensions of commission staff members) European citizenship/Euro currency EU citizens can vote in local and European Parliament elections in another EU country in which they live. Common foreign and defense policy and common policy relating to issues such as crime, terrorism and immigration
The International Monetary Fund
Founded in 1944 to stabilize international monetary affairs post-WWII. Based on the principles of economic liberalism and free trade. Exchange Rate System: The IMF administered the fixed exchange rate system to facilitate international trade. Fund Resources: Resources from member countries' shares and loans. Shares are based on a country's economic and financial standing.
World Bank
Founded in 1944, headquartered in Washington D.C. Initially focused on post-WWII European reconstruction. Then, shifted towards assisting developing nations. (Traditional projects include infrastructure like roads, dams, and energy plants).
Impact of Covid-19 on Globalization
Increased Nationalism: The pandemic heightened fears of foreigners, leading to national restrictions on trade and travel. Anti-globalization Sentiment: The pandemic exposed supply chain vulnerabilities, emphasizing the need for national self-reliance in vital goods. Economic Downturn: There was a significant global economic downturn, affecting merchandise trade, direct investment, and international travel, and most sectors except technology companies and major retailers experienced negative impact. Labor Market Impact: High unemployment rates! For instance, in the U.S., the highest since 1948, and a decline in labor force participation. Shrinking Middle Class and Increased Poverty: The global middle class shrank by 54 million, while poverty rose by 131 million. Disruption in People Flows: Severe disruptions in international mobility due to canceled flights, travel restrictions, and closed borders, heavily impacting tourism-dependent nations. POST covid Economic Rebound Prospects: The economic decline triggered by the pandemic is expected to rebound rapidly due to global stimulus measures, leading to corporate diversification and increased technology investment. Surge in Information Flows: A significant increase in international internet traffic, phone calls, and e-commerce as teleworking and online education became more prevalent.
Characteristics of International Organizations
International organizations are entities established by formal intergovernmental agreements and comprised of multiple countries. Unlike states, IOs are not sovereign entities. Created by states with specific objectives. IOs enjoy certain legal immunities. Serving as instruments for law execution and dispute resolution.
challenges of international law
Lack of enforcement mechanism (There is no centralized authority and no 'global' Parliament with anything that can be described as a legislation). International Court of Justice (ICJ) and other tribunals exist, but their jurisdiction is based on the consent of States Relies on various instruments and sources for shaping behavior. Lack of universality (between state sovereignty and humanitarian intervention) Ambiguous (e.g. "just war")
brexit impacts
Loss of UK's Influence in EU: The UK, being the second-largest economy and third most popular country. Change in EU Budget Contributions- (second-largest net contributor to EU budget) Sovereignty in Lawmaking: Post-Brexit, UK laws are no longer bound by the EU Court of Justice, enhancing UK parliamentary sovereignty. Reduced freedom of movement for British citizens and EU citizens in the UK. Immigration Control
Millennium Development Goals
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals set by the United Nations in 2000. These goals were to be achieved by 2015 and were established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations. In 2015, the MDGs were succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are broader in scope and have a target year of 2030. The SDGs comprise 17 goals to address various global challenges.
purpose of international law
Mitigate anarchy within the international system. Influence state behavior to maintain peace and avoid conflict. Aims at enhancing stability, protecting human rights, and reducing misuse of international power. Prescribes and prohibits actions to maintain predictability similar to domestic systems.
Multinational Corporations
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are business organizations that operate in multiple countries at the same time. They usually have a headquarters in one country, known as the home country, and operate in several other countries, known as host countries. Key characteristics of MNCs include their large size, broad geographic presence, and influential role in international trade and investment.
International court of Justice (ICJ)
Often referred to as the "World Court." Semi-independent entity based in The Hague, Netherlands. One of the six principal organs of the UN. Membership and Composition: All UN members automatically become parties to the ICJ Statute. Non-UN members can join the Court under specific conditions. Comprises 15 judges elected by the Security Council and the General Assembly. 5 judges elected every three years for nine-year terms. No two judges may be the same nationality
Limitations of UN
Politicization: Accusations that decisions and actions of the UN can sometimes be influenced more by politics than by objective assessment. Limited Enforcement Power: The UN often lacks the means to enforce its resolutions, especially when member states are non-compliant. Limited in preventing conflicts/violence, but more successful in addressing social/economic issues Accountability and Transparency: Concerns about lack of transparency in operations and decision-making.
Second-generation Peacekeeping
Post-Cold War Era: Expansion of UN forces' functions. Second-generation Peacekeeping: Address internal crises where civilian safety is at risk. More than just traditional peacekeeping; also involves rebuilding and supporting conflict-affected communities (peacemaking and peacebuilding). Involves civilian experts, relief specialists, and soldiers. Troops sometimes authorized to use force beyond self-defense.
Different types of economic integration
Preferential trade areas- reduce tariffs among members Free trade area- removed tariffs among members (USMCA) Customs Unions, such as that of Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, eliminate internal barriers and unify external trade policies. Common Markets go further, allowing free movement of resources like labor; examples include East/West African Common Markets.
Principle of Proportionality
Proportionality: Violence proportional to attack. (any violence or force used should be directly proportional to the attack or threat faced. )
Why protectionism is used.
Protect powerful local force (protection of agriculture; US steel in 2002) Infant industry Shift in market condition (US/Japanese car in 1970s and 1980s; US government: 45% tariffs on Japanese cars) National security Culture
The role of the state in the economy
Provision of security, property and contract rights, basic infrastructure (roads/bridges, electricity, internet, education and health) Encourage competition by breaking monopoly Rules and regulations (enforcing rules regarding foreign direct investment, tariffs, imports, exports ...)
Characteristics of States in Intl. Law
Qualifications: Independence and sovereignty. Permanent population. Defined territorial boundaries. Supremacy over territory. A government. (Legislature, Executive and Judiciary) Ability to: enter into agreements with other states. make laws, declare or terminate wars, punish individuals, Extradite
The Regional Trade Agreements
RTAs are agreements between two or more countries, often within the same region, to facilitate trade among them. These agreements can be preferential, offering more favorable conditions to signatories versus non-members WTO Rules Governing RTAs! As of June 2020, 303 RTAs were in force, reflecting an increase in number and complexity.
International Theories on Human Security
Realists focus on state security rather than human security (more encompassing aspects of protection of human beings) Liberalist theory: emphasizes individual rights, economic prosperity, and international cooperation as key factors in ensuring human well-being and freedom from threats. Marxist emphasizes the critical role of addressing global economic inequalities and North-South conflicts to ensure human well-being and security.
Unilateral Humanitarian Intervention
Refers to situations when a state or a group of states claim to use force to save the lives of citizens of another state. (without global consensus) Ultimate Goal: Solely to protect civilians, then leave. It's not about permanent presence or gaining resources. Real-Life Scenarios: Places like Rwanda, South Sudan, and Libya have witnessed such interventions.
R2P
Responsibility to Protect (R2P): Established criteria for international humanitarian intervention. Broader community of states to intervene when nations fail to protect their populations. one of the core ideas of liberalism the three pillars: Pillar One: State Obligation Every state has the duty to safeguard its populations from: Genocide, War crimes, Crimes against humanity, Ethnic cleansing Pillar Two: The global community must encourage and aid individual states in upholding their protection responsibilities. Pillar Three: International Intervention (If a state fails to protect its populations, the international community must be ready for collective action, aligned with the UN Charter).
UN structures
Six principal organs, including the General Assembly, Security Council, and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), Economic and social council, Secretariat, Trusteeship council.
Reasons for Brexit
Sovereignty (Britain has more control of its laws and regulations, without the risk of having European policies forcefully imposed) Financial Reason (EU membership fees - amounting to billions - could be repurposed and spent on issues that matter most to the British people) Trade (Membership of the EU keeps Britain from fully capitalizing on trade with other major economies such as Japan, India and the U.S.) National identity Issues of immigration - Inflow of EU national migrating to the UK (average 61,000 in 1991-2003), 201,000 in 2013, and 268,000 in 2014. Control over fisheries- half of fishing fleets land are in UK, but EU countries can fish within 12 nautical miles of the UK coast and under EU catch quotas
Supranational Organizations - Realism
States are the principle actors in intl. system States never give up their power and authority to higher authority! Most regional organizations limited cooperation to functional issues by emphasizing non-interference in domestic affairs (ASEAN)
Supranational Organizations - Liberalism
States are willing to give up varying levels of their autonomy to achieve mutual benefits Functionalism and spillover effects Functionalism: mutual trust and habits of cooperation between governments are more likely to develop through low-politics/non-sensitive issues/areas such as pandemic diseases, air traffic control, postal services;
Measures of Protectionism
Tariffs (taxes imposed by a government on imported goods.) Non-tariffs barriers (quota, voluntary export restraint, health and safety measures, other regulations) -Quota : limits on the quantity (number/amount) of goods or value of goods Subsidies: financial support provided by the government to domestic businesses (loans, guaranteed prices, tax breaks) Nationalization
GATT
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) -1947 Proposed post-WWII as one of the foundations of the Bretton Wood system Aimed to reduce tariffs and eliminate protectionist policies. Reduced tariff from 40% to under 5% (1947-1994)
International Criminal Court
The ICC was established as a permanent structure to punish individuals for war crimes, genocide, crimes of aggression, and crimes against humanity. The ICC came into existence in 2002. Location: The ICC is headquartered in The Hague. It is an autonomous organization separate from the United Nations. It comprises 18 judges.
International Law
The legal relationships between sovereign states as well as the "legal responsibilities of States in their conduct with each other, and their treatment of individuals within State boundaries. Considers human rights, Disarmament, International crime, Refugees, migration, Use of force, war conduct, Global commons (environment, outer space, world trade), the treatment of prisoners
Proposals for Reforming the Security Council Veto Power
Transparency in Veto Use: Requiring a detailed explanation from the vetoing P5 member regarding their reasons for using the veto. Expansion of Permanent Membership: Expanding the number of permanent members on the UNSC, thus weaken the influence of the current P5. Potential new members: Germany, Japan, India, Brazil, African countries.
US trade war with China -"Phase One Agreement"-
Trump's complaints in regard to violations of agreements by some members and lack of transparency on WTO budget, especially against China for "unfair trade practices" U.S. signed a "Phase One Agreement" requiring major structural changes by China: such as intellectual property protection, technology transfer, agriculture, financial services, currency, and restrictions against US imports!
GATT and WTO (Differences)
WTO was established in 1995 as more permanent and authoritative body; based in Switzerland Members increased from 23 to 128. (now 164!) Offers protection for smaller economies against the unilateral actions of economic superpowers. Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU) DSU as a significant change from GATT, creating clear rules and procedures for resolving trade disputes.
Just War Theory and its Principles
Wars should be waged for a valid reason, like defending against aggression or rectifying a wrong. Right and Legitimate Authority: (only those with the appropriate authority can declare war or use violence.) Rightful Intention: Wars should aim to promote good (re-establish just peace) or prevent harm. Wars driven by power, revenge, or cruelty are not justifiable. Reasonable Hope: Good grounds for desired outcome. (there should be solid grounds to believe that the desired outcome can be achieved.) Last Resort: All non-violent options exhausted. (consider all non-violent options)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization
advantages: economic and social development, improvement of quality of life liberalization of national markets and increased free movement of goods services, capitals, technologies, individuals between nations. providing jobs spread of democratic ideals standardization of product reduction of cultural barriers disadvantages: widening of socioeconomic gap economic depression in one country has larger effect unemployment in industrialized countries spread of diseases
Marxist interpretation of free trade and economy
emphasizes the role of capitalism and class struggle in shaping and perpetuating inequality within the global economic system. According to Marxism, free trade is viewed as a mechanism that benefits the capitalist class while exploiting the working class and perpetuating economic disparities.
Liberal/Marxist explanation of why poor countries are poor.
liberal: ▣ Internal ▣ Civil war ▣ Closed economies; state-owned enterprises; state intervention in economy ▣ Corruption ▣ Lack of infrastructure marxist: ▣ External ▣ Colonial policies ▣ Reliance on agricultural and raw materials exports ▣ Exploitation by MNCs and IOs ▣ Not enough foreign assistance
Advantages and Disadvantages of MNCs in Host country
liberalism: Increase in economic growth Provide jobs Provide technology know-how, innovation Spread democratic cultures and values Modernization of industries Increase exports Investment in R&D Marxism: "Footloose" Exploits labor Pollute environment Avoid taxes Managerial positions not available to locals Bring back profits to home country Interfere in local politics Monopolize market- promote export products at the expense of local production
IGOs versus INGOs
▣ INGOs- International Non-governmental Organizations, members are private citizens. Such as Red Cross, Save the Children, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Green Peace, Doctors without Borders; Versus ▣ International Governmental Organizations (IGOs): Members are states, can be global and regional based ▣ Examples of global IGOs- UN, World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) ▣ Examples of regional IGOs: European Union, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), African Union
Why States Adhere to International Law
▣ Law reduces uncertainty and enhance predictability ▣ Fear of reprisal or sanction by other states ▣ The benefit of observing international law outweighing the short-term advantages of violating if states value their future relationships with others ▣ States do not want to be seen as a rogue state
Principles of the United Nations
▣ Sovereign equality of all member states ▣ Non-interference in a state's domestic affairs except if allowed by the UN ▣ Peaceful resolutions of conflict, military intervention as last resort ▣ Economic collaboration ▣ Respect for international law ▣ Promoting human rights
