Intro to EU integration READING

Decision-making in the Council

ACCORDING TO OLD REGIME UNTIL 2014 qualified majority is achieved when a triple majority is reached. This means: Minimum of 260 out of 352 votes. 74% Simple majority of member states (15/28 rn) At least 62% of the EU population being represented by those member states AFTER TREATY OF LISBON qualified majority meant: Proposal supported by 55% of member states Majority represents at least 65% of the EU population In order to block a decision at least 4 member states must vote against and represent at least 35% of the EU population

Luxembourg compromise

Agreement allowing a member state to block a decision in the Council if it declares the matter to be of 'vital national interest' A veto for every member state First step to getting out of gridlock after

Multi-level governance

Argues that the EU in many respects is a one-of-a-kind political system that has organized its policy-making process in a unique way Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks study with 3 insights --> 1. Decision making authority has been dispersed over several levels of gov and is no longer confined to national govs. Also includes subnational and supranational levels 2. The national level of gov depends on resources of other levels of gov to prepare and implement policies 3. Subnational levels of gov are directly involved in making cohesion policies and do not have to rely on willingness of their national government to press their case in Brussels The study developed... emergence of system of multilevel governance in which national govs aren't dominant players in EU but rather alongside subnational (cities, regions, provinces etc) and supranational actors

Housing crisis 2008 in US caused global financial crisis which caused more problems

Banking crisis affected systemic banks in EU which necessitated support packages from governments Second, sovereign debt crisis... the public budgets of many EU governments faced increasing debts partly bc of trying to save the banks --> Greece became overburdened These banking and sovereign debt crises revealed that current regulatory frameworks were not good enough to monitor and control the financial system and that the public finances of the member states were needed to be subject to stronger controls as well

IGOs...

Based on treaties between states Usually have very little, if any, organisational autonomy Normally have few instruments to enforce their will on reluctant member states Vary greatly in their focus, purpose and geographical reach

The European Council

Brings together heads of government and heads of state Their meetings are full of deliberations. But some are not allowed to vote Prime ministers or presidents not allowed to vote. Also President of EC --> Their term lasts 2.5 years and is elected by members of EC High representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (High Representative) President of the Commission Formal powers, tasks --> Providing political direction Problem solver and ultimate arbiter Treaty revisions Appointments --> Appoints its own president Also appoints the president of the commission and the Union's High Representative These two above appointments need to be confirmed by the EP Also appoints the members of the executive board of the European Central Bank Organization and decision making --> Meet 4 times a year in Brussels Usually lasts two days Formal votes rarely taken Decisions made by consensus, except when Treaty provides differently. For example... appointment of its president does not require unanimity

Some say EU referendums are second-order like the EP, they are ballots determined by domestic political issues and satisfaction with the government. Others argue that ppl do base their vote off of attitude toward european integration

Can depend on national context. How much information is provided to citizens during the campaign? If they get lots of info then they do consider the issue at stake when voting

EU institutional framework

Citizens are represented by the European Parliament, whose members are chosen via direct popular elections in each of the member states Member states are represented in the european counsel... bringing together the heads of state and government of the member states... and the Council of Ministers... consisting of representatives at ministerial level of the member states The interests of the EU as a whole are represented and protected by all other institutions... Commission, Court of Justice, Court of Auditors and European Central Bank. officers in each institution act independently from any gov or other institution i. Those representing member states are INTERGOVERNMENTAL --> European Council and the Council ii. Those representing the Union as a whole are SUPRANATIONAL European Parliament is also a supranational institution bc its members represent the EU's citizens not so much on a basis of their nationality, but on the basis of ideology, creating a body that in practice very often wants different things than the Council wants Allocation of powers... executive tasks, legislative tasks and judicial powers

Decision-making procedures in the EU

Community method: Way of making decisions in which the EU's supranational institutions (Commission, EP) play an important role Intergovernmental method: Way of making decisions in which member state governments play a central role The ordinary legislative procedure

Comparative politics... argues that the EU in fact shares many of the features of national political systems and therefore can best be studied using tools that have been developed for that purpose

Comparatives compare the EU to nations... thus: 1. By building on insights from comparative politics it is possible to use an established body of theories that guides research qs and uses developed methods. Not starting from scratch 2. Second, insights obtained can be put in perspective by comparing them to findings of national systems. Makes it easier to interpret and understand EU policies than if we were to treat the EU as unique THREE GROUPS OF STUDIES WITHIN THE COMPARATIVE APPROACH --> Legislative, executive, judicial politics: Can study the EU on all these levels EU politics: external actors and factors --> Citizens, political parties and interest groups Comparative federalism --> Compares federal states such as US, India, Korea Federal states share the following 3 characteristics similar to EU according to federalists... Fed system is a political system in which sovereign states have set up higher, federal level of gov to which they have delegated policy-making tasks. This conception = EU has 2 tier system w member states as constituent states, supranational level the fed level Fed systems the autonomy of member states is constitutionally guaranteed via explicit enumeration of competences. In the EU the treaty of Lisbon has this enumeration. Third, federal systems characterized by judicial system in which legislation at fed level has precedence over lower level legislation and rulings of fed court take precedence over those of lower courts. EU has same and supremacy guarantee that EU law has status over EU member states

Multilevel governance

Concern to what extent the EU matches established models of governance Multilevel governance provides a more useful way of conceptualising The new governance... Government involves a wide variety of actors and processes beyond the state Relationships between state and non state actors have become less hierarchical and more interactive Essential business of government has become the regulation of public activities rather than the redistribution of resources

Executive tasks

Consist of giving political direction, implementing policies and externally representing the EU. in the EU these tasks are distributed over four different institutions... The European Council provides political direction and represents the EU externally in its relations with other countries and international organizations The Council's executive role consists of the implementation of policies The Commission fulfills all three executive roles... - Initiates legislation - Implements policies - Represents the EU externally with respect to policies where the Commission bears responsibility The European Central Bank has an executive role in terms of implementing monetary policy in the member states that have the Euro as their currency

Signed Treaty of Paris 1951 April 18... established 4 institutions

Council of Ministers High Authority Court of Justice Common Assembly

Agreement on abolishing barriers to trade

Created worries about effects on certain groups... Provisions to not have this French had measures to support farmers

The multilevel governance model of the EU page 445

Decision making competences lie with, and are exercised by, not only national governments but also institutions and actors at 'higher' and 'lower' levels Collective decision-making by states at the EU level involves a significant loss of national sovereignty, and therefore a significant loss of control by national governments Political arenas are interconnected rather than nested --> States are an integral and powerful part of the EU, but they no longer provide the sole interface between supranational and subnational arenas bc they share, not monopolize, control over activities that take place in their respective territories All concepts are debated but the evaluation should be in terms of not what is right or wrong, but what is more or less useful to helping us understand the EU

Types of European integration support

Diffuse (affective): support for the European project, based on ideological or value-oriented attachments Constant over time and serves to stabilize a political regime Utilitarian support can lead to affective support as protracted positive evaluations of institutions contribute to developed trust and emotional attachment. Specific (utilitarian): Support for the EU based on a cost-benefit analysis of the benefits derived from membership of the EU May fluctuate in the short-term without affecting the stability of the political system as a whole. But affective support is long term. This is problematic for the EU bc most citizens feel less emotionally attached to the EU than to their nation state Due to lack of identification with the EU, scholars focus mostly on utilitarian explanations of support for integration

Comparing European and domestic political parties

Domestic political parties: Structure the choice offered to voters by presenting a limited number of clear alternatives in elections and by organizing elected representatives in parliament Aggregate interests by putting together more or less coherent packages of positions on a wide range of issues Recruit candidates for political office and socialize them into existing political routines Form govs Form a liaison btwn state one one hand, and btwn voters and civil society on the other European political parties: Structure choice ofered to voters by organizing a widerange of domestic parties into a more limited set of European parties that form political groups in the EP after elections Aggregate interests by forming joint party manifestos and facilitating debate between domestic parties Do not recruit or socialize ppl for political office Do not form the EU gov Hardly form direct liaisons between the EU institutions and citizens or civil society

Some say EP elections are not european contests but second-order national elections

EP is the EU's only directly elected institution Since less is at stake in European Parliament elections, parties and voters treat them as mid-term national contests rather than opportunities to influence policymaking at the European level. Three arguments why: i. bc despite increasing powers of the EP, election turnout has declined from 1979 ii. Citizens favor smaller parties over larger parties in EP elections iii.Third, parties in national governments are punished, especially when European Parliament elections take place during the mid-term of the national election cycle--> Recent work, however, has suggested that some voters decide to abstain or defect not because of domestic concerns, but because they disagree with the (pro-) integration positions adopted by mainstream political parties.

Budgeting powers

EP power increase with Budget Treaties of 1970 and 1975 Today, EP and Council act as bicameral budgetary authority EP has won key democratic right to decide Europe's budgets and a long-standing cause of inter-institutional conflict has now been removed

Treaty of Lisbon required the Council to take into account the outcome of the elections to the EP and to consult the party leaders within the EP before nominating a candidate who is then elected by an absolute majority of all MEPs. if the MEPs reject the candidate, then the Council must propose a new one.

EP took advantage of this rule to pursue spitzenkandidaten process in 2014, by insisting, despite strong contra from the UK, that the nominated candidate from the largest political group following the 2014 elections, Jean-Claude Juncker, become the new Commission President

Are pooling and sharing of sovereignty?

EU unique in its engaging in joint action to formulate common policies and make binding decisions The EU is not only teh cause of a decline in national powers but it is also a response to the decline EU lies in attempt on the part of member states to increase their control of a rapidly changing world

Institutional roots of the EU in years after WWII

Europe shattered, provided good time for international cooperation

Looking back on EU politics today

Every step along the way of integration was difficult negotiations and a process --> States disagreed. Like UK was Eurosceptic (highly critical of EU integration) but Luxembourg has always been big supporter of further integration While major steps have been made via drafting and amending of formal treaties, other decisions have been as significant for integration as these formal steps --> Ex... three key rulings of Court of Justice Third, decision making on policies, institutions and members is very often related

Legislative tasks

Examining, modifying and adopting legislative measures which provide the basis for EU policies European Parliament and the Council share legislative powers in the EU.. Bicameral legislature The EP and Council do not have formal right to initiate legislative proposals --> Commission has a monopoly on this right

Towards a Europe of multiple speeds?

Examples of policies that apply only to part of the member states: Euro adopted only by some countries Defence policy has relied on willingness of groups of member statest o move forward. Same with foreign and security policy. Relied on coalitions of member states Justice and home affairs... member states groups have concluded treaties on closer cooperation outside of the EU framework. Like Schengen Treaty for free borders Enhanced cooperation... Means when EU member states adopt legislation that applies only to them and not all the member states Some say its necessary to prevent european integration from slowing down Others say negative consequences are undermining the solidarity and uniformity of the EU. which could lead to a first and second class EU. some are elite and others fall behind

Institutional framework of EU

Executive and legislative functions are shared between the diff institutions Policy-making is not in the hands of one institutional actor, but require cooperation and collaboration from diff bodies with diff interests This is way diff from nation states of presidential and parliamentary systems --> Why does the SU not fit the nation state model? ........ Not organized as a presidential system bc no single president Not a parliamentary system either bc then the executive would have to emerge from the legislature --> The two executives of the European Council and the Council, do not emerge from the Parliament and they can't be dismissed by the Parliament

1990s road towards EU

Fall of Berlin wall--> During cold war, Austria, sweden and finland wanted to maintain neutrality and not join the EU. but afterward they joined UK and Denmark negotiated opt-outs in order to keep their own currency --> Specific exceptions that are granted to a member state when it is unwilling or unable to fully accept all provisions of a treaty or law Ordinary legislative procedure--> Decision-making procedure that is most commonly used in the EU for adopting legislation, giving equal powers to the EU Parliament and the Council Copenhagen criteria (explained later)

1974 establishment of European Council (not the same as Council of Europe)

First role = provide political guidance to activities of the Community 2, Discuss and tackle major problems the Community faced

Theories of EU politics

Focus on the actual functioning of the EU: how does political decision-making work in the EU? Which actors and factors affect these choices? What are the effects of the policies? Multi-level governance Comparative politics... argues that the EU in fact shares many of the features of national political systems and therefore can best be studied using tools that have been developed for that purpose

Main way EP expresses preferences and shapes legislation is with the ordinary legislative procedure, OLP

Following Lisbon Treaty, it now applies to 85 as opposed to before it was 15 policy areas The OLP makes the EP a co-legislator with the Council... the Parliament's agreement is required before a proposal can become law

Maastricht Treaty 1992

Formally recognized that the EU could proceed in the integration process into new areas for its member states, as long as their governments were guaranteed an exclusive decision-making role thanks to the strengthening of the intergovernmental institutions intergovernmental institutions Three distinct policy pillars, constituting an encompassing organisation now called the EU for the first time... This impaired the organisation which came from Treaties of Rome 1957 Differentiation of decision-making regimes was further consolidated with the start of the EMU (eurozone) in 1994: 1. Economic policy side was put under control of the intergovernmental institutions 2. Monetary policy side was assigned to full control of supranational institution, ECB

Schumann's plan turned to a treaty between the countries that wanted to try the experiment

France Germany... Wanted to regain respectability The countries of Benelux... Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg Had to join bc their economies depended on france and germany Italy... Political and economic reasons, plus to regain respectability

Copenhagen criteria

Fundamental conditions regarding institutions, human rights and economic readiness aspiring member states have to meet before being able to join the EU --> 1. Stable political institutions that foster democracy and respect human rights 2. A well-functioning market economy 3. The institutional capacity to work towards political, economic and monetary union These above 3 conditions are just initial, then there is the screening process by the Commission which outlines the acquis, the body of legislation and policies that every aspiring member has to incorporate as condition for membership --> Member states negotiate with candidates chapter by chapter. 35 chapters of acquis EU helps potential candidates by giving financial support to strengthen democratic institutions, reform cecon and train civil servants

EU established a convention with broader membership than ordinary IGC

In order to debate issues of resolving treaties 207 delegates from national parliaments, the EU parliament, the Commission and the governments of member states Chair was French President Giscard d'Estaing --> Presented a successful single text for delegates to agree, called The Draft Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe Fixed complex treaties and simplified legal structure of the EU IGC that examined the draft treaty adopted almost 90% of its contents and agreed on a final text a year later --> Also introduced a semi-perminant president for the European Council and a High Representative for CFSP who would rep the EU in foreign policy EU member states suspended ratification process when French and Dutch voters rejected the treaty, this was symbolic tho Then European Council redrafted the treaty into an ordinary amending treaty and made some changes

In stark contrast to the otherwise elite-driven nature of the integration project, such national referendums have provided a direct means of involving citizens in the integration process.

In the words of Hooghe and Marks, "referendums are elite-initiated events which can have elite-defying consequences." This became very obvious already in 1992 when Danish voters rejected the Maastricht Treaty, and more recently in 2005 when French and Dutch voters sounded the death knell to the Constitutional Treaty, and when the Irish rejected the Lisbon Treaty in their first ballot in 2008. What is particularly noteworthy about these "No" votes is that the ballot proposals were backed by a broad consensus amongst national elites. Hence, referendums have introduced a popular element into the process of European integration and have forced national and European elites to consider how to garner public support for the integration project.

The Council (also known as Council of Ministers)

Institution representing member states at the European level The Council does most of the actual work and meets much more often, than the European Council --> Essentially has a say over all of the EU's policies and it is the major policy-making organ when it comes to CFSP tasks... With respect to the internal policies of the EU, the Council acts as a legislator In its executive role the Council is responsible for the Eu's external relations through the CFSP The Council also makes the key formal decisions in the accession procedure of new member states by officially declaring countries as candidate members and deciding upon their accession process following the Copenhagen criteria organization --> General Affairs Council--> Transmission belt to the European Council Other important councils... those on Economic and Financial Affairs (ECOFIN) and the Agriculture and Fisheries Council Since it is intergovernmental, member states take turns in presiding over Council meetings for a period of 6 months. In this period the country assumes the Presidency of the EU. member state then chairs all the Council meetings and those of the bodies that prepare them --> Exception is Foreign Affairs Council which is always chaired by the Union's High Representative Committee of Permanent Representatives (Coreper) --> Proposals go there and then EU's permanent reps meet and discuss policy issues

ii. Intergovernmentalism

Integration theory which holds that member states are fully in charge of cooperative steps they take and only collaborate with a view to their direct self-interest Roots in realist approach... says issues of sovereignty and security are dominant in explaining beh of countries Govs are sole players in international pol arena and have political, not economic interests Contrary to neo-functionalists, intergovernmentalists don't accept idea that non-governmental groups are able to exert a strong influence on the preferences and activities of governments Skeptical of willingness of governments to transfer sovereignty to a new center Hoffman argued low politics (econ) and high politics (boundary lines, sovereignty etc) Hoffmann rejects idea that supranational actors would be able to further integration beyond limits set by member states Spin-off: Liberal intergovernmentalism --> Andrew Moravcsik generated the ideas... i. Preferences of member states are not formed autonomously but are result of influence of diff domestic interests on their respective govs ii. Economic considerations are always a major consideration, while geopolitical considerations only play a role in half of the cases examined iii. Outcomes of negotiations are result of bargaining between member states, with those standing to win the most willing to grant concessions to those not perceiving the deal to be in their interest. Role of policy entrepreneurs like the Commission = minimal, but not absent iv. Institutional arrangements to put these deals in effect should be seen as measure to ensure credible commitment of each of the member states. This involves delegation of tasks to supranational institutions such as the Commission, but member states have organized delegation in fashion that these institutions cant go beyond their mandate Main point of criticism on Moravcsik... focus on major treaty negotiations as cases for his study

The EP started as an unelected Common Assembly to the ECSC

It's powers were limited to dismissing the High Authority and being consulted on legislative proposals, but the Council could ignore its suggestions Until 1979, MEPs were national parliamentarians, so the EP was a part-time institution, which with its limited powers, led to it being dismissed as a powerless talking shop Since 1979 direct elections have been held every 5 years and the EP has seen its powers increase, so that it is now regarded as an equal co-legislator with the Council

The Court of Justice

Judicial Branch of the EU Full independence Tasks Reviewing the legality of acts Establishing infringements Giving preliminary rulings... Advise courts in the member states on cases which touch upon EU law, bc member states have to apply EU law in all relevant cases Preliminary rulings are binding interpretations on a matter of EU law delivered by the Court of Justice at the request of a member of state court Organization--> Court consists of 3 different courts The Court of Justice is the highest court The General Court The Civil Service Tribunal

2009 Lisbon Treaty abolished division into pillars, but preserved distinction between different decision-making regimes in relation to various European policies

Lisbon Treaty formalised a dual system constituted by both a supranational and intergovernmental decision-making regime, without preventing that different combinations of supranational and intergovernmental governance could develop regarding ad hoc micro policy issues

Attitudes toward european integration

Literature on public opinion and integration has shifted focus from public support to euro-skepticism After Danish electorate's rejection of Maastricht Treaty and the decline in support for membership across Europe in th e1990s, the question has moved from "why are ppl so supportive" to "why are ppl so opposed to the EU"

Non-tariff barriers... all kinds of conditions, restrictions or regulations that do not consist of tariffs, but still make the import or export of products difficult or impossible

Major obstacle to further development of the Community

Three different types of organizations emerged after WWII

Military cooperation found its beginnings in initiatives for a common defence such as the Western European Union (WEU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Political cooperation emerged via organizations such as the Council of Europe Economic cooperation took root via the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), the Benelux and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

i. Neo-functionalism

Neo-functionalism was developed by Ernst B. Haas Published The Uniting of Europe in 1958 Integration theory which states that member states will work together to reap economic benefits, setting in motion a process in which ever more tasks are delegated to the supranational level Haas' approach is rooted in pluralism school of thought which was popular in the US at the time. He had fled from Germany to US so was influenced --> Pluralists consider politics to be a group-based activity in which all interests affect decision-making Similar to Haas' definition of integration: i. The process whereby political actors in several distinct national settings are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities toward a new center, where institutions possess and demand jurisdiction over the pre-existing national states. The end result of a process of political integration is a new political community, superimposed on the pre-existing ones ii. Haas said european integration shows countries can forge TRANSNATIONAL alliances iii. Haas focuses on political elites, claiming that European integration was primarily an elite-driven process and shows that ordinary people were not well informed or concerned Haas shows 4 steps that drive integration--> 1. Recognizing the possibility of mutual economic gains, govs decide to cooperate in specific policy areas. They set up supranational body responsible for that 2. After arrangement is put in place, parties realize that further economic gains can be achieved if adjacent sectors are integrated. CALLED SPILLOVER 3. Creation of new center of authority creates new transnational interests that put additional pressure on govs to move further towards integration 4. Increased complexity of several functional arrangements will lead to further institutionalization at the supranational level in order to coordinate policy making... Result is btwn intergovernmental org and fully fledged fed state Spin-off of neo-functionalism: supranational governance... Developed by Alec Stone Sweet and Wayne Sandholtz Points out some policy sectors are more prone to integrative steps than others Integrative moves are more likely in sectors where there is more trade between member states Trade interests demand further integrative steps Result is differentiated... purely intergovernmental policy-making in areas like foreign policy, and purely supranational mode of policy-making in areas like internal market

Some see the EU as an IGO... intergovernmental organization

Not a popular view. Held by Paul Magnette. But many differences like... EU is more developed and complex No IGO has anything like the policy responsibilities of the EU

Notion of EU as regulatory state... conceptualises the EU in terms of both function and structure

Not being greatly involved in distributive policy areas like competition, environment, product quality, health and safety at work

Notion of EU as a regional state

Not fully developed Conventional states are its component members

Memberstates agreed on European Defence Community (EDC) and the European Political Community (EPC)

Plans too ambitions. EDC plans divided the French so they stopped the proposal This then obviated the need to further discuss EPC

Differences btwn EU and federal model

Power divided between central and regional levels, but some responsibilities lie at center are dependent on member states Those policy spheres which in conventional federal systems are normally thougth of as being the responsibility of the central authorities, in the EU are primarily national responsibilities Central authorities are not able to use legitimate violence in EU territory

Notion of EU as a federal system... EU does display some federal traits

Power divided between central decision making institutions (Commission, Council, EP etc) Nature of the division is specified in constitutional-like documents (treaties) Both levels do have important powers and responsibilities for public policy

The European Parliament

Powers --> Budgetary powers Legislative powers--> Advisory powers on legislative issues Scrutiny of the executive EU institutions --> EP has the right to ask for and receive information Right to set up temporary commissions of inquiry to investigate contraventions or maladministration in the implementation of Union law Third, the EP is able to submit cases to the Court of Justice Appointment and dismissal of the Commission --> In the run-up to the 2014 EP elections the EP became also more assertive in the selection of the candidate for Commission president EP also has ability to dismiss the College EP's powers are similar to, but in all cases less extensive than, those of national parliaments. EP does not have right to initiate legislation. Second, the EU executive is not fully accountable to the EP because the Council and European Council have an independent existence organization --> Division of labour and specialization via specialized parliamentary committees EP has 20 standing committees each focusing on a specific policy area For each piece of legislation one of the committee's members is appointed a rapporteur... member of Parliament responsible for summarizing a committee's opinion and its modification proposals on a specific piece of legislation Committees can discuss any issue they deem important for their policy area. This can include hearing reps from the Council, Commission, or any other experts EP is only parliament in the world that has multiple seats Official seat is in Strasbourg where it has to meet in plenary session 12 times a year, but most of it's work is done in Brussels, where it holds additional plenary sessions and MEPs meet in committees and political groups

Developments that signaled success of EEC in cooperation on the economic front

Preferential trade agreement of 1963 with EEC's former colonies --> Countries agree on lowering tariffs they charge for importing goods Two key rulings of Court of Justice (CJ) that made lasting imprint on the legal order of the community --> i. Direct effect: major legal principle in EU law holding that individuals can directly invoke EU legislation in cases before national courts ii. Supremacy: a major legal principle in EU law holding that if national legislation is in conflict with EU law, EU law overrides national legislation iii. Some argued that these rulings were unfair and the court was trying to increase its own powers thru judicial activism

Most important positions in Parliament

President, EP's figurehead, chaires Plenary and reps EP in external negotiations and meetings Vice President, supports pres and helps run Parliament The Committee chairs, who organize and run committee meetings

EU origins... French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Robert Schuman, on May 9 1950

Proposed plan that laid foundation for today's EU Plan was to set up European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) Two things were noteworthy about the proposed plan...

Integration theories

Seek to understand how the EU has come about and which factors have made it what it is today types... i. Neo-functionalism ii. Intergovernmentalism

Electorial connection

Some say elections and referendums dont yet serve to connect public opinion with policy outputs in the EU, while others say they do

Defining the terms

Sovereignty is an emotive word associated as it is with notions of power, authority and independence --> Common meaning refers to legal capacity of national decision makers to take decisions without being subject to external restraints

spillover

Spillover... the way in which the creation and deepening of integration in one economic sector creates pressures for further economic integration within and beyond the sector and greater authoritative capacity at the european level 1. Functional spillover... technical and based on insight that full benefits of integrative steps can only be attained of further moves are made 2. Political spillover... result of deliberate pressure exerted by national interests bc they expect to benefit from further integrative steps 3. Cultivated spillover... role of supranational actors such as the Commission, EP and Court of Justice. Supranational institutions are not just implementing agreements between member states, but are active in cultivating further integration. They can use formal powers as informal means Ex... Commission can act as a POLICY ENTREPRENEUR and rally further integrative steps

State-centrism and consociationalism

State-centric models of the EU held by those who take intergovernmental view of the integration process... they portray the EU as--> i. System resting primarily on states ii. Main channels of communication between EU and member states are national govs iii. No govs and therefore no states, are obliged to accept decisions on major issues iv. Supranational actors don't have significant independent powers in their own right Common version of core state-centric model is consociationalism --> Developed to put light on how some democratic states that are sharply divided internally are able to function in a relatively smooth and stable manner. Its a model that can provide insights to EU Paul Taylor sees balance between fragmentation and cooperation at the heart of EU... symbiosis

Conceptualisations of the EU's political system

States and intergovernmental organisations Notion of EU as regulatory state... conceptualises the EU in terms of both function and structure. Notion of EU as a regional state

Most important link of representation for citizens is the pressure public opinion can assert on national parties and governments

The Council is the most powerful decision-making body in the EU and is influenced by national elections bc national governments will seek to adopt policy positions in line with voter preferences to ensure re-election: 1. The extent to this depends on how much the public cares Over time, national governments have to account more for public opinion bc EU decisions are affecting citizens in more obvious ways. Before, national governments just kept pushing more and passing legislation toward integration: Some studies have shown that attitudes towards European integration impact vote choices in at least some national elections. But other scholars have noted that European issues still play a very limited role in domestic political competition 2. Degree to which European integration issues matter in national elections depends on salience of issue to voters and extent of partisan conflict

What are the EU's core organisational features and what type of political system is it? Hard for 4 reasons

The EU itself has never sought to describe or define its political character in any clear manner. Only have the TEU Common Provisions, which are vague The EU is and always has been in constant transition. Nature has never been settled. Legislative process has become progressively more supranational since mid 1980s The EU is highly complex and multifaceted system The EU is unique. Ex... in the way it embodies both supranational and intergovernmental features in its system of governance. It is sui generis... the only one of its kind

Europe's 6 major institutions

The European Council The Council (also known as Council of Ministers) The Commission The European Parliament The Court of Justice European Central Bank

Key points... week 7

The European Parliament gained significant budgetary powers in the 1970s and acts as one half of the EU's bicameral budgetary authority. The EP can appoint and dismiss the Commission President and College of Commissioners. The EP's powers have extended furthest in the legislative realm. It acts as a co-legislator with the EUCouncil in 85 policy areas. However, the use of informal meetings raise questions about the wider transparency ofEU decision-making The EP has long pressed for constitutional change to bring Europe closer to its citizens; many of its goals were realized in the Treaty of Lisbon. The EP itself is now more closely involved in the process of treaty change.

Conclusion... week 6

The Lisbon Treaty abolished the division into pillars but kept the difference in the decision-making regimes... institutionalised the decision-making differentiation that started with the Treaty of Maastricht Lisbon Treaty institutionalised... supranational regime to regulate issues connected to the single market regulatory policies Regime based on system of separation of powers since no institution depends on the political confidence of the others to function as such Role and functions of the institutions are distinct and specified a intergovernmental regime to manage policies which are strategic for the member states and electorally sensitive for their governmental leaders The regime is based on a system of confusion of powers since the decisions are taken by the national governmental leaders (thru the European Council which coordinates them) or by their ministers (Councils of Ministers) which are executive and legislative institutions Operate unchecked by supranational institutions Even if the Lisbon Treaty ended the division into pillars established by the Treaty of Maastricht of 1992, it institutionalised normative frameworks and decision-making regimes which were different for single market policies and for core state power policies. This dual approach to integration makes clear why the multiple crises of the post-Lisbon era, since they fell to the intergovernmental regime, did not lead to an increase of supranationalism, as expected by many and conceptualised by Jea Monnet some time ago.

Lisbon Treaty, 2009 Has 3 components

The Treaty of Maastricht (the Treaty on the European Union) of 1992 as amended (TEU) and the Treaty of Rome of 1957 as amended and renamed the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), plus the Charter of Fundamental Rights (the existence of which was acknowledged by the intergovernmental Conference that drafted the Treaty of Nice of 2001 but which had not then formalized it) Lisbon Treaty abolished the division into pillars formalised at Maastricht, but it preserved the distinction between decision-making regimes in relation to various European policies

Intergovernmental and supranational balance in the EU page 436

The first enlargement of the Community in 1973 reinforced intergovernmentalism, bringing in Denmark and the UK But intergovernmental attachments were never and have never been able to completely stop the development of supranationalism--> Treatings, increasing independence, and the logic of the EU have all ensured that national sovereignties have been fundamentally and progressively undermined Supranationalism has been boosted since the mid 1980s as states adopted more positive attitude toward its development Intragovernmental characteristics... Major areas of public policy are national level --> Foreign affairs, defence, fiscal policy, social welfare, education, health, criminal law Major decisions on general direction and policy priorities Supranational characteristics--> Commission frames the EU policy agenda Council QMV is common Influence of EP and EU decision making is considerable Force and status of decision making outcomes is crucial to EU supranationalism--> EU law takes precedence over national law if they conflict and in the event of a dispute finds its final authority in the EU's own courts Whilst the relative importance of intergovernmentalism and supranationalism has varied over time, both remain very important features of the functioning and nature of the EU

Other decision-making procedures

The special legislative procedures: In EU treaties, the ordinary legislative procedure is distinguished rom 'special legislative procedures' bc In some issue areas, EP can't adopt amendments but only has advisory role or no role In some issues, Council of Ministers decides by unanimity instead of qualified majority European Council as an 'appeal body' Decision-making under the CFSP Diminished role of the EP and/or Commission AND/OR member states get unanimity decision and/or veto power bc of vital interest of member state govs... 3 broad areas when this happens: i. Proposals about taxation and budget often require unanimity ii. Issues of judicial and police cooperation can be referred to the EU Council if a member of the Council wishes. Commission doesn't have right of initiative in these areas, as proposals can be initiated by a quarter of member states iii. Foreign policy... Main decisions under the CFSP are all taken by unanimity, the EU plays a role in decision making and EP has almost no role, while Commissin has to share its right of initiative with member states and acts thru High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy

1970s it was predicted that public support for integration would grow and that the public opinion would become more important to integration. This was predicted by Ronald Inglehart and he based it on 2 arguments

Theory of post-material value posited that ppl who grow up in scarcity and war will value economic and physical security, while ppl in safe and prosperous times will grow to be interested in high-order goals like environment, democracy and international cooperation. So thought support for integration will rise with new generations Individuals more cognitively mobilized are less scared of integration. As education increases, more ppl will support European integration --> Post-material values dont impact much when u control for political awareness, so cognitive mobilization is a bigger driver of integration as well as the values

The Commission

Third institution with exec tasks Diff from EU Council and the Council bc instead of representing member state interests it promotes interest of the Union and takes appropriate initiatives to that end Can't take instructions from any gov or other body tasks --> Preparing and initiating legislation Implementing policies External representation Guardian of the treaties organization--> Classic hierarchical pattern of gov bureaucracies Every commissioner has a small support staff in the form of a cabinet with about 6 members Decisions usually made on consensus basis, but any commissioner can ask for a vote in which case a simple majority suffices to adopt a decision Only 2% of Commission decisions are made during meetings. Rest thru written procedure or delegated to individual commissioners

UK application for membership vetoed 1963 and 1967, by French President Charles de Gaulle

Thought to be too closely allied to US Also fear of loss of influence for France if such a big country entered

Most researchers studying public support for European integration have relied on the Eurobarometer, a public opinion survey which has been conducted twice annually since 1973 by the European Commission in all member states.

asks questions of citizens such as "is your country's EU membership "generally a good thing, bad thing, or neither good or bad?"

European political parties

associations btwn domestic political parties and operate outside of the EP: from the beginning there were very low-key political parties, only a few and informal. more like platforms for discussion formation of European party federations entered second stage when it was decided that the EP would be elected directly by citizens in member states started in 1992 when European political parties were mentioned for first time in an EU treaty. was Treaty of Maastricht fourth stage of formation... Treaty of Nice in 2000 amended provision on political parties. Maastricht expressed sentiment that political parties had an important role. but Amendment in Treaty of Nice provided for the adoption of regulations governing political parties at European level and in particular the rules regarding their financing. the Party Regulation provides separation btw political groups in EP and European political parties. can't share staff or funding. Political parties get funding from EU and have to hire their own staff now roles of European political parties --> main activities are linked to the EP historically, creation of European party federations was linked to development of the EP. in practice, the role of the European political parties in relation to the EP and EP elections remains limited most important role is to coordinate the party positions of their members Starting with first direct elections to the EP in 1979, all major European political parties have presented party manifestos before each EP election. They are a consensus among members of the European political party on the positions to be taken on important issues in the elections, but only play a minor role in the actual election campaigns Some European political parties are active in other EU institutions to have more influence It increases political power if you can work with European Council, Council of Ministers or the European Commission Mostly this is relevant for the 3 largest party families in the EU The Christian Democrats Socialists Liberals

Party leaders are consulted on the choice of

candidates for Commission President following European elections

political groups

coalitions between elected MEPs from different member states in the EP The Common Assembly was the predecessor of the EP and was created as part of the ECSC in 1951 from 1953, Common Assembly separated into 3 political groups (instead of based on member state, it was based on ideology. this stressed idealgy and made sure that similar social issues in each state were addressed)--> Socialists Christian Democrats Liberals--> two strands of European liberalism market liberalism and a minimal state... this is on the right side more left leaning or centristemphasizees equal rights and social justice The European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) are united by Euroscepticism, being conservative the Greens rose in 1980s and started in the EP as the Rainbow Group The Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD) hard to characterize level of organization in political groups some ad hoc coalitions btw like minded MEPs some based on enduring forms of cooperation Benefits--> internal rules and procedures: the rules of Procedure of the EP encourage the formation of political groups by granting them a range of specific powers and privileges ex... granting seats on parliamentary committees political groups can table amendments to proposals more examples political advantages of being part of a large political group: Germany is the biggest member state for ex. so for things to get done in the EP its necessary to work together with MEPs from other member states by forming a political group. then they have a unified front with substantial voters which increases chances of decisions favorable to the group. can have greater impact when together, against Germany for ex increases chances of achieving results but of course have to compromise on objectives how to form a political group. 3 conditions... groups needs to have 25 MEPs MEPs need to come from at least 1/4 of all EU member states group should be formed according to political affinities to prevent 'technical groups' who form just for the benefits but don't actually share any interests EP's rules on political groups encourage organization along ideological lines coalitions btwn political groups in the EP no group commands a majority of votes so each group needs the support of other groups. how does this happen? could be they form groups on each individual issue separately or, political groups can agree to support each other on a range of issues to have a stable coalition. this is more typical in domestic politics of EU member states. parties in parliament form stable coalitions for certain periods of time

domestic political parties

compete for seats in the European Parliament

Members of the European Parliament sit and vote in cross-national political groups, which control appointment to important posts

control appointment to important posts

political parties in the EU... three levels

domestic political parties political groups European political parties

EP is directly elected

every 5 years. The number of constituents represented by each MEP varies widely

Do political groups matter?

for political power, political groups have to vote as a block political groups in EP tend to vote cohesively. vast majority of cases, MEPs vote with their political group and not with their compatriots in other political groups. so MEPs can still vote independent of the group ofc, but its good to vote as a coalition to make bigger diff conflict dimensions in the EP political cleavage... stable conflict dimension btw political groups that is rooted in social differences btw groups in society ex is btwn left and right or btw ppl in cities versus in suburbs/rural left/right is the most important one in European Parliament just like in domestic politics so its easy to understand voting beh at first glance just by looking at that difference another significant cleavage in the Ep is btw groups supporting further European integration and those which are skeptical and don't want the EU to play a bigger role than member states

Types of decisions in the EU Legal instruments... 4 basic ones

i. Regulations Type of EU legislation that is directly applicable in the EU and in all member states Automatically has a force of law in every member state ii. Directives Type of EU legislation that needs to be transposed into national law by the member state governments Each EU member state has to adopt a domestic law that conforms to the directive Directives need to be transposed by member states, and a Regulation does not iii. Decisions Actions undertaken by the Union Positions to be taken by the Union Arrangements for the implementation of those actions and positions iv. Recommendations and Opinions

The ordinary legislative procedure:

i. Seeks to find balance between the Commission, EP, Council by giving each institution a specific role in the procedure: Consent of each of the institutions is needed for a decision ii. Logic behind ordinary legislative procedure 1. The formal roles of the institutions in the ordinary legislative procedure: a. The European Commission has the exclusive right of initiative. Can also modify or withdraw its proposal during the decision-making process b. EP has to agree to the proposal before it can be adopted. It can also adopt amendments to the proposal c. The Council of Ministers has to agree on the proposal and it can adopt amendments as well 2. The Commission proposal and advisory bodies Legislative procedure starts with a proposal from the European Commission, and its the only actor that can make a proposal. Exception is with proposals relating to judicial cooperation in criminal matters or police cooperation, which can be initiated either by the Commission or by at least a quarter of member states Once a proposal is released, goes to EU Parliament and Council of Ministers The first reading... EU Parliament adopts an opinion. 3 opinion options Agree with the Commission proposal without amendments Disagree with the Commission proposal without amendments Agree with the Commission proposal but include amendments First reading opinion is decided with a simple majority. Usually the 3rd opinion is most common Then, the council can do 2 things after the first reading Can approve the EP's opinion including all amendments, if the EP has included any Or, it can adopt a common position, which may or may not include some of the EP's amendments. Council can also include its own amendments. When the EP and Council don't agree, it goes to a second reading SECOND READING In the second reading, there are time limits in the EP and Council. 3 months each EP and Parliament can't adopt completely new amendments in second reading. Can only adopt amendments that... were already adopted by the EP in the first reading but not included in the Council's common position Address elements in the Council's common position that did not appear in the Commission proposal (and therefore were not discussed in the EP first reading) OR Are aimed at reconciling differences of opinion between the EP and the Council The voting rule in the EP is different in the second reading. First reading only a simple majority is needed to adopt an opinion including amendments. In the second reading, the EP needs absolute majority (majority of all elected members, not just those present at the vote), to adopt amendments or to reject the proposal altogether Starting point for EP deliberations in second reading is not Commission proposal, but the Council's common position from the first reading. EP can do 3 things now Adopt Council's common position Reject it Adopt amendments to the Council's common position If EU adopted amendments in the second reading, Commission presents opinion whether it finds each amendment acceptable or unacceptable The Council then approves the EP's amendments or does not, and then maybe needs a 3rd reading THIRD READING Then is called a conciliation Reps of the EP and the Council and Commission meet in a conciliation committee to compromise Interinstitutional agreement Binding agreement btwn Commission, Council, and/or EP where they define arrangements for cooperation Political agreement Situation where Council already communicates its views on a proposal before the EP has formally adopted its opinion Trilogues Regular meetings of representatives of he three institutions (Commission, EP, Council) that are convened in order to identify points of agreement and differences and find a compromise on a legislative tool The Commission proposal is also sent to member state parliaments for a subsidiarity check National parliaments can raise objections if they believe the proposal violates the subsidiary principle The principle states that the EU is only allowed to act if the objectives of that action can be better reached at EU level than at member state level

Judicial powers

interpretation of EU law and adjudication of conflicts involving EU institutions These tasks are in the hands of the Court of Justice

Detailed policy work in the EP is carried out by

its committees. Committee rapporteurs play a key role in shaping group opinions and in representing the Parliament in interinstitutional negotiations under the OLP

The European elections are typically regarded as being

less important than national elections, both by the electorate and by national political parties, which fail to campaign on European issues. This has contributed to declining turnout

13 European political parties.

mostly the same as member state parties European People's Party EPP Party of European Socialists PES Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party ALDE European Democratic Party EDP Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists AECR Party of the European Left EL European Green Party EGP European Free Alliance EFA European Alliance for Freedom EAF Movement for a Europe of Liberties and Democracy MELD Alliance of European National Movements AEMN European United for Democracy European Christian Political Movement ECPM

European elections are based on

proportional representation across the EU, although member states ues different system

European Central Bank

tasks --> Conducting the EU's monetary policy Maintaining the financial stability of the Eurozone system Conducting foreign exchange operations and maintaining the Eurozone's foreign reserves Organization--> Main decision-making body is the Governing Council The governing council meets twice a month and decides on key interest rates monthly At which commercial banks can deposit or borrow money

At minimum, EU may embody federal principle of combining in a territorial and contractual sharing of power a degree of unity on the one hand with a respect for the interests and partial autonomy of regional units on the other

territorial and contractual sharing of power a degree of unity on the one hand with a respect for the interests and partial autonomy of regional units on the other

2002 treaty of ECSC expired while EEC treaty was renamed twice, now known as the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

Principle of proportionality...

the burden to implement legislation should be minimized and commensurate with the objective to be achieved

For many decades, European integration was regarded as an exclusively elite-driven project. Not surprisingly therefore

the dominant theories of integration have largely neglected the role of public opinion.

Two things were noteworthy about the proposed plan

1) Plan was innovative bc proposed the institution of an impartial body, that would be empowered to monitor and execute the agreement between the member states. This feature would give the ECSC the characteristics of a supranational organization.. -Supranational organization... orgs in which countries pool their sovereignty on certain matters to allow joint decision-making Member states handed over their sovereignty to a third, neutral party that would supervise the execution of the terms of the treaty High Authority was authorized to make choices that were needed to execute agreements laid down in the treaty This was different from all other orgs set up so far, which were intergovernmental orgs -Meaning organizations in which member states work together on policies of common concern but retail their full sovereignty SECOND important feature was its limited scope -Cooperation would start on small basis by first trying to manage the common market for coal and steel -It was not yet the time for a fully fledged federal state -Small and concrete steps would provide the foundation for an eventual transfer of sovereignty to a new centre

Wasn't until after the Maastricht Treaty that studies on public support for European integration emerged. There were 3 explanatory approaches

1. utilitarian: Individual level factors... education, employment, individual economic prospects Country level factors... EU fiscal transfers, trade benefits, type of capitalism, national economic conditions 2. cue-taking Individual level factors... Party cues, satisfaction with government Country level factors... government performance, quality of national political institutions, party polarization on the EU issue 3. identity Individual level factors... national identity, fear of other cultures Country level factors... national histories and traditions

These vetoes slowed down pace of integration --> Empty Chair Crisis

1965 Commission proposed to the council a different way of financing the common agricultural policy. Would give EU parliamentary assembly and not the council the right to decide on the budget, de Gaulle felt it undermined the member states De Galle objected to scheduled change in decision-making rules in the council that would introduce a new rule called qualified majority voting --> Would require a majority that is substantially larger than a simple majority (50% +1), but does not require unanimity So de Gaulle withdrew his ministers from participation in the meetings of the Council, which caused meant no decisions were made for half a year bc the remaining members didnt want to make drastic decisions without France

which countries joined in 1981 and 1986?

1981 Greece joined Community, 1986 came Portugal and Spain

1980s moves towards a single market

1985 new Commission took office under Jacques Delores, who wanted completion of the single market Revision of the treaties thru Single European Act (SEA) 1986--> i. Included measures to advance the single market project and further broadened the EU's sphere of activity by including enviro policies, social policy and measures to increase economic and social cohesion between the member states ii. Formalized some forms of cooperation like Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and Foreighn and Security Policy iii. Also some institutional changes

The 2000s further enlargements, difficult treaty revisions and the beginning of a financial crisis

2004 to 2013 Croatia became 28th member after almost 10 years of negotiating Thru 2010... lengthy period of revision of the treaties --> Treaty of Amsterdam left many issues unresolved and needed modifications Intergovernmental conference... meeting of member states to discuss and decode a revision of treaties, only involving representatives of the member state governments (IGC) EU established a convention with broader membership than ordinary IGC Housing crisis 2008 in US caused global financial crisis which caused more problems

States and intergovernmental organisations

4 key characteristics of the state... Territoriality --> Partially present in EU in that they have flag and an anthem (unofficially) but EU doesnt have its own territory bc memberstates cant state to own the territory Sovereignty--> Somewhat in the EU but reach of sovereignty is confined to the policy areas where the EU's remit is established Legitimacy --> Somewhat, but weak General agreement internally that there is no shared sense of common identity amongst citizens Monopoly of governance... the institutions of the state monopolise public decision making and enforcement --> Eu is far from it. Eu monopolises governance only in a few policy areas and even then its dependent on the member states for policy enforcement

The Open Method of Coordination

A mechanism which aims at convergence of member state policies thru a process of benchmarking and policy learning. It works in 4 steps: 1. Council determines the objectives to be achieved in an area 2. Indicators are established for measuring the attainment of those objectives 3. Each member state formulates an action plan for reaching the objectives 4. Based on those indicators, the performance of each member state is 'benchmarked' (assessed and compared to the performance of other member states)