Interviewing Principles Unit 1
what is a leading question?
The leading question may intentionally or unintentionally suggest the answer the interviewer expects or prefers, so the interviewee gives this answer because it is "easier or more tempting" to give that answer. This is called interviewer bias
what is the function of a probing question?
to dig deeper
what are the traditional forms of interviewing?
-information-giving: the purpose of which is to exchange information as accurately, effectively, and efficiently as possible. -information-gathering: a. the interviewer's purpose is to gather accurate, insightful, and useful information through the skillful use of questions, many created and phrased prior to the interview and others created on the spot to probe into interviewee responses, attitudes, and feelings. -focus groups -selection -performance review -counseling -persuasion
What are the requirements of an interview?
1. an exchange of information 2. 2 participating parties 3. each party being motivated by their own intentions/desires 4. intrapersonal and interpersonal exchange 5. must be interactional (giving and taking, seeking and answering information.)
what are the 5 relational dimensions?
1. similarity (Important similarities enable you to understand and communicate with one another and thus to establish common ground) 2. inclusion (parties enhance relationships when both are motivated to speak and listen) 3. affection (You cultivate interview relationships when both parties respect one another and there is a marked degree of friendship or warmth. Establishing a we instead of a me-you feeling requires communication that both parties see as pleasant, fair, and productive. Relationships waiver when signs of affection are inconsistent, ambivalent, or negative.) 4. control ( 5. trust
interview schedules
A Nonscheduled Interview - If an interview will be brief such as determining date, time, and place of a meeting or a few biographical details, you might conduct the interview from a guide. This is called a nonscheduled interview. A nonscheduled interview conducted from an interview guide gives maximum freedom to probe into answers and adapt to the interviewee and situation as the interview progresses. It requires considerable skill, however, because there are no prepared questions and it may be difficult to maintain control during a freewheeling interaction. A Moderately Scheduled Interview - consists of all major questions with possible probing questions under each. The sentences and phrases in a guide become questions. The moderate schedule, like the nonscheduled interview, not only allows freedom to probe into answers and adapt to different interviewees and situations, but it also imposes a greater degree of structure, aids in recording answers, and is easier to conduct and replicate. It is unnecessary to phrase every question on the spot because they are thought out and carefully worded in advance. There are fewer pressures during the interview. Since interview parties tend to wander during unstructured interviews, listing questions makes it easier to keep on track and return to a structure when desired. On paper a highly scheduled interview may look little different from a moderately scheduled interview, but they are very different in execution. Unlike a moderate schedule, all questions in a highly scheduled interview are asked exactly as they are worded on the schedule. There are no unplanned probing questions, word changes, or deviation from the schedule. Highly scheduled interviews are easy to replicate and conduct, take less time than nonscheduled and moderately scheduled interviews, and prevent parties from wandering into irrelevant areas or spending too much time on a topic. Flexibility and adaptation are not options, however. Probing questions must be planned. Researchers and survey takers use highly scheduled interviews. The highly scheduled standardized interview is the most thoroughly planned and structured. You ask all questions and answer options in identical words to each interviewee who then picks answers from those provided. There is no straying from the schedule by either party. Highly scheduled standardized interviews are the easiest to conduct, record, tabulate, and replicate. However, you may not probe into answers, explain questions, or adapt to different interviewees. Respondents cannot explain, amplify, qualify, or question answer options. Built-in interviewer bias may be worse than accidental bias encountered in nonscheduled and moderately scheduled interviews. Researchers and survey takers use highly scheduled standardized interviews because their procedures must produce the same results in repeated interviews by several interviewers.
what are the structural sequences for an interview guide?
A topical sequence follows natural divisions of a topic or issue. For example, if you are planning to interview an attorney about law schools you might attend, your guide would include such topics as ranking among law schools, areas of specialization, quality of the law school review, number and type of law firms that come to campus for interviews, and cost. The traditional journalist's guide consisting of six key words—who, what, when, where, how, and why—is useful in many interview settings. A time sequence treats topics or parts of topics in chronological order. For instance, in an interview with a fire inspector about a recent fire in a residence hall on campus, start with when the fire was detected, and then proceed to when the first crews arrived at the hall, when they started attacking the fire, when they had it under control, and when they left the scene. A space sequence arranges topics according to spatial divisions: left to right, top to bottom, north to south, or neighborhood to neighborhood. For instance, when interview- ing a person about a house on Ocean Isle Beach for a family gathering, you might begin with the number and arrangement of bedrooms, and then proceed to the kitchen facilities, dining areas, recreational rooms, swimming pool size and area, and end with the beach. A cause-to-effect sequence explores causes and effects, but not necessarily in that order. For instance, if it is known that a school bus went off the road and rolled two times before landing on its side, you might focus on possible causes of the accident (driver error, driver distraction, mechanical failure, slippery roadway). If the cause(s) of the school bus accident are known, you might focus on the effects of the accident on the student occupants (death and injuries) and then on the bus (collapse of the top, broken windows, seats coming loose). A problem-solution sequence consists of a problem phase and a solution phase. For instance, if you are concerned about reports that canine flu has appeared in your area, you might interview a veterinarian about the threat this flu might pose for your 10-week-old puppy and how you can avoid this danger.
what are the advantages and disadvantages to asking open questions?
Advantages: displays interest and trust in the interviewees ability to share, easier to answer, encourages respondents to speak for themselves, info gets disclosed that the interviewer might now know to ask for. Disadvantages: takes longer to answer, irrelevant information may be given, important information may be withheld,.
what are the advantages and disadvantages to asking closed questions?
Advantages: you can control the length of the answers, guide respondents to specific info, easy to record answers, takes less time for both parties, you can start with them to get going and then probe with open questions Disadvantages: answers may contain too little info causing you to have to ask more questions, do not usually reveal peoples "why", easier for respondents tolie
what is a combination of approaches to interchanging roles during interviews?
Although choice of an interviewing approach may be influenced by organizational, societal, or cultural norms and expectations, be flexible in how you employ each approach and consider a combination. For instance, recruiters often start interviews with a nondirective approach to relax the applicant and get the person talking, then switch to a more directive approach when asking questions and giving information, and return to a nondirective approach when answering the applicant's questions.
Interview guides
An interview guide is a carefully structured outline of relevant topics and subtopics to be addressed in the interview. The guide identifies specific areas of inquiry to ensure coverage of all important topics. It is not a list of questions, but it will assist in phrasing questions, recording answers, noting impressions and insights, and recalling information
handling difficult interviews
Because informational interviewers often probe into emotions, attitudes, reactions, and causes of actions or inactions, you must be prepared to handle difficult interviewees in difficult situations. Journalist Wendell Cochran warns, "If we aren't proficient at asking the right questions at the right time, we'll miss on accuracy, fall short on context, and stumble on fairness." Emotional Interviewees Respondents may burst into tears during interviews, and the problem is not helped if an interviewer blurts out, "I know just how you feel." Tactful and sincere reactions such as the following may help. It's okay to cry. Take your time. Do you need a few minutes? Remain silent until a person regains composure and is ready to continue. If you have a close relationship with an interviewee, you may hold the person's hand or place an arm across the shoulders as comforting gestures. Managing Hostile Interviewees When encountering a hostile interviewee, try to discover the reason for the hostility. A person may be angry, depressed, or frightened because of circumstances beyond his or her control or responsibility, and you are a convenient outlet. Or a person may be hostile toward you because of who and what you are or the organization you represent. A nondirective approach may reveal the cause. You appear to be very angry this morning. You seem upset. Would you like to talk about it? There are many ways you can avoid or reduce hostility. Do not invade the other's space, make unwarranted demands, or present a threatening physical presence or manner. Use neutral and open-ended questions. Substitute better-sounding words for antagonizing ones. Remain silent to permit the interviewee to offer full explanations or to blow off steam. Go to another topic if the current one is producing a hostile reaction. Reticent Interviewees A person may be unable to talk because of a personality trait that has nothing to do with the interview, and you cannot alter this predisposition. Often, however, a person is unwilling to talk or reveal much when doing so because of your position (supervisor, authority, investigator) or your reputation, bad experiences with similar interviews, risk to self-image or reputation, or a setting in which others can hear what is taking place. When interviewing reticent persons, use conversation starters such as asking about pictures, awards, or arrangement of furnishings in the room. Begin with easy-to-answer questions on nonthreatening topics. Become less formal. If open questions do not generate in-depth answers, use closed questions (an inverted question sequence) until the party is ready to talk. Use silent and nudging probes. Realize that no tactic can get some reticent people to talk openly and freely; they simply do not talk much. Talkative Interviewees Unlike reticent interviewees, talkative interviewees may talk for long periods of time without seeming to take a breath. They give unending answers to open questions and lengthy answers to closed questions. Try to avoid awkward interruptions by using non- verbal signals such as leaning forward, nodding your head, stop note-taking, or glancing at your watch. Phone interviews pose problems because you have few nonverbal signals to halt answers. The best you may be able to do is use only targeted, closed questions with less verbal maneuverability and look for natural openings or slight pauses to insert a question such as: That's very interesting, now I was wondering . . . Speaking of fall break, let me ask you . . . I'm glad you mentioned that because . . . Evasive Interviewees Interviewees often attempt to evade answering questions that probe into feelings or embarrassing acts, make them take stands, or incriminate them in some way. Evasive strategies include humor, real or fake hostility, ambiguous words, rambling answers that avoid the point of questions, and quibbling over key words. An interviewee may reply to a question with the statement, "It depends on what you mean by. . . ." A common tactic is to counter a question with a question, or revolve a question onto the interviewer Confused Interviewees Respondents may become confused because of tension a situation generates, unfamiliarity with a topic or issue, the wording of your question, or how you react nonverbally. Try to manage confused interviewees without embarrassing or angering them. Restate or rephrase a question tactfully or return to it later when the interviewee is more relaxed. Unfamiliar words or technical jargon may be the culprit such as this interaction between an attorney and a witness. Dissimilar Interviews Our society is becoming ever more diverse, so it is likely that you will interview per- sons who are highly dissimilar to you in age, gender, race, ethnic group, experiences, and political, religious, and social beliefs and attitudes. Journalist Wendell Cochran asks us, "How do you deal fairly with someone whose views are anathema to you?" 29 Both interviewers and interviewees may stereotype one another. When one of the authors was interviewing funeral directors for a book on grief counseling, it became apparent that several assumed he must be an atheist because he was a college professor. It is tempting for us to stereotype hyphenated ethnic groups such as Irish- Americans, African-Americans, Arab-Americans, and Hispanic-Americans and expect them to interact and respond in particular ways during interviews. At the same time, some ethnic groups have developed ways of interacting with others. Research indicates that African-Americans prefer indirect questions, consider extensive probing to be intru- sive, and prefer more frequent and equal turn taking. Mexican-American respondents rely more on emotion, intuition, and feeling than midwestern European-Americans. Persons of rural backgrounds value personal know-how, skills, practicality, simplicity, and self-sufficiency more than those of urban backgrounds. Adapt your questions and structure to different interviewees and be aware of gender and cultural differences that may motivate interviewees and explain the answers you receive. While avoiding stereotyping according to gender and age, be aware of important characteristics that might affect an interview.
What are nonverbal interactions?
Because the parties in interviews are in such close proximity, they are likely to take note of what the other does and does not do: movement, eye contact, facial expression, touch, glance, change in voice. Any behavioral act may send a message intention- ally or unintentionally, correctly or incorrectly. For instance, you can invite turn-taking or change of role by nodding your head, pausing, or leaning back. Poor eye contact may signal that you are hiding something, a limp handshake that you are timid, a puzzled facial expression that you are confused, crossing your arms or raising an eyebrow that you are agitated. Remain silent to encourage the other to talk or keep talking, to signal agreement, or to show you are not in a hurry to move on to a new topic or to close the interview. Show interest by leaning forward, maintaining eye contact, or nodding your head.
how should you take notes in an interview?
Experts disagree on the extent of note-taking and the use of electronic recorders because each can be intrusive and unreliable. Use the means best suited to you, the interviewee, the situation, and the report you will prepare. Note-taking or recording makes it possible to recall figures, dates, names, times, details, and quotations accurately. Note-taking increases your attention to what is being said and how, and this shows respondents you are interested in what they are saying and are concerned about accuracy. Note-taking has disadvantages. When respondents speak rapidly, you may be unable to record exactly what was said. It is difficult to concentrate on questions and answers and to maintain eye contact while writing notes, so you may fail to hear or probe into an answer because you are busy writing rather than listening. The interviewee may become anxious or curious about what you are writing, be reluctant to talk while you are writing or feel a break in communication while you are focusing on your pad.
what is the directive approach to interchanging roles during interviews?
In a directive approach, the interviewer establishes the purpose of the interview and controls the pacing, climate, and formality of the interview. Questions are likely to be closed with brief, direct answers. An interviewee may assume occasional control during the interview, but the interviewer tends to dominate the process. Ex. 1. Interviewer: Did you attend the in-service training last night? 2. Interviewee: Yes. 3. Interviewer: How long did it last? 4. Interviewee: Nearly an hour-and-a-half. 5. Interviewer: What was the single point you found most insightful? 6. Interviewee: That we must remain open at all times to new ideas.
what is the nondirective approach to interchanging roles during interviews?
In a nondirective approach, the interviewee has significant control over subject matter, length of answers, interview climate, and formality. Questions are open-ended to give the interviewee maximum freedom to respond. The non- directive approach allows for greater flexibility and adaptability, encourages probing questions, and invites the interviewee to volunteer information. 1. Interviewer: How was the in-service training last night? 2. Interviewee: It was very interesting and the presenter was excellent. 3. Interviewer: What were the main issues covered in the presentation? 4. Interviewee: The main one was developing relationships with clients, and the presenter discussed the importance of the first contact in forming a relational his- tory, how to maintain relationships over time, and how to handle conflicts that might threaten a relationship. 5. Interviewer: Which points did you find most helpful? 6. Interviewee: I think the ones on how relationships develop in different cultures and countries were most helpful since a growing number of our clients are from outside of the United States.
How does language, gender, cultural differences and perceptions affect interviews?
Language:Irving Lee observed many years ago that we tend to "talk past" rather than "to" one another. you can reduce this tendency by choosing your words carefully, expanding your vocabulary, being aware of common idioms, and learning the meanings of popular and professional jargon. Do not assume that the words you use everyday are under- stood and processed similarly by others different from you in gender, age, race, culture, or ethnic group. Gender: Women tend to disclose more than men and are allowed to express emotions such as fear, sadness, and sympathy. Because women appear to be better listeners and more responsive than men, disclosure is often highest between woman-to-woman parties (perhaps because talk is at the very heart of women's relationships), about equal in woman-to-man parties, and lowest among man-to-man parties. Men and women tend to use language differently. For example, men use power speech forms such as challenges, orders, leading questions, first-person pronouns such as I and me, and memorable phrases such as "Make my day," "Get a life," and "Read my lips." Women use powerless speech forms such as apologies, qualifiers, disclaimers, excuses, indirect questions, nonfluencies such as "Uh" and "Umm," and third-person pronouns such as we and us. 26 Our society expects men to use more intense language than women because it is considered masculine. When women use intense language, they are often seen as bitchy, pushy, or opinionated. Culture: Culture may determine what you disclose, when, to whom, and how. While cultures vary, the notion of politeness—maintaining positive rather than negative face—is universal.
what are the levels of interactions?
Level 1 interactions are safe and nonthreatening. You may portray interaction levels as metaphorical doors with the Level 1 door being slightly open. Questions, for instance, generate brief, socially acceptable, comfortable responses such as yes or no, simple facts, and ambiguous words and phrases such as "Okay," Pretty good," "Not bad," and "Can't complain." Either party may close the door quickly and safely when necessary. The thickness of the arrow indicates that Level 1 exchanges dominate the interview and there is relational distance between the parties because no prior or close relationship exists. Level 2 interactions are half-safe and half-revealing. Parties delve more deeply into personal and controversial topics and probe into beliefs, attitudes, and positions on issues. The metaphorical door is half-open (the optimist's view) or half-closed (the pessimist's view) as parties reveal feelings, opinions, and potentially harmful informa- tion. They are more willing to take risks but want an opportunity to close the door when necessary. The thickness of the arrow indicates that Level 2 interactions are less common, and the length of the arrow indicates that a closer relationship is necessary for a successful interview. Level 3 interactions are risk-taking with full disclosure in personal and controversial topics that reveal feelings, beliefs, and attitudes. The metaphorical door is wide open with little opportunity to retreat from or dodge negative reactions. The arrow is thin and short to indicate that Level 3 interactions are uncommon and the relationship between parties must be established and trusting.
what is the importance of listening during interviews?
Listening skills are essential to obtaining information, detecting clues, and generating Level 2 and Level 3 responses. Few people listen well. Surveys of hundreds of corporations in the United States reveal that poor listening skills create barriers in all positions from entry level to CEO. An interviewee may not listen carefully to a question, while the interviewer may not listen carefully to the answer. Parties may be so absorbed in their primary roles as questioner or respondent that they do not listen well. Unfortunately, most of our educations prepare us to talk, not listen. There are four approaches to listening—for comprehension (The intent of listening for comprehension is to understand content), for empathy (The intent of empathic listen- ing is to under- stand the other party.), for evaluation (The intent of evaluative listening is to judge content and actions.), for resolution (The intent of dialogic listening is to solve problems.)—and each plays a specific role in giving, receiving, and processing information accurately and insightfully. Become a more effective listener by being as satisfied as a listener as a talker, by attending carefully and critically to both verbal and nonverbal signals, by learning to ignore distractions such as surroundings, appearances, and interruptions, and by knowing which is the most appropriate listening approach.
what is a neutral question?
Neutral questions enable respondents to decide upon answers without direction or pressure from questioners. For example, in an open, neutral question, the interviewee determines the length, details, and nature of the answer. In a closed, neutral question, the interviewee may choose between equal choices. All questions discussed and illustrated so far have been neutral questions.
What are open and closed questions?
Open questions vary in degree of openness in which respondents have considerable freedom to determine the amount and kind of information to give. Ex.Tell me about Prague. Closed questions are narrowly focused and restrict the interviewee's freedom to deter- mine the amount and kind of information to provide. Ex. what is your favorite class this semester?
what are primary questions
Primary questions introduce topics or new areas within a topic and can stand alone even when taken out of context.
what are probing questions
Questions that dig deeper into answers are called probing questions. Unlike primary questions that can stand alone and make sense, probing or follow-up questions make sense only when connected to the previous question or series of questions.
what are interviewing closing techniques?
Take the closing of each interview as seriously as you do the opening, because each interaction affects a relational history positively or negatively. For instance, a well- planned and executed closing may enhance the other party's perception of you, the importance of the role played in the interview, and attitudes toward future interactions. On the other hand, an abrupt or ill-planned closing may reduce your credibility and make the other party feel "used" or "taken advantage of." 1. First, make the closing a dialogue rather than a monologue. As an interviewer, encourage interaction through verbal and nonverbal signals including silence. 2. Second, be sincere and honest in the closing. Make no promises or commitments you cannot or will not be able to keep. 3. Third, pace the interview to avoid rushing the closing. The law of recency suggests that people recall the last thing said or done, so being rushed or dismissed with an ill-chosen nonverbal action or phrase may jeopardize the effects of the interview, and future contacts with 4. Fourth, the other party will observe and interpret everything you say and do, and everything you don't say and don't do, until you are out of sight and sound. A slip of the lip or an inappropriate nonverbal act may negate all that you accomplished. 5. Fifth, lay the groundwork for future contacts. 6. Sixth, don't introduce new topics or ideas or make inquiries when the interview has in fact or psychologically come to a close. A false closing occurs when verbal and nonverbal messages signal the interview is coming to a close only for you to open it back up. 7. Seventh, avoid what Erving Goffman called failed departures that occur when you have brought an interview to a close and taken leave from the other party. Then a short time later you run into the party in the hall, parking lot, or restaurant.
what are the common question pitfalls?
The Bipolar Trap Asking a yes/no question when you want a detailed answer Opposite: The Tell Me Everything The Open-to-Closed Switch Asking an open question, then rephrasing it as a closed question The Double-Barreled Inquisition Asking two or more questions at once The Leading Push Asking a question that suggests how the person should respond The Guessing Game When you try to guess information instead of asking for it The Yes (No) Response Asking questions that have only one obvious answer The Curious Probe Asking about irrelevant information The Quiz Show Asking questions the interviewee can't answer Complexity vs. Simplicity Asking long, confusing questions with multiple parts Don't Ask, Don't Tell Asking interviewees about socially taboo areas
what is a loaded question?
The loaded question is an extreme form of leading question that virtually dictates a desired answer. The use of extreme language is a common way to load a question. This includes name-calling, emotionally charged words, expletives, and unequal options that may lead an interviewee to choose the least onerous choice.
what are interviewing opening techniques?
The opening sets the tone and mood of the interview and affects willingness and ability to go beyond Level 1 interactions. The tone may be serious or lighthearted, optimistic or pessimistic, professional or nonprofessional, formal or informal, threatening or nonthreatening, relaxed or tense. A poor opening may lead to a defensive climate with superficial, vague, and The opening is critical to motivating both parties to participate willingly and to communicate freely and accurately. Motivation is a mutual product of interviewer and interviewee, so every opening must be a dialogue, not a monologue. Do it with the other party, not to the other party. Too often interviewees are given little opportunity to say anything beyond single-word responses to opening questions. Interrupting interviewees is common. Rapport Establishing rapport is a process of creating and sustaining a genuine relationship between interviewer and interviewee through enhancing feelings of goodwill and trust. Orientation If the other party is unfamiliar with the purpose, length, and nature of the interview; how the information will be used; or why and how they were selected, address these during the opening. Do not assume the interviewee party understands what is going to take place during the interview and why. these 2 reduce relational uncertainty Examples: State your purpose, summarize a problem, explain how problem was discovered, offer incentive or reward, request advice or assistance, refer to interviewer's position on topic, ask a question, identify a specific amount of time
interview sequences
The tunnel sequence, or string of beads, is a comparable string of open or closed questions. A tunnel sequence works well with informal and simple interviews. A tunnel sequence works well with informal and simple interviews. A funnel sequence works well with motivated interviewees. The inverted funnel sequence begins with closed questions and proceeds toward open questions. It is most useful in motivating interviewees to respond or when interviewees are emotionally involved in an issue or situation and cannot readily reply to open questions. A combination of sequences enables you to approach interview situations and interviewees with flexibility and adaptability. For example, the hourglass sequence begins with open questions, proceeds to closed questions, and concludes with open questions. This sequence allows you to narrow your focus before proceeding to broader concerns when the situation or topic warrants it. See Figure 4.5. A diamond sequence places funnel sequences top-to-top by beginning with closed questions, proceeding to open questions, and closing with closed questions. George Gallup, the famous poll designer, developed the quintamensional design sequence to assess the intensity of opinions and attitudes. This five-step approach proceeds from an interviewee's awareness of the issue to attitudes uninfluenced by the interviewer, specific attitudes, reasons for these attitudes, and intensity of attitude. For example: 1. Awareness: What do you know about the new environmental regulations on using coal to generate electricity? 2. Uninfluenced attitudes: How might these regulations affect you? 3. Specific attitude: Do you approve or disapprove of these new regulations? 4. Reason why: Why do you feel this way? 5. Intensity of attitude: How strongly do you feel about this—strongly, very strongly, not something you will change your mind on?
what is an interview?
an interactional communication process between two parties, at least one of whom has a predetermined and serious purpose, that involves the asking and answering of questions.
each party in an interview is a unique sum of
culture, environment, education, training, and experiences
we must be aware that in an interview, each person communicates both
intrapersonally and inter-personally.
relational competence is
knowing when and how to adapt to the roles you play in relationships with others and to develop "workable rules and norms" for differing situations. 4
what distinguishes interviews from social and unplanned conversations?
one or both parties must arrive with a predetermined and serious purpose
what are the "tools of the trade" for interviewing?
questions
what are the types of probing questions?
silent probes (If an answer is incomplete or the respondent seems hesitant to continue, use a silent probe with appropriate nonverbal signals such as eye contact, a head nod, or a gesture to encourage the person to continue.) nudging probes (Use a nudging probe when a silent probe fails or words seem necessary to get what is needed. It nudges the interviewee to reply or to continue, and is simple and brief. Ex: I see. Go on. Yes? And? So? Uh-huh?) clearinghouse probes (A clearinghouse probe discovers whether a series of questions has uncovered everything of importance on a topic or issue.) informational probe (Informational probing questions ask for additional information or explanation. If an answer is superficial, ask a question such as: How exactly was the contract worded? •• Tell me more about your relationship with the sheriff.) restatement probe (An interviewee may not answer a question as asked. Restate tactfully all or part of the original question, perhaps with vocal emphasis to focus attention on important words.) reflective probe (Ask a reflective probing question when it appears necessary to clarify or verify an answer to be certain you have received it as intended. Avoid any wording or nonverbal signals interviewees might interpret as an attempt to lead or trap them into giving a desired answer. •• Those were the gross incomes from last year? •• By former President Bush, you are referring to President George W. Bush?) mirror probe ( The mirror probing question is different from the reflective probing question because it summarizes a series of exchanges, not just the immediate response, to ensure under- standing and retention of information)
