INTRO TO PSYCH TEST 3

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

failure of conservation tasks

A second limitation which is overcome in the concrete operational stage is the perceptual domination of one aspect of a situation. Before the stage begins, the child's perception of any situation or problem will be dominated by one aspect; this is best illustrated by the failure of pre-operational children to pass Piaget's conservation tasks

abstract reasoning

Abstract reasoning refers to the ability to analyze information, detect patterns and relationships, and solve problems on a complex, intangible level. Abstract reasoning skills include: Being able to formulate theories about the nature of objects and ideas

central route to persuasion

According to Richard Petty and John Cacioppo, there are two methods in which individuals can be persuaded. They are the central route to persuasion and peripheral route to persuasion. Central route to persuasion occurs when a person is persuaded by the content of the message.

identity vs. role confusion

Adolescence is the period of life between childhood and adulthood. According to psychologist Erik Erikson, adolescents go through the psychosocial crisis of identity versus role confusion, which involves exploring who they are as individuals.

Jane Elliot's 1970s "brown eye/blue eye"

An experiment done by Jane Elliot that showed elementary students first hand what it was like to be discriminated against. She told them that one eye color was superior than the other, which made the students turn against the students that had recently been their best friends.

Sensorimotor

Birth to 2 years Infant uses senses and motor function to understand the world, e.g. sucking reflex

deindividuate

a concept in social psychology that is generally thought of as the loss of self-awareness in groups, although this is a matter of contention

Aggression and levels of chemicals associated with aggression

chemical serotonin in all types of aggression, research suggests that it may only be involved in escalated aggression and violence. Studies also question whether changes in the serotonin system are the cause or effect of escalated aggression. Research now suggests that unchecked aggressive behavior can eventually change the brain in ways that alter serotonin levels and, perhaps, increase violent behavior.

Erik Erikson

is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages, in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. known for his theory on *psychosocial development of human beings*. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis.

Instrumental aggression

predatory aggression and is associated with goal-oriented, planned, hidden, or controlled behavior. In instrumental aggression, harming the person is used to obtain some other goal, such as money.

compliance

refers to a response—specifically, a submission—made in reaction to a request. The request may be explicit (i.e., foot-in-the-door technique) or implicit (i.e., advertising). The target may or may not recognize that he or she is being urged to act in a particular way.

Hostile aggression

refers to violent attitudes or actions that are associated with anger and a desire to dominate a situation or others. Its displays itself in verbal, non-verbal and physical ways and holds the intention of causing harm.

Gender schema theory *Sandra Bem*

that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live. According to this theory, children adjust their behavior to fit in with the gender norms and expectations of their culture.

Ingroup Bias

the tendency to favor one's own group. This is not one group in particular, but whatever group you associate with at a particular time.

outgroup bias

the tendency to have negative views about people that are not part of one's own group. The groups can be any groups you associate with at a particular time.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

*Sensorimotor* Birth to 2 years Infant uses senses and motor function to understand the world, e.g. sucking reflex *Preoperational* 2 to 7 years Child begins to use symbols, e.g. drawing. Learns language and to speak. Also learns understanding of the past and the future. *Concrete Operational* 7 to 11 years Child learns the conservation of substance. Learns to manipulate symbols logically. *Formal Operational* 11 to Adulthood Learns more adult like thinking. Logical operations transferred to concrete thinking to abstract thinking also known as hypothetical thinking.

Current research on Piaget's stages

1. Problems With Research Methods Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to this, the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings to a larger population. 2. Problems With Formal Operations Research has disputed Piaget's argument that all children will automatically move to the next stage of development as they mature. Some data suggests that environmental factors may play a role in the development of formal operations. 3. Underestimates Children's Abilities Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget suspected. Recent theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people. For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed. Piaget's Legacy While there are few strict Piagetians around today, most people can appreciate Piaget's influence and legacy. His work generated interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the future of education and developmental psychology. His work helped change the way that researchers thought about children. Rather than simply viewing them as smaller versions of adults, experts began to recognize that the way children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults think.

Formal Operational

11 to Adulthood Learns more adult like thinking. Logical operations transferred to concrete thinking to abstract thinking also known as hypothetical thinking.

Preoperational

2 to 7 years Child begins to use symbols, e.g. drawing. Learns language and to speak. Also learns understanding of the past and the future.

Concrete Operational

7 to 11 years Child learns the conservation of substance. Learns to manipulate symbols logically.

industry vs. inferiority

Children are at the stage (aged 5 to 12 yrs) where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child's life as they teach the child specific skills.

conservation tasks

Conservation refers to a logical thinking ability which, according to the psychologist Jean Piaget, is not present in children during the preoperational stage of their development at ages 2-7, but develops in the concrete operational stage at ages 7-11. The tasks are purposely listed in this order, because this is generally the order in which children come to understand these concepts. They will master number conservation first and volume last. Altogether there are seven Piagetian conservation tasks: Number Length Liquid Mass Area Weight Volume

concrete operations 7-11

During this stage, the thought process becomes more rational, mature and 'adult like', or more 'operational', Although this process most often continues well into the teenage years. The process is divided by Piaget into two stages, the Concrete Operations, and the Formal Operations stage, which is normally undergone by adolescents. In the Concrete Operational stage, the child has the ability to develop logical thought about an object, if they are able to manipulate it. By comparison, however, in the Formal Operations stage, the thoughts are able to be manipulated and the presence of the object is not necessary for the thought to take place.

peripheral route to persuasion

Occurs when the listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message. For example, a listener may decide to agree with a message because the source appears to be an expert, or is attractive.

sensorimotorformal operations BABY

Piaget deduced that the first schemas of an infant are to do with movement. Piaget believed that much of a baby's behaviour is triggered by certain stimuli, in that they are reflexive. A few weeks after birth, the baby begins to understand some of the information it is receiving from it's senses, and learns to use some muscles and limbs for movement. These developments are known as 'action schemas'.

Jean Piaget COGNITIVE

Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called *"genetic epistemology"* *The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. * To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Stage 1: Infancy Age: birth to 1 year Issue: Trust vs. Mistrust If basic needs are met, basic sense of trust develops. Stage 2: Toddlerhood Age: 1 to 2 years Issue: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Learn and do things for themselves or doubt their abilities. Stage 3: Preschooler Age: 3 to 5 years Issue: Initiative vs. Guilt Learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or feel guilty about efforts to be independent. Stage 4: Elementary School Age: 6 years to puberty Issue: Competence vs. Inferiority Learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or feel inferior. Stage 5: Adolescence Age: teen years into 20s Issue: Identity vs. Role Confusion Refine sense of self by testing roles and integrating them to form a single identity or become confused about who they are. Stage 6: Young Adulthood Age: 20s to early 40s Issue: Intimacy vs. Isolation Form close relationships and gain capacity for intimate love or feel socially isolated. Stage 7: Middle Adulthood Age: 40s to 60s Issue: Generatively vs. Stagnation Discover sense of contributing to world (family or work) or feel lack of purpose. Stage 8: Late adulthood Age: late 60s and older Issue: Integrity vs. Despair Feel a sense of self-satisfaction or failure when reflecting back on life.

trust vs. mistrust

The first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth and lasts through one year of age. Infants learn to trust that their caregivers will meet their basic needs. If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

Research on learning prejudice

The simplest, *social learning theory* suggests that prejudice is learned in the same way other attitudes and values are learned, primarily through association, reinforcement, and modeling.

Gender permanence

The understanding that a person's gender remains the same over time: A girl grows up to become a woman, and a boy grows up to become a man

initiative vs. guilt

This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of 3 and 5. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.

motives for hate crimes in the U.S.

biases

preoperational egocentrism 2-7

children's thought processes are developing, although they are still considered to be far from 'logical thought', in the adult sense of the word. The vocabulary of a child is also expanded and developed during this stage, as they change from babies and toddlers into 'little people'. Pre-operational children are usually 'ego centric', meaning that they are only able to consider things from their own point of view, and imagine that everyone shares this view, because it is the only one possible. 'Animism' is also a characteristic of the Pre-operational stage. This is when a person has the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness.

in group/ out group

is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, an outgroup is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

object permanence

is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed (seen, heard, touched, smelled or sensed in any way).