Intro to Philosophy Final
An argument is a reason for taking something to be true. Arguments consist of two or more claims, one of which is a conclusion. The conclusion is the claim the argument purports to give a reason for believing. The other claims are the premises.
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An inductively strong argument is an argument in which if its premises are true, its conclusion is probably to be true.
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As a kind of inquiry, philosophy is aimed at establishing knowledge and understanding.
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Deductive validity is the strictest standard of support we can uphold. In a deductively valid argument, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion
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Dialectic is the method of question and answer in which we recursively formulate, clarify, and evaluate arguments is known as dialectic. Dialectic looks a lot like debate.
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If Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal........ Is an example of a valid deductive argument
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Locke thinks that some of the impressions we get from sense experience are genuinely similar to how things are objectively in the world. Our sense experience of the shape of things, for instance, reflects the ways things really are according to Locke. Locke refers to the qualities where there is a resemblance between our experience and the way things are as primary qualities.
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Logical positivism was very much influenced by Hume's empiricism.
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The premises of an argument taken together are offered as a reason for believing its conclusion.
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The truth of a claim is quite independent of how or whether we know it to be true.
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The view of erotic love voiced by Socrates in the Symposium becomes refocused on God in the thought of Augustine with the result that in some veins of the Christian tradition proper erotic love becomes passionate devotion to God.
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Three of the most prominent Rationalist Philosophers at the beginning of the Modern period in Philosophy are Descartes, Leibnitz, and Spinoza.
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Two formulations of the categorical imperative are: CIa: Always treat persons (including yourself) as ends in themselves, never merely as a means to an end. CIb: Act only on that maxim that you can consistently will to be a universal law.
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Unlike a categorical imperative, which tells you how to be moral, a hypothetical imperative tells you what to do in order to achieve some goal.
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Utilitarianism evaluates the goodness of actions in terms of their consequences. For this reason, Utilitarianism is often referred to as a consequentialist theory.
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When we make a claim, we represent some part of the world as being a certain way. If how my claim represents the world fits with the way the world is, then my claim is true. Truth, then, is correspondence, or good fit, between what we assert and the way things are.
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evaluating an argument involves just these two essential steps: Determine whether or not the premises are true. Determine whether or not the premises support the conclusion (that is, whether we have grounds to think the conclusion is true if all of the premises are true)
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A Hypothetical Imperative tells you how to act regardless of what end or goal you might desire. Kant holds that if there is a fundamental law of morality, it is a Hypothetical Imperative
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Nozick proposes a model of love as a kind of union. In Nozick's version of the union model lovers form a "we" which is a new and different kind of entity, something more than just the sum of two individuals
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Rawls suggests that we use a principle of 'the veil of ignorance' when designing just social-political arrangements....setting them up as though a person who didn't know what their social-political status would be in this society, would still find it fair to live in.
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Social justice is just the idea of goodness as applied to social groups
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According to Aristotle affection between friends CANNOT involve self-interest at all.
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According to Aristotle, love for another necessarily involves good feelings about that person.
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Descartes does NOT believe in things like an immaterial mind/soul or free will.
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Epistemology studies the nature of morality and values
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Hume believed that moral truths about the world are objective and certain.
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John Locke was the first significant rationalist philosopher of the modern classical period.
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Kant's moral theory is an example of rule utilitarianism.
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Karl Popper's theories were supportive and confirmed the legitimacy of Logical Positivism.
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Moral relativism holds that there are moral truths and they are made true by the will or command of God
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Normative ethics is to consider what more general theories of good and bad have to say about more specific issues.
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Philosophical issues are as diverse and far ranging as those we find in the sciences, but a great many of them fall into one of three big topic areas: Metaphysics, Epistemology, Economics
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Plato , like the Sophists, was a moral and epistemic relativist.
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Plato's philosophy advocates democracy as the best social-political institution on which to base a just society.
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Rationalism takes all of our knowledge to be ultimately grounded in sense experience
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Rene Descartes believed that Mind and matter joined together to make one substance.
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Rene Descartes was a famous logical behaviorist.
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Social justice is the ethics of good society.
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Spinoza believed that God CANNOT be know to us through reason and contemplation.
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The Sophists were not great public speakers, but they were successful in promoting their belief in eternal universal Truth, high ethical standards and love of wisdom for its own sake.
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The logical positivists believed that science is ultimately no different from religion, metaphysics, and pseudo-science like astrology.
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is concerned with articulating and developing the general ethical theories in terms of which ethical opinions at the applied level might be justified.
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A functionalist explanation for consciousness doesn't necessarily entail brain state identity theory.
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A version of Rule Utilitarianism might say that the right action is the action that follows the rule which, in general, will produce the highest utility.
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According to Harry Frankfort, to love yourself is nothing more than to love your friends and family, your community, your activities, and projects whole-heartedly. To love yourself is to wholeheartedly love what you love.
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According to Locke, shape, motion or rest, and number are a few of the primary qualities. Other aspects of our sense experience don't resemble the qualities in their objects. The taste of an apple, for instance, is not really in the apple. What is in the apple is just a power to produce the experience of a certain flavor. But we have no grounds for thinking that this power as it exists in the apple resembles in any way the sense experience we have of its taste.
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According to Locke, the mind starts off as a tablula rasa, a blank slate. All of our ideas have their origin in experience. Simple ideas, say of solidity and figure, are acquired through the senses, and from these we form complex ideas, say the idea of a dog, through the capacities of the understanding. The details of this account raise a number of challenging questions
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According to Socrates, love for a person's wit, beauty or some other quality we find charming, is the first step towards a highly impersonal view of eros, but this is just a step towards loving beautiful people generally and ultimately to loving beauty itself. As Socrates sees it, this is all for the good as our attention and love is drawn ever closer to the most real and divine of things, the form of goodness itself.
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According to logical positivism an explanation is to shed light on something we accept as true, while the purpose of an argument is to give us a reason for thinking something is true.
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According to the 'difference principle' a socio-economic-political system would be just so long as its set of social institutions ensures that the least well off are better off than they would be under alternative arrangements. This allows for inequalities in a society, so long as they are not enjoyed by some at the cost of the least well off being worse off than they might have been.
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Albert Einstein Once said: "Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind" --The same might be said, according to the text, about the relationship between philosophy and science.
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An ethical truth would just be any true claim about what is good, right, wrong, permissible, virtuous, vicious, just, or unjust
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Aristotle takes friendship to be a concern for the good of another for her own sake.
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As it turns out, we don't know as much as we commonly suppose, in Hume's opinion. The result of Hume's rigorous Empiricism is skepticism about a great many things.
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Coercion and deception are paradigm violations of the Categorical Imperative. In coercing or deceiving another person, we disrupt his or her autonomy and his or her will. This is what the Categorical Imperative forbids.
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Contemporary analytic metaphysics is typically taken to have more modest aims than definitively settling on the final and complete truth about the underlying nature of reality.
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Descartes has been influential is in the philosophy of mind. Descartes defends a metaphysical view known as dualism that remains popular among many religious believers. According to this view, the world is made up of two fundamentally different kinds of substance, matter and spirit (or mind).
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Descartes held that Brains are part of the physical realm and Minds are part of the non-physical realm of existence.
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Descartes wants to find a firm foundation on which certain knowledge can be built and doubts can be put to rest. So he proposes to question any belief he has that could possibly turn out to be false and then to methodically reason from the remaining certain foundation of beliefs with the hope of reconstructing a secure structure of knowledge where the truth of each belief is ultimately guaranteed by careful inferences from his foundation of certain beliefs.
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Empiricism is just the view that our sense experience is the ultimate source of justification for all of our factual knowledge of the world. The Positivists extend Empiricism to cover not just the justification of knowledge, but the meaningfulness of language as well. That is, they take the source of all meaning to ultimately be our sense experience.
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Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge and justified belief.
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Ethical realism is the view that there are ethical truths and that they are made true by facts independent of anyone's say so, will, or sentiment.
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Ethics is a branch of Philosophy which deals with the issue of what is GOOD.
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For Hume Apriori reasoning, which is reasoning independent of experience, can produce understanding of relations of ideas. Mathematical and logical reasoning is like this. When I recognize the validity of an argument or the logic behind a mathematical proof, this is apriori reasoning. However, Our ability to understand matters of fact, say truths about the external world, depends entirely on a posteriori reasoning, or reasoning based on experience.
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For Hume, our experience gives us only impressions through sense experience and internal impressions like feelings. From this we generate less vivid ideas. Memories are merely faint copies of impressions. Through the imagination we can generate further ideas by recombining elements of ideas we already have.
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For Plato, we want the virtue of wisdom in the ruling class, the virtue of courage in the military class, and the virtues of temperance and diligence in the business class. The just community, in Plato's view, is the community where the various elements stick to their proper roles and cultivate the virtues appropriate to those roles
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For functionalists, to be in a mental state is to have some underlying causal basis for behaving in this way if these conditions are met, or behaving in that way if those conditions are met, etc..
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Freud sees erotic aspiration as essentially sexual. When our sexual longings get thwarted or repressed, they surface in other kinds of creative activity. So Socrates would say that aspiration generally is erotic and not necessarily sexual. Freud would also say all aspiration is erotic and still indirectly sexual.
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In Plato's worldview, he less real includes the physical world, and even less real, our representations of it in art. The more real we encounter as we inquire into the universal natures of the various kinds of things and processes we encounter. According to Plato, the only objects of knowledge are the forms which are abstract entities.
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In a rather relativistic sounding way, Kuhn suggests that the very meaning of the claims made in paradigm-based normal science can only be comprehended relative to the conceptual framework of that paradigm. A result of this is that from the perspective on one paradigm, we are never really in a position to evaluate the claims of normal science under a different paradigm. In this sense, paradigms are said to be incommensurable (lacking any common measure or independent standard of comparison).
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In denying us easy answers to big questions and undermining complacent convictions, philosophy liberates us from narrow minded conventional thinking and opens our minds to new possibilities.
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John Stuart Mill's "doctrine of swine" objection to Utilitarianism. This objection takes Utilitarianism to be unfit for humans because it recognizes no higher purpose to life than the mere pursuit of pleasure.
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Locke develops his empiricist epistemology in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
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Logical Behaviorism claims that mental terms like belief or fear can often be associated with observable behavior.
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Logical positivism states that the only claims that can be positively verified as true are claims based on observation or that can be defined in terms of observation.
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Metaphysical issues are concerned with the nature of reality.
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Metaphysicians analyze metaphysical puzzles and problems with the goal of better understanding how things could or could not be. Metaphysicians are in the business of exploring the realm of possibility and necessity
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Moral Relativism, perhaps the most popular opinion among people who have rejected faith, simply substitutes the commands of society for the commands of God
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Normative ethical principles aren't intended to describe how things are, how people think or how they behave. Normative ethics is concerned how we should be motivated and how we should act.
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Not everyone who claims to love freedom and equality loves the same thing.
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Open-mindedness is an essential characteristic of the Philosopher.
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Philosophy as developed by Socrates and Plato attempts to foster critical, dialectical thinking in the subject and that process would lead the thinker to knowledge, truth, beauty and goodness.
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Physicalism is the view that everything that is real is, in some sense, really physical.
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Plato's Republic helped to legitimize a long tradition of top-down governance by kings, religious authority, and military might in the West
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Popper introduced the falsifiability theory to philosophy of science and it has influenced other areas of speculation as well.
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Protagoras was a famous sophist who said "man is the measure of all things"
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Rawls' theory of justice is captured in terms of these two principles: The Equal Liberty Principle: Each person is to be granted the greatest degree of liberty consistent with similar liberty for everyone. The Difference Principle: Social practices that produce inequalities among individuals are just only if they work out to everyone's advantage and the positions that come with greater reward are open to all.
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Rene Descartes thought he had proven that we have minds and that they are not material and that we do not need to have a body to have a mind.
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Socrates was not an epistemic or moral relativist. He pursued rational inquiry as a means of discovering the truth about ethical matters
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Sophists like Protagoras rejected any objectively knowable morality, and believed ethics and law to be conventional inventions of civilizations, binding only within societies and holding only relative to societies
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Spinoza claimed that there is only one substance and it is both God and nature. Every facet of the world is a mere part of this one substance, God/nature.
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Spinoza claimed that what we call mind and matter (or the body) are both real but are attributes of a still more basic substance , which is God (or "nature")
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The Brain State Identity Theory proposes that mental states are identical with brain states. Contrary to Descartes' dualism, the Identity Theory takes mind to be a physical thing. Namely, it takes the mind to be identical with the brain.
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The Greek terms for these are Philia, eros and agape. Philiais friendship (this word is also the root of "philosophy" literally translated as the love of wisdom). Eros refers to erotic love, and agape we are most familiar with through the Christian tradition as something like universal love for all people
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The Logical Postivist's view of what a theory is has since been deemed overly formalized because there are numerous legitimate theories in science (like anthropology or geology) that can't be rendered in a formal system
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The Sophists practiced rhetoric in order to persuade people on issues, and not to discover the truth about philosophical issues.
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The Sophists were orators, public speakers, educators for hire in ancient Greek culture.
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The author of the text believes that conventionalism ,moral relativism and subjectivism in ethics to a large extent keeps us from studying ethics seriously.
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The classic work on erotic love is Plato's Symposium
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The fact that goodness itself is not empirically observable doesn't make it any less respectable as a theoretical posit than the fundamental forces of physics.
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The good life, for Spinoza, is one organized around the intellectual love of God/nature.
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The logical Positivist theory of science claims that the rules of inference in scientific discourse consist only of the rules of inference of logic and math plus scientific laws.
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The text states that science tells us is that different brains store and process the same information in very different ways and that, therefore, Brain state identity theory can't be correct.
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Unlike the other empiricists--especially Locke-- Berkley argues that all of our sense impressions are mere appearances and that we have no grounds for thinking that any of them bear any resemblance to the way things are. Since we lack any empirical experience of the underlying substances in which qualities inhere, we have no empirical reason to suppose underlying substances even exist. All we have access to are our sense impressions, and these are mental things, ideas.
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Utilitarianism is based on the idea that happiness is good. Utilitarian thinkers have traditionally understood happiness in terms of pleasure and the absence of pain.
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Where Rawls differs from Locke and Nozick is that for Rawls, property rights are not inviolable extensions of natural human liberty, rather they are social arrangements that will be limited in various ways as a part of a more comprehensive package of social arrangements that aims at fairness.
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While Hume does think that morality is concerned with subjective sentiments, not objective facts, the lack of objective moral truths won't corrupt us or undermine the social order because we all have pretty much the same sorts of moral sentiments and we can base a sensible social order on these. While we may feel differently about specific practices or principles, Hume thinks we have a basis for negotiating our moral differences in our more general and more or less universally shared moral sentiments of self-love, love for others, and concern for happiness.
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While Socrates looked for objective and eternal truths the Sophists were promoting ideas of moral relativism and subjectivism.
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While the relativist can allow that people like Gandhi and Martin Luther King changed the moral views of their societies, the relativist can't claim that these leaders changed their societies for the better.
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liberal political thought stands in contrast to both communism on the left and fascism on the right. Liberalism rejects aristocracy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism, oligarchy, and plutocracy (I'll leave those fancy words for you to look up). Liberal political philosophy, understood literally as political philosophy that places a high priority on liberty, is a broad category of thought that includes both contemporary "liberal" and "conservative" political thinking
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