Intro to Psychology - Chapter 11 Exam

What are the sexual effects of legal and illegal drugs?

*Alcohol: Moderate to high doses inhibit arousal; chronic abuse causes damage to testes, ovaries, and the circulatory and nervous systems *Tobacco: Decreases blood flow to the genitals, thereby reducing the frequency and duration of erections and vaginal lubrication *Cocaine and amphetamines: Moderate to high doses and chronic use result in inhibition of orgasm and decrease in erection and lubrication *Barbiturates: Moderate to high doses lead to decreased desire, erectile disorders, and delayed orgasm

Describe the major physical differences between male and female sexes?

*Body Size and Shape: the average man is 35 pounds heavier, has less body fat, and is 5 inches taller than the average women, as well as having broader shoulders, slimmer hips, and slightly longer legs in proportion to height *Brain: the corpus collosum is larger in women. this size difference is interpreted by some to mean that women can more easily integrate info from the two halves of the brain and more easily perform more than one task simultaneously; an area of the hypothalamus that causes men to have a relatively constant level of sex hormones, whereas women have cyclic sex hormone production and menstrual cycles; differences in cerebral hemispheres may help explain reported sex differences in verbal and spatial skills *Muscular System: until puberty, boys and girls are well matched in physical strength and ability; once hormones kick in, the average man has more muscle mass and greater strength than an average woman *Skeletal System: men produce testosterone throughout their life span, whereas estrogen production stops at menopause; because estrogen helps rejuvenate bones, women are more likely to have brittle bones; women also are more prone to knee damage because a woman's wider hips may place a greater strain on the ligaments joining the thigh to the knee

What are the signs and symptoms of the most common STIs?

*Male Symptoms: unusual discharge from penis; soreness inside penis (chlamydia, gonorrhea, nongonococcal urethritis (NGU)) *Female Symptoms: unusual vaginal discharge, out-of-cycle abdominal pain, unusual vaginal bleeding (chlamydia, gonorrhea, monilia (yeast), trichomoniasis, vaginitis) *Symptoms for both: painful intercourse or urination, diarrhea, painful sore or blisters in or around genital area, rash on hands and feet or entire body, small, pink, cauliflower-shaped growths on or around sex organs, intense itching, flulike feeling, sore throat, swollen glands in groin (AIDS, crabs, geneital warts, hepatitis, herpes, scabies, syphilis)

Describe the in-depth communication differences between genders?

*Men: Use speech to convey information, exert control, preserve independence, and enhance their status; Talk more than women, interrupt women more than women interrupt men, and interrupt women more often than they interrupt other men; Be more directive and assertive ("I want to get there by noon"); Talk more about politics, sports, and careers when they're in same-gender pairs. *Women: Use speech to achieve and share intimacy, promote closeness, and maintain relationships; Talk more than men when they have more power in a relationship; Be more indirect and tentative, using hedges ("kind of") and disclaimers ("I'm not sure what time we should get there"); Talk more about feelings and relationships when they're in same-gender pairs

Describe each of the 4 sexual orientation myths?

*Seduction Theory: Gays and lesbians were seduced as children by adults of their own sex. *"By Default" Theory: Gays and lesbians were unable to attract partners of the other sex or have had unhappy heterosexual experiences *Poor Parenting Theory: Sons become gay because of domineering mothers and weak fathers. Daughters become lesbians because their mothers were weak or absent or their fathers were their primary role model. *Modeling Theory: Children raised by gay and lesbian parents usually end up adopting their parents' sexual orientation.

Describe the research-supported sex and gender differences?

*Sexual: - Men: Begin masturbating sooner in life cycle and higher overall occurrence rates Start sexual life earlier and have first orgasm through masturbation More likely to recognize their own sexual arousal More orgasm consistency with sexual partner - Women: Begin masturbating later in life cycle and lower overall occurrence rates Start sexual life later and have first orgasm from partner stimulation Less likely to recognize their own sexual arousal Less orgasm consistency with sexual partner *Touching: - Men: Touched, kissed, and cuddled less by parents Less physical contact with other men and respond more negatively to being touched More likely to initiate both casual and intimate touch with sexual partner - Women: Touched, kissed, and cuddled more by parents More physical contact with other women and respond more positively to being touched Less likely to initiate either casual or intimate touch with sexual partner *Friendship: - Men: Larger number of friends and express friendship by shared activities - Women: Smaller number of friends and express friendship by shared communication about self *Personality: - Men: More aggressive from a very early age More self-confident of future success Attribute success to internal factors and failures to external factors Achievement more task oriented; motives are mastery and competition More self-validating Higher self-esteem - Women: Less aggressive from a very early age Less self-confident of future success Attribute success to external factors and failures to internal factors Achievement more socially directed, with emphasis on self-improvement More dependent on others for validation Lower self-esteem Cognitive Abilities: - Men: Slightly superior in math and visuospatial skills - Women: Slightly superior in verbal skills

Describe child sexual abuse (CSA)?

A substantial number of children and adolescents are sexually abused by adults or other adolescents. Child sexual abuse (CSA), also known as child molestation or pedophilia, refers to a sexual act with a child that is intended to provide sexual gratification for the perpetrator. It can refer to a number of different behaviors, including touching a child's genitals, masturbating in front of a child, or engaging in digital penetration, oral-genital stimulation, or vaginal or anal intercourse. It can also occur in the absence of any physical contact, such as when an abuser watches a child undress or exposes their genitals to a child. Soliciting a child to engage in acts for the sexual gratification of others or viewing or disseminating child pornography are also considered child sex abuse

Some of the earliest and most extensive surveys and interviews of human sexual behavior in the United States were conducted by ______. Havelock Ellis William Masters and Virginia Johnson Emily and John Roper Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues

Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues

Which is true of research on the causes of sexual orientation? It has helped overcome many misconceptions and myths. It provides evidence of a biological foundation. It is inconclusive. All of these options are true.

All of these options are true.

Which of the following is a myth about rape? A man cannot be raped by a woman. All women secretly want to be raped. Women cannot be raped against their will. All these options are myths about rape.

All these options are myths about rape.

Describe how women are underrepresented?

Along with earning less, women are underrepresented in certain types of stereotypically male occupations in science, engineering, and technology. Why? Researchers in one study asked science faculty from a research-intensive university to evaluate the application materials of a student who was applying for a laboratory manager position. Identical applications were assigned either a male name or a female name. Sadly, but in line with predictions, faculty members rated the applicant who was given a male name as significantly more competent and hirable than the (identical) applicant with a female name. The faculty also suggested a higher starting salary for the male applicant. Both male and female professors were equally likely to make these gender-biased decisions. If even highly educated college professors of both sexes show such bias, does this explain why there are still relatively few women in certain careers? More importantly, can you think of ways to change these and other examples of gender bias? *Before going on, keep in mind that men also suffer from traditional gender roles. And a recent meta-analysis of almost 20,000 participants found that conforming to masculine norms is linked with poorer social functioning and mental health, as well as with being less willing to seek psychological help

Describe the biological factors of these sexual disorders?

Although many people may consider it unromantic, a large part of sexual arousal and behavior is clearly the result of biological processes. Erectile dysfunction, the inability to get or maintain an erection firm enough for intercourse, and orgasmic dysfunction, the inability to respond to sexual stimulation to the point of orgasm, often reflect lifestyle factors like cigarette smoking. They are also related to medical conditions such as diabetes, alcoholism, circulatory problems, and reactions to certain prescription and nonprescription drugs. Furthermore, many people fail to recognize that drinking alcohol, even in moderate doses, can interfere with sexual functioning. Sexual responsiveness is also affected by stress, illness, and simple fatigue. In addition, hormones (especially testosterone) have a clear effect on sexual desire in both men and women, though their precise role is not well understood. Sexual arousal for both men and women is partially reflexive and somewhat analogous to simple reflexes. Just as a puff of air produces an automatic closing of the eye, certain stimuli, such as stroking of the genitals, can lead to automatic arousal in both men and women. In response to such stimuli, nerve impulses from the receptor site travel to the spinal cord. The spinal cord then responds by sending messages to target organs or glands. Normally, the blood flow into organs and tissues through the arteries is balanced by an equal outflow through the veins. During sexual arousal, however, the arteries dilate beyond the capacity of the veins to carry the blood away. This results in erection of the penis in men and an engorged clitoris and surrounding tissue in women.As we've just seen, the human body is biologically prepared to become aroused and respond to erotic stimulation. Generally, if a man or woman stays in arousal long enough, an orgasm will occur. If this is so automatic, why do some people have difficulty getting aroused? Unlike the case in simple reflexes such as the eye blink, psychological factors, such as negative thoughts or high emotional states, may block sexual arousal. Recall from Chapter 2 that the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is intricately linked to emotional and sexual responses. It is composed of two subsystems: the sympathetic, which prepares the body for "fight-flight-freeze," and the parasympathetic, which maintains bodily processes at a steady, even balance. The parasympathetic branch is dominant during initial sexual excitement and throughout the plateau phase. The sympathetic branch dominates during ejaculation and orgasm. *Parasympathetic branch must be in control during arousal being relaxed and allow enough blood flow to the genitals, or else it may cause sympathetic dominance which blocks sexual arousal

Who is John Gottman and his research on relationship conflict?

Another researcher, John Gottman, has conducted extensive research on relationship conflict. Using a variety of measures (physiological, nonverbal, verbal, and questionnaire) to assess and follow large samples of couples over long periods of time, his research has revealed four styles of conflict that are particularly destructive: Criticism—complaining about some features of the relationship. Contempt—acting as if sickened or repulsed by the partner. Defensiveness—protecting the self. Stonewalling—emotionally withdrawing and refusing to participate in conversation. All these strategies can lead to increased isolation and withdrawal. In fact, Gottman calls these styles of conflict the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse," meaning that the end of a relationship, the apocalypse, will be brought on by four horsemen—the four negative styles of conflict. The stonewalling approach is part of another conflict style, called the demand/withdraw interaction pattern, in which one partner attempts to start a discussion by criticizing, complaining, or suggesting change. The other partner then attempts to end this discussion—or avoid the issue—by maintaining silence or withdrawing from the situation. In a heterosexual relationship, the man is more likely to withdraw from conflict and the woman is more likely to take a leading role in initiating and discussing it. In contrast to the demand/withdraw pattern of interaction, some couples just avoid and deny the presence of any conflict in a relationship. Unfortunately, denial prevents couples from solving their problems at early stages, which can lead to even greater problems later on. On the other hand, expressing anger and disagreement also leads to lower marital satisfaction. In fact, couples who show high levels of negative communication in their first few years of marriage are more likely than others to get divorced. As we've just seen, demanding, withdrawing, avoiding, denying, and expressing anger and disagreement all seem to lead to relationship problems. So what's the answer? Given that conflict is an inevitable and even healthy part of all our relationships, we need to learn better strategies for working through conflicts in a positive and productive way

Men and women, like waffles and pancakes, have the same basic ingredients when it comes to sexual arousal and response—and, overall, we are much more alike than different. But we also have obvious differences. How do we know this? How do researchers scientifically test what happens to the human body when an individual or a couple engages in sexual activities?

As mentioned earlier, William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) were the first to conduct laboratory studies on what happens to the human body during sexual activity. They attached recording devices to male and female volunteers and monitored or filmed their physical responses as they moved from nonarousal, to orgasm, and back to nonarousal.

Describe sexual communication?

As we've just seen, communication can help to reduce sexual victimization. It's also the foundation for finding and maintaining a healthy sexual relationship. We need to learn how to clearly communicate with words, as well as through facial expressions, eye contact, and body language. In this section, we focus on three key topics and potential problems with communication: male/female differences, managing conflict, and saying "no." Have you heard that men and women communicate so differently that they seem to be from two separate cultures or planets—as in the title of the popular book Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus? This idea is appealing because of popular stereotypes and our own occasional difficulties communicating "across genders." However, research shows that these differences are small and not characteristic of all men and women or of all mixed-gender conversations. Still, they may help explain and prevent some communication misunderstandings. Take, for example, the finding that in general men use speech to convey information, exert control, preserve independence, and enhance their status. In contrast, women more often use speech to achieve and share intimacy, promote closeness, and maintain relationships. If men more often see conversations as a contest they must "win" and women use language as a way to "bond with others," it's easy to see why the two sexes might have certain communication problems. Do you see how a woman who sees language as a way to maintain relationships might call her partner at work to ask how his day is going or when he will be home? And how, in turn, the man might interpret her call as a challenge to his freedom and resist what he perceives as controlling behavior? To make matters worse, at home that night, the same man may feel like relaxing. If he doesn't have information to convey or anyone to defend against, he sees little reason to talk. In comparison, the woman may have spent her day having few opportunities to build closeness through language, and she looks forward to a quiet dinner and "relationship talk" with her mate.

What are STIs?

As we've just seen, early sex education and open communication between partners are essential for full sexual functioning. They're also key to avoiding and controlling sexually transmitted infections (STIs), formerly called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), venereal disease (VD), or social diseases. STIs are infections that are generally passed from one person to another through vaginal, oral, or anal sex. There are more than 25 infectious organisms that can be transmitted through sexual activity. As you've undoubtedly heard, it's extremely important for sexually active people to get medical diagnosis and treatment for any suspicious symptoms and to inform their partners. If left untreated, many STIs can cause severe problems, including infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cancer, and even death. Each year, of the millions of North Americans who contract one or more STIs, a substantial majority are under age 35. Also, women are at much greater risk than men of contracting major STIs. *STIs such as genital warts and chlamydial infections have reached epidemic proportions *Most STIs are readily cured in their early stages. many infected people are asymptomatic, meaning they lack obvious symptoms

How do we explain and treat paraphilic disorders?

As you'll discover in Chapter 14, the precise cause of psychological disorders is often difficult to determine, in part because numerous biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors may interact and contribute to such disorders. When looking for the causes of paraphilias, some researchers emphasize the importance of biological factors, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI), hormones, and alcohol abuse. Those who take the psychoanalytic perspective, in contrast, believe that paraphilias represent a return to a sexual habit or behavior from childhood. The learning, or behaviorist, perspective describes paraphilias as a result of conditioning. In this view, particular sexual habits and paraphilias are learned from observing other people or from receiving reinforcement or reward for engaging in them. A person who engages in exhibitionistic behavior, for example, may experience increased arousal from anxiety about being caught engaging in such behavior, which can be quite rewarding. Regardless of the cause, treatments are clearly needed to help people with such disorders find healthier and more positive outlets for their sexual pleasures. For example, some individuals have difficulty forming relationships with others, and group therapy can help build their social skills. Therapy also encourages them to empathize with their victims and take responsibility for their actions. Paraphilias also can be treated using aversion therapy, which focuses on replacing the positive associations between sexual pleasure and a particular object or behavior with negative ones. During this form of therapy, the person might be told to imagine a particularly arousing scene (such as the fetish object and/or exhibitionism). Then the person would be asked to immediately visualize a negative outcome, such as getting arrested or seriously injured. After creating new negative associations with the fetish object or behavior to replace the previously positive ones, the therapist can work on creating healthier associations.

______ is defined as confidently and directly standing up for your rights without infringing on those of others. Androgyny Assertiveness Ambitiousness Each of these options

Assertiveness

What is female sexual interest/arousal disorder and male hypoactive sexual desire disorder?

Avoids sexual relations due to disinterest *Physical: Hormones, drugs, alcohol, chronic illness Psychological: Antisexual education or upbringing, depression, anxiety, sexual trauma, relationship problems Primarily psychological: Antisexual education or upbringing, sex trauma, partner pressure, gender identity confusion

Describe gender role development?

By age 2, children are well aware of gender roles. From parents and other social forces, they quickly learn that boys "should" be strong, independent, aggressive, dominant, and achieving, whereas girls "should" be soft, dependent, passive, emotional, and "naturally" interested in children. Unfortunately, such expectations and stereotypes for how women and men should think, feel, or act may seriously limit both sexes in their choice of friendships, activities, and career goals. The existence of similar gender roles in many cultures suggests that evolution and biology may play a role in their formation. However, most research emphasizes two major psychosocial theories of gender-role development: social-learning theory and cognitive-developmental theory. Social-learning theory emphasizes the power of the immediate situation and observable behaviors on gender-role development. Girls learn how to be "feminine," and boys learn how to be "masculine" in two major ways: (1) They receive rewards or punishments for specific gender-role behaviors, and (2) they watch and imitate the behavior of others, particularly their same-sex parent. A boy who puts on his father's tie or baseball cap wins big, indulgent smiles from his parents. But what would happen if he put on his mother's nightgown or lipstick? Parents, teachers, and friends generally reward or punish behaviors according to traditional gender-role expectations. Thus, a child "socially learns" what it means to be male or female.

Describe "stranger danger" and the reality of child sex abusers?

Did you know that up to 30% of CSA is committed by family members and that up to 60% is committed by acquaintances and people the family trusts?Ironically, most people believe strangers are the major perpetrators of sexual abuse, which leaves parents and the public less alert to the real dangers from relatives, coaches, and even trusted religious leaders! As shown in this photo, the systemic child abuse practiced by numerous Roman Catholic priests was highlighted in the Academy Award-winning 2015 film Spotlight. Not surprisingly, children who are sexually abused may experience long-term psychological, physical, and behavioral problems. Common reactions include depression, anxiety, guilt, fear, sexual dysfunction, withdrawal, acting out, and problems with sleeping, eating, or school performance. In addition, sexually abused children may show inappropriate knowledge of, or interest in, sexual activity. As adults, they're also at increased risk of sexual revictimization, as well as depression, anxiety, insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), problems with alcohol and drugs, aggressive and criminal behaviors, and difficulty in adult sexual relationships. The effects of CSA vary according to a number of factors, but in general, the longer the abuse occurred, the closer the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim, and the more violent the assault, the greater the negative effects. The consequences also vary in part depending on whether and how quickly a child reports the abuse. Children who confide shortly after the abuse in an adult who believes them generally experience less trauma than children who do not disclose the offense. Sadly, many children wait years to tell someone about what occurred. In fact, one study found that half of all victims wait as long as five years before telling someone, and 25% never disclose the abuse. Why would a child not reveal this type of abuse immediately? Adult sexual predators typically lie and distort their abusive sexual behaviors as a way of manipulating and confusing the intended child victim. Even before the abuse begins, most abusers engage in a "seduction stage" in which they typically "groom" their victims by gradually and methodically building trust with the child and the adults who surround him or her. During the abuse, the predator then uses power, fear, isolation, and verbal threats ("no one will believe you") and/or physical threats ("I'll kill you and/or your family") to discourage the child from revealing the abuse. Thus, the child may stay silent, deny the abuse, misremember, or even forcibly forget in order to protect himself or herself or a loved one. The good news is that a cross-cultural meta-analysis (which combined results from 24 studies) found that school-based programs teaching children about sexual abuse leads to more disclosure. Furthermore, many victims of this type of abuse can and do recover to have fulfilling romantic and sexual relationships. This is not to say that CSA isn't a very serious crime, and our top priority must be to prevent it. The following general tips are drawn from the work of numerous specialists. For more information, contact the National Children's Alliance (www.nca-online.org) or the National Child Abuse hotline (1-800-4-A-Child). 1. Education Adults should learn the risks and facts about child sexual abuse. Starting in early childhood, present this information to both male and female children in concrete terms, using age-appropriate language. During these prevention discussions, be sure to include the positive aspects of loving touch and sexuality, which the child will discover as an adult. 2. Reduce the risk Recognizing that abusers are most often family members, friends, or trusted people in positions of authority, create and lobby for open-door policies and the reduction or elimination of private, one-adult/one-child situations. 3. Child empowerment Teach children to know the difference between "good touch" and "bad touch" and to trust their own feelings when they think something is wrong. Remind them that they have rights. They can say "no" to any adult who asks them to participate in any activity or bodily contact that makes them feel uncomfortable. Also, instruct children that no matter what anyone tells them, "body secrets" are not okay, and reassure them that they will not get in trouble by reporting the secret. If you suspect abuse, or if a child reports it, stay calm, protect the child from further contact with the abuser, and report it to the police.

Is there gender income inequality?

Do you recall the heavy focus on income inequalities between the rich and all other groups during the presidential election in 2016? Although most Americans were unhappy with the wealth and income distribution, very little was said about the persistent gender, race, and ethnicity income disparities. A study from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics clearly addressed this issue. Researchers found that the gender wage gap for weekly full-time workers in the United States widened from 2014 to 2015 (the latest available data). Between 2014 and 2015, women's earnings increased by 0.09%, whereas men's earnings increased by 2.6%. As you can see in Table 11.2, women of all major racial and ethnic groups earn less than men of the same groups. Note also that Hispanic workers have the lowest overall median weekly earnings, whereas Asian workers have the highest overall median weekly earnings. The lower earnings for women may result from several factors. One is occupational segregation—the fact that many women work in occupations dominated mainly by women. Women also face discrimination in compensation, recruitment, and hiring, as well as in bonuses and promotions. Can you see how these same factors might also explain the income disparities between racial and ethnic groups? Or how these disparities might be causally linked with poorer educational opportunities, housing, and mental and physical health outcomes for members of these groups

Describe Victorian sexual practice?

During the nineteenth century, men were encouraged to wear spiked rings around their penises at night. Can you explain why? Answer: The Victorians believed nighttime erections and emissions ("wet dreams") were dangerous. If the man had an erection, the spikes would cause pain and awaken him. In light of modern knowledge, it is hard to understand these practices and myths. One of the first physicians to question them was Havelock Ellis (1858-1939). When he first heard of the dangers of nocturnal emissions, Ellis was frightened; he had had personal experience with the problem. His fear led him to frantically search the medical literature, where instead of a cure he found only predictions of gruesome illness and eventual death. He was so upset he contemplated suicide. Ellis eventually decided he could give meaning to his life by keeping a detailed diary of his deterioration. He planned to dedicate the book to science when he died. However, after several months of careful observation, Ellis realized that the experts were wrong. He wasn't dying. He wasn't even sick. Angry that he had been so misinformed, he spent the rest of his life developing reliable and accurate sex information. Today, thanks in part to his informal case study of his own sexuality, Havelock Ellis is acknowledged as one of the most influential pioneers in the field of sex research.

What were the early studies like on sexuality?

During the nineteenth century, people in polite society avoided mentioning any part of the body covered by clothing, so the breast of chickens became known as "white meat." Male doctors examined female patients in totally dark rooms, and some people even covered piano legs for the sake of propriety. Throughout this Victorian period, medical experts warned that masturbation led to blindness, impotence, acne, and insanity. Believing a bland diet helped suppress sexual desire, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg and Sylvester Graham developed the original Kellogg's Corn Flakes and graham crackers and marketed them as foods that would discourage masturbation. One of the most serious concerns of many doctors was nocturnal emissions (during so-called "wet dreams"), which were believed to cause brain damage and death. Special devices were even marketed for men to wear at night to prevent sexual arousal

What is exhibitionistic disorder?

Exhibitionistic disorder, often called "indecent exposure," involves recurrent and intense sexual arousal from fantasies, urges, or behaviors associated with exposing the genitals to unsuspecting and nonconsenting observers. This exhibitionistic ("flashing") behavior sometimes includes masturbating or performing sexual acts in a public location. A key aspect of the arousal is the surprise experienced by the victim. The exhibitionist generally does not desire any sexual contact with that person. People who have this paraphilia may actually engage in exhibitionism or may have recurring, obsessive sexual fantasies about doing so.

______ refers to one's self-identification as either a man or a woman. Sex role Assigned sex Gender dysphoria Gender identity

GZender identity

______ was a major pioneer in sex research who used an informal case study method to record his own sexuality. B. F. Skinner Sigmund Freud Alfred Kinsey Havelock Ellis

Havelock Ellis

Explain the issues with sex and gender?

How do we develop our gender identity? Are there clear gender and sex differences between men and women? If so, what causes these differences, and are they important? These are some of the most controversial questions in the ongoing nature versus nurture debate. Scientists on the nature side suggest that inborn genetic and biological factors not only determine our physical sex, but also help program our gender identity. In contrast, those on the nurture side believe that most aspects of gender and human sexuality are determined largely by social influences. As you've seen throughout this text, the answer to the debate is almost always provided by the biopsychosocial model, which proposes an interaction among biology, psychology, and social forces.

Describe marriage equality?

In 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the federal Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman, unconstitutional. In 2015, in the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, the court went further and held that all states are required to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, and to recognize same-sex marriages validly performed in other jurisdictions. These decisions, along with other judicial and legislative action and changing societal views surrounding gay marriage, have lessened the misunderstandings and myths surrounding sexual orientation.

What is fetishistic disorder?

In fetishistic disorder, the individual uses inanimate objects or unusual parts of the human body to achieve sexual arousal and satisfaction. Someone with a fetish might become aroused by seeing and touching silky material or by touching or smelling someone's shoe or foot. Or the person may simply find a particular object or body part appealing and arousing. In contrast to this type of fetishism, individuals with a clinical fetishistic disorder experience significant distress and/or impairment of their sexual, social, and other key areas of functioning. For example, they may find it impossible to become aroused or achieve orgasm when the preferred fetish object or body part is unavailable.

What is vaginismus?

Involuntary vaginal spasms making penile insertion impossible or difficult and painful *Primarily psychological: Inadequate lubrication, learned association of pain or fear with intercourse, antisexual education or upbringing

What is female orgasmic disorder?

Marked delay, infrequency, or absence of orgasm; markedly reduced intensity of orgasmic sensations Generalized (not limited to certain types of stimulation, situations, or partners), or situational (only occurs with certain types of stimulation, situations or partners) *Physical: Chronic illness, diabetes, drugs, fatigue, alcohol, hormones, pelvic disorders, inappropriate or inadequate stimulation Psychological: Guilt, fear of discovery, hurried experiences, difficulty expressing desires, severe relationship distress, antisexual education or upbringing

What is erectile disorder?

Marked difficulty in obtaining or maintaining an erection during sexual activity or until its completion; marked decrease in erectile rigidity Lifelong (present since beginning of sexual activity) or acquired (began after a period of relatively normal sexual functioning) *Must be experienced on almost all or all occasions of sexual activity (approximately 75% to 100%) *Causes: Physical: Chronic illness, diabetes, circulatory conditions, heart disease, drugs, fatigue, alcohol, hormones, inappropriate or inadequate stimulation Psychological: Performance anxiety, difficulty expressing desires, not wanting to have sex, peer pressure, antisexual education or upbringing

What is a sexual response cycle?

Master's and Johnson's model of the typical human sexual response, consisting of four stages - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution *Although the overall pattern of sexual response is similar in the two sexes, there is more variation in specific patterns among women

Describe the cross-cultural differences in sexual behavior?

Note: "Inis Beag" is a pseudonym used to protect the privacy of residents of this Irish island, which is another interesting cultural difference. The other communities cited apparently don't require pseudonyms. Although other cultures' practices may seem unnatural and strange to us, we often forget that our own sexual rituals may appear equally curious to others. If the description of the practice of superincision bothered you, how do you feel about our own culture's routine circumcision of infant boys? At one point, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) decided that the reported medical benefits of circumcision were so statistically small that the procedure should not be routinely performed. This position was later revised. In 2012, the AAP concluded that the health benefits of newborn male circumcision outweighed the risks, though the choice should still be left to parents. However, physicians and health experts in other parts of the Western world, including Europe, Canada, and Australia, contend that there is no compelling medical benefit to newborn circumcision, and that the AAP reversal may reflect a cultural or religious rationale. Others have argued that, at a minimum, we should wait until the boys are old enough to decide for themselves.

What is the importance of sexual behavior?

Obviously, there is strong motivation to engage in sexual behavior. It's essential for the survival of our species, and it's also pleasurable. But sexuality includes much more than reproduction. For most humans (and some other animals), a sexual relationship fulfills many needs, including the need for connection, intimacy, pleasure, and the release of sexual tension. *A recent longitudinal study found that sexual satisfaction remained elevated approximately 48 hours after sex and that spouses who experienced stronger, lingering "afterglows" reported significantly higher marital satisfaction over time. However, another study revealed that engaging in more frequent sex is associated with greater overall well-being—but only up to a point. Past the frequency of once a week, satisfaction and well-being level off. It isn't that having sex more than once a week lessens satisfaction, it's just that you don't get more satisfaction past the "break-even point" of once a week.

Describe sexual orientation?

Of course, an essential part of our sexuality concerns whom we are sexually attracted to. What leads people to be sexually interested in members of their own sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes? The roots of human sexual orientation are poorly understood. However, most studies suggest that genetics and biology play a major role. A comprehensive review of the scientific literature suggests that, along with biological factors, certain environmental forces (particularly in the prenatal environment) may play some role in influencing sexual orientation. However, these environmental forces do not involve the social environment, and this study does not support the notion that sexual orientation can be taught or learned. Most importantly, the causes of homosexuality, biological or otherwise, should have no bearing on any individual's right to equality

Describe gender identity?

One of the best ways to illustrate the significance of gender identity, and the fine nuances of gender and sex differences, is through the famous case study of "John/Joan." In 1963, identical twin boys were taken to their family doctor to be circumcised. Tragically, the first twin's penis was damaged beyond repair. Following the medical experts' advice, the child's testes were removed, his genitalia modified, and estrogen administered so he could be raised as a girl. During their childhood, the twins were brought to Johns Hopkins Hospital each year for physical and psychological evaluations, and the story of "John/Joan" (the name used by Johns Hopkins) was heralded as proof that gender is made—not born. Unfortunately, follow-up studies indicate that, despite being raised from infancy as a girl, "Joan" did not feel like a girl and avoided most female activities and interests. As she entered adolescence, her appearance and masculine way of walking led classmates to tease her and call her "cave woman." By age 14, she was so unhappy that she contemplated suicide. Her father tearfully explained what had happened earlier, and for Joan, "All of a sudden everything clicked. For the first time, things made sense, and I understood who and what I was". After the truth came out, "John/Joan" reclaimed his male gender identity and renamed himself David. Following a double mastectomy (removal of both breasts) and construction of an artificial penis, he married a woman and adopted her children. David, his parents, and his twin brother all suffered enormously from the original accident and its long aftermath. In 2004, David died by suicide. No one knows what went through David's mind when he decided to end his life. However, he had just separated from his wife, lost his job, and experienced the failure of a big investment. His twin brother had also ended his own life shortly before. Most suicides, experts say, "have multiple motives, which come together in a perfect storm of misery" *Although he was born a chromosomal male, the child's genital sex was altered first by the doctor who accidentally destroyed his penis, and later by surgeons who removed his testes and created a "preliminary" vagina. Experts at the time believed this surgery, along with female hormones and "appropriate" gender-role expectations of the parents, would be enough to create a stable female gender identity. But David ultimately rejected this female gender assignment.

Describe the findings of modern research on sexuality?

One of the earliest efforts in modern sex research came from Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues (1948, 1953), who personally surveyed and interviewed more than 18,000 participants, asking detailed questions about their sexual activities and preferences. The results shocked the nation. Kinsey reported, for instance, that 37% of men and 13% of women had engaged in adult same-sex behavior to the point of orgasm. Although Kinsey's interviewing techniques were excellent, his data has been heavily criticized for violating certain ethical and research standards. Since Kinsey's time, literally thousands of similar surveys and interviews have been conducted on such topics as contraception, abortion, premarital sex, sexual orientation, and sexual behavior. By comparing Kinsey's data to the responses found in later surveys, we can see how sexual practices have changed over the years. Given the value of empirical, scientifically based surveys and interviews, particularly for the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community, the American Psychological Association recently adopted an official resolution recommending that research studies include sexual orientation and gender identity in their data collection. In addition to surveys, interviews, and case studies, some researchers have employed biological research methods, as well as direct laboratory experimentation and observational methods. For example, modern biological researchers have found that tasks that trigger sexual arousal, such as looking at erotic photographs, activate different parts of the brain than tasks that trigger feelings of love, such as looking at a photograph of a beloved sibling or parent. Direct laboratory experimentation and observation were first conducted by William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1961, 1966, 1970) and their research colleagues. To experimentally document the physiological changes that occur in sexual arousal and response, they first enlisted several hundred male and female volunteers. Then, using intricate physiological measuring devices, the researchers carefully monitored participants' bodily responses as they masturbated or engaged in sexual intercourse. Masters and Johnson's research findings have been hailed as a major contribution to our knowledge of sexual physiology. A brief summary of their results is presented later in this chapter.

How do we know if our conflicts are constructive or destructive?

One of the most essential, and most difficult, areas of communication is conflict management, and the way we handle it is a major predictor of relationship satisfaction and longevity. It's also an inevitable part of life. By understanding it and identifying your own conflict patterns, you can use it as an opportunity to improve and solidify your relationships. Carol Rusbult and her colleagues describe four of the most common types of responses that people typically use in handling conflict—voice, loyalty, neglect, and exit. The first, and generally seen as the most constructive, strategy is voice, which means talking things over to try to resolve the conflict. When done properly, it helps maintain and affirm the relationship because it involves direct problem solving and creative "win-win" solutions. Thus, if your partner seems to be avoiding your sexual advances, you could discuss how his or her resistance makes you feel and how the problem could be solved. (Perhaps he or she is exhausted from work, and you could renegotiate the work load at home.) Loyalty is defined as remaining committed to the relationship and simply waiting patiently for things to get better. It is characterized by quiet forgiveness, acceptance, and accommodation. Loyalty sounds as if it could be a good strategy, but it's less often associated with favorable consequences for conflict management, possibly because it is a less visible and more indirect strategy. The other two conflict strategies are clearly destructive. Neglect, giving up on the relationship and withdrawing from it emotionally, and exit, leaving or threatening to leave the relationship, are far too common and should be avoided if you want to build or maintain a healthy relationship. Not surprisingly, people who have high relationship investment and satisfaction are more likely to use a constructive strategy for resolving conflicts

Describe sex therapy?

People experiencing sex problems often benefit from therapy. How do therapists work with sex problems? Clinicians usually begin with interviews and examinations to determine whether the problem is biological, psychological, or, more likely, a combination of both. As mentioned earlier, biological causes of sexual dysfunction include medical conditions such as diabetes and heart disease, medications such as antidepressants, and drugs such as alcohol and tobacco. In fact, many who are addicted to drugs or alcohol experience sexual problems even after they stop using these substances. Erectile disorders are the problems most likely to have an organic component, and numerous drugs and other medical procedures have been developed to treat them. *Sex therapists also emphasize psychological and social factors. Years ago, the major psychological treatment for sexual dysfunction was long-term psychoanalysis. This treatment was based on the assumption that sexual problems resulted from deep-seated conflicts that originated in childhood. During the 1950s and 1960s, behavior therapists proposed that sexual dysfunction was learned. It wasn't until the early 1970s and the publication of Masters and Johnson's Human Sexual Inadequacy that sex therapy gained national recognition. Because the model that Masters and Johnson developed is still a popular choice of many sex therapists, we will use it as our example of how psychological sex therapy is conducted.

Describe kinks in correlation to sex?

People obviously have differing preferences for particular types of sexual activities. Some may engage in "kinky" or unusual sexual behavior, such as sex in socially unacceptable situations or with unusual stimuli, whereas others may participate in sexual violence or pedophilia. Unusual sexual practices between two consenting adults are generally not a problem, unless the practices are potentially harmful or cause personal distress

What is premature (early) ejaculation?

Persistent or recurrent pattern of ejaculation during partnered sexual activity within approximately one minute following vaginal penetration and before the individual wishes it Generalized (not limited to certain types of stimulations, or partners) or situational (only occurs with certain types of stimulation, situations, or partners) *Primarily psychological: Guilt, fear of discovery, hurried experiences, learning to ejaculate as quickly as possible

What is substance/medication-induced sexual dysfunction?

Physical: Substance intoxication or withdrawal from drugs (e.g., alcohol, cocaine) or after exposure to medication Although sex therapists typically divide sexual dysfunction into "male, "female," or "both," problems should never be considered "his" or "hers." Couples are almost always encouraged to work together to find solutions.

What are the reactions of outsiders on transgender individuals?

Sadly, transgender children and adults are more likely to experience ostracism, harassment, bullying, and psychological problems, including self-mutilation, suicide attempts, and drug abuse. In some cases, they undergo medical procedures and/or drug therapies to change their bodies physically to be more like the other sex. The good news is that transgender kids (ages 3 to 12) who have transitioned, and are treated like the gender they identify with, do not differ from other kids on rates of depression and are only slightly higher on anxiety. So, this study suggests that living as the "wrong gender" leads to depression, not being transgender.

What is the difference in sexuality in association with cultures?

Sex researchers interested in both similarities and variations in human sexual behavior often conduct cross-cultural studies of sexual practices, techniques, and attitudes. Their studies of different societies put sex in a broader perspective. To illustrate, a cross-cultural study asked both U.S. and Dutch parents whether they would allow their teenage child to spend the night with a dating partner in their own home. Interestingly, only 9% of U.S parents said they would allow such a sleepover, compared to a whopping 93% of the Dutch parents. This difference in perspectives illustrates cultural differences in attitudes about sexuality, and in particular about adolescent sexuality. In the Netherlands, and many Scandinavian countries, comprehensive sex education, including information about birth control and sexual pleasuring, is required. In contrast, such programs continue to be controversial in the United States. Cross-cultural studies of sex also help counteract ethnocentrism, the tendency to judge our own cultural practices as "normal" and preferable to those of other groups. For example, did you know that less than half of the 168 cultures studied around the world engage in romantic/sexual kissing? In fact, couples in Sub-Saharan Africa, New Guinea, the Amazon, and many native cultures in Central America find this type of kissing uncomfortable or even repulsive! Members of Tiwi society, who inhabit islands off the northern coast of Australia, believe young girls will not develop breasts or menstruate unless they first experience intercourse. In some cultures, adolescent boys routinely undergo harsh ceremonies, such as superincision, to initiate them into adulthood. During superincision, the foreskin of the penis is slit horizontally along the upper length of the foreskin, without removing any tissue.

______ teach us "what to do, when, where, how, and with whom." Sex surrogates Sexual scripts Sex manuals Sex therapists

Sexual scripts

Describe social learning and the cognitive-developmental theory?

Social-learning theory focuses on a child's passive process of learning about gender through observation, rewards, and punishments as well as gender-typed behavior, whereas cognitive-developmental theory emphasizes a child's active role in building a gender schema. According to cognitive-developmental theory, social learning is part of gender-role development, but it's much more than a passive process of receiving rewards or punishments and modeling others based on active cognitive processing of gender role info. Instead, cognitive developmentalists argue that children actively observe, interpret, and judge the world around them. As children process information about the world, they also create internal rules governing correct behaviors for boys and for girls. On the basis of these rules, they form gender schemas (mental images) of how they should act, which leads to gender-typed behavior

What can we do to successfully manage conflict in our own relationships?

Understanding the other person's point of view and putting ourselves in their place is a good first step. People who can adopt their partner's perspective show more constructive responses to conflict. Second, because conflict and disagreements are an inevitable part of close relationships, people need to be able to forgive personal wrongdoings and apologize. Those who remember relationship transgressions their partner committed in a more positive and less severe light are more likely to have lasting and satisfying relationships. Similarly, apologies minimize conflict, lead to forgiveness, and help you maintain relationship closeness. What makes for an effective apology? Research has identified six components: Acknowledgment of responsibility Offer of repair Declaration of repentance Expression of regret Explanation of what went wrong Request for forgiveness Research also shows that the first two items on this list, acknowledgment of responsibility and an offer of repair, are the most important. Keep these tips in mind after your next conflict. A good apology will save or strengthen all your relationships—romantic and otherwise.

Does political affiliation reflect sexual behavior?

Using a web-based sampling technique, researchers directly asked American participants about their individual sexual practices and their political preferences. As might be expected, those with more conservative attitudes, ideologies, and partisan leanings tended to report engaging in more traditional sexual behaviors, such as kissing and missionary position (man on top) sex. In contrast, those who are more liberal politically reported more masturbation and more adventurous sex, such as using sex toys. They also engage in "liberal sex," such as having sex with someone they met on the same day, and have more sexual partners in their lifetime. Interestingly, those with more conservative orientations tend to report being more satisfied with their sex life

How do we say "no" with assertiveness?

When faced with sexual or other types of conflict, how do you respond? Are you passive, aggressive, or assertive? In this section, we'll clarify the differences among these terms, help you identify and increase your own level of assertiveness, and improve your conflict resolution skills. Let's begin with passive behavior, which means failing to stand up for your rights even when you are fully justified in doing so. Although passive individuals often "get along" with everyone, they are less respected and less likely to achieve their personal goals. They also are self-denying and self-inhibiting, experience low self-esteem, and feel hurt and anxious. Furthermore, passive sex partners may be seen as lackluster and as contributing little to the relationship. As will be discussed in Chapter 16, aggression is any behavior intended to harm another. During conflict, an aggressive person will stand up for his or her rights, disregarding potential harm to others and possibly using insults, threats, and even physical intimidation and attacks. Aggressive behavior is more likely than passive behavior to get you what you want in the short term. But like passiveness, it too has negative long-term consequences. Others may initially give in to aggressive people and feel intimidated by them, yet they rarely like or respect them. Think about how much you liked or respected classroom or playground bullies when you were growing up. Furthermore, aggressive behavior far too often provokes aggressive responses that can easily escalate into violence. Assertiveness, which is defined as confidently and directly standing up for your rights without infringing on those of others, strikes a balance between passive and aggressive behavior. It means you directly and honestly request things you want and say "no" to things you don't want. As you might expect, assertive people tend to have higher levels of self-esteem, self-worth, and self-satisfaction because they have more control over their life choices and direction. They're also more likely to avoid serious conflicts and to resolve them more effectively. Perhaps most importantly, assertiveness generally leads to higher goal attainment and to greater respect from others. How assertive are you in your everyday life? Do you stick up for your rights, or do you allow others to walk all over you? Do you say what you feel, or do you say what you think other people want you to say? Beginning in childhood, most of us were socialized to be "nice," to say "yes," and to please others. Regrettably, being overly nice often means sacrificing our own needs, which in turn allows hostility and frustration to accumulate and weaken our relationships

Who was the sex therapy program developed by and what are the 4 fundamental major principles

William Masers and Virginia Johnson 1. Relationship focus Unlike forms of therapy that focus on the individual, Masters and Johnson's sex therapy focuses on the relationship between two people. To counteract any blaming tendencies, each partner is considered fully involved in and affected by sexual problems. Both partners are taught positive communication and conflict resolution skills. 2. Investigation of both biological and psychosocial factors Medication and many physical disorders can cause or aggravate sexual dysfunctions. Therefore, Masters and Johnson emphasize the importance of medical histories and exams. They also explore psychosocial factors, such as how the couple first learned about sex and their current attitudes, gender-role training, and sexual scripts. 3. Emphasis on cognitive factors Recognizing that many problems result from performance anxiety and spectatoring—mentally watching and evaluating responses during sexual activities—therapists discourage couples from setting goals and judging sex in terms of success or failure. 4. Specific behavioral techniques Couples are seen in an intensive two-week counseling program. They explore their sexual values and misconceptions and practice specific behavioral exercises. "Homework assignments" usually begin with a sensate focus exercise in which the partners take turns gently caressing each other and communicating what is pleasurable. There are no goals or performance demands. Later exercises and assignments are tailored to the couple's particular sex problem.

Direct laboratory experimentation and observation of human sexuality were first conducted by ______. Alfred Kinsey William Masters and Virginia Johnson Havelock Ellis all of these individuals

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

What is sexual dysfunction?

a difficulty in sexual functioning; a significant disturbance in a person's ability to respond sexually or to experience sexual pleasure

What is AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)?

a disease in which the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) destroys the immune system's ability to fight other diseases, thus leaving the body vulnerable to a variety of opportunistic infections and cancers; largest public attention *AIDS is the final stage of the HIV infection process. *Note also that with the right medications, people can have a normal, or near-normal, life span with HIV or AIDS. The key is early treatment with antiretroviral drugs. Nonetheless, there is no known cure for HIV in most cases, and AIDS remains a serious, potentially fatal health risk. *Many people still believe AIDS can be transmitted through casual contact, such as sneezing, shaking hands, sharing drinking glasses or towels, kissing, or contact with sweat or tears. Some even mistakenly believe that you can contract HIV while donating blood. Others are mistrustful of gay people, because gay men were the first highly visible victims. All of these are false beliefs.

Orgasm refers to ______. the final phase of the sexual response cycle the male refractory period a highly intense and pleasurable release of tension the peak of the excitement phase

a highly intense and pleasurable release of tension

What is sexual prejudice?

a negative attitude toward an individual because of her or his sexual orientation *Many gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people experience discrimination, as well as serious verbal and physical attacks, disrupted family and peer relationships, and high rates of anxiety, depression, and suicide *Sadly, the risk of suicide may be particularly high among youths in the earliest stages of "coming out"—publicly revealing their gay sexual orientation *Note that the term sexual prejudice is now preferred over the older, outdated term homophobia.

What is sexual orientation?

a primary erotic attraction toward members of the same sex (homosexual, gay, lesbian), both sexes (bisexual), or the other sex (heterosexual)

What is a paraphilic disorder?

any of a group of psychosexual disorders involving disturbing and repetitive sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors that cause distress or impairment to the person and/or harm or risk of harm to others *Most common are fetishistic disorder an exhibitionistic disorder

John has a male lover but also enjoys sexual relationships with women. His probable sexual orientation is ______. gay transgender bisexual heterosexual

bisexual

Describe the excitement phase?

can last for minutes or hours; arousal is initiated through touching, fantasy, or erotic stimuli; heart rate and respiration increase; elevated blood flow to the genital region causes penile or clitoral erection, as well as vaginal lubrication in women

Cross-cultural studies of human sexuality help counteract ______, the tendency to view our culture's sexual practices as normal and preferable to those of other groups. sexual prejudice ethnic typing ethnocentrism sexual predation

ethnocentrism

In this text's diving-board analogy for the sexual response cycle, climbing up the ladder is analogous to the ______ phase. excitement plateau orgasm resolution

excitement

What are mood disorders?

extreme disturbances in emotional states

What are gender stereotypes?

gender role prescriptions and beliefs that are overly generalized and applied to all men and women including various beliefs and expectations *For instance, men are expected to be more independent, aggressive, dominant, and achieving than women. In contrast, women are expected to be more dependent, passive, emotional, and "naturally" interested in children than men *One study found, for instance, that identifying a job searcher as either male or female on a Google ad search for jobs made a big difference. Ads for highly paid executive positions were successfully responded to 1,816 times by male applicants, but only 311 times by female applicants (Datta et al., 2015). And, as you've probably heard, women in the United States still tend to earn lower salaries than men, even when they hold the same job

Androgynous is another word for ______. transgender, gay, or lesbian having both male and female traits having an oversupply of androgens during prenatal development transvestite

having both male and female traits

What is homophobia?

homophobia implies an individual pathology, whereas sexual prejudice reflects the fact that, like all forms of prejudice, this type is socially constructed. Also note that a new acronym, LGBTQ, is sometimes used today to refer to people who identify themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer/questioning. Although these terms might vary and change over time, the general rule when referring to any group of people is to be respectful and use the term that the group or individual prefers.

Having AIDS generally refers to being infected with a virus that attacks the ______. central nervous system peripheral nervous system immune system mucous membranes

immune system

What is transvestism, gender-bending, and cross-dressing?

individuals adopt the dress and often the gender-role behaviors typical of the other sex. Some individuals occasionally or routinely dress up as the other sex for personal or erotic pleasure, and some entertainers cross-dress as part of their job. People who are transgender often dress in clothing opposite to their biological sex, but they're not considered to be "cross-dressing." Their motivation is to look like the "right" sex, the one that matches their gender identity

Describe the orgasm phase?

involves a highly intense and pleasurable release of tension; in women, muscles around the vagina squeeze the vaginal walls in and out, and the uterus pulsates; muscles at the base of the penis contract in men, causing ejaculation- the discharge of seminal fluid *After one orgasm, most men enter a refractory period, during which further excitement to orgasm is quite rare; many women and some men, however, are capable of multiple orgasms in fairly rapid succession

The ______ occurs after the orgasm phase and before the resolution phase of the sexual response cycle. spermarche woman's refractory period man's refractory period sex flush

man's refractory period

Research has shown that ______ are more likely to use speech to convey information, exert control, preserve independence, and enhance their status, whereas ______ tend to use speech to achieve and share intimacy, promote closeness, and maintain relationships. older men; younger men older women; younger women men; women heterosexuals; women and men

men; women

A transgender person has a ______. mismatch between his or her gender identity and biological sex mismatch between his or her gender role and biological sex heterosexual preference for sexual gratification need to wear clothing of the other sex for sexual gratification

mismatch between his or her gender identity and biological sex

What is androgyny?

one of the ways to diminish gender bias and/or gender-role stereotypes by encouraging the expression of both masculine and feminine characteristics and traits found in every individual; a combination of masculine and feminine characteristics and traits; from the Greek andro for male and gyn for female *Interestingly, research finds that this blending of traits leads to higher self-esteem and more success and adjustment in today's complex society because it allows us to display whatever behaviors and traits are most appropriate in a given situation

What is gender identity?

one's sense of self-identification as belonging to the male or female sex that can be multifaceted

The fear of being judged in connection with sexual activity is known as ______. decreased sexual desire sexual dysfunctions inhibited orgasm performance anxiety

performance anxiety

Describe the plateau phase?

physiological and sexual arousal continue at heightened levels; heart, circulation, and respiration rates, as well as muscle tension, all continue at elevated levels in both sexes; sexual pleasure intensifies with increased stimulation as arousal reaches its peak, both sexes may experience that orgasm is imminent and inevitable

Describe the resolution phase?

physiological responses gradually return to normal

What is sexuality?

s generally described as the ways in which we experience and express our-selves as sexual beings. Throughout time, it has been a major component of human happiness and well-being, and people have probably always been interested in learning more about their own and others' sexuality. But cultural and religious forces have often attempted to suppress this interest *Includes sexual arousal, orientation, and behaviors

All of the following are principles of Masters and Johnson's approach to sex therapy except ______. setting goals to improve sexual performance examining the relationship between the two people using medical histories and physical examinations exploring individual attitudes and sex education

setting goals to improve sexual performance

According to John Gottman's research, ______ means emotionally withdrawing and refusing to participate in conversation. defensiveness contempt stonewalling neglect

stonewalling

What is a double standard?

the beliefs, values, and norms that subtly encourage male sexuality and discourage female sexuality *Despite many changes in recent years, men are still generally encouraged to explore their sexuality and bring a certain level of sexual knowledge into relationships. In contrast, women are generally expected to permit or stop male advances and to refrain from sexual activity until married—or at least "in love." For example, researchers found that when male adolescents reported "having sex," they gained in peer acceptance, whereas female adolescents reporting the same behavior experienced decreases in peer acceptance. However, these gender differences reversed when it came to "making out." In this case, male adolescents' peer acceptance declined, while the female adolescents' acceptance increased.

What are gender roles?

the culturally and socially defined prescriptions and expectations about the thoughts, feelings, and actions of men and women

What was performance anxiety?

the fear of being judged in connection with sexual activities, which is another psychological block to sexual arousal *Men commonly experience problems with erections or sufficient arousal (especially after drinking alcohol), and both men and women wonder whether their "performance" will satisfy their partner. Both partners also frequently worry about their attractiveness and their ability to reach orgasm. Do you see how these performance fears can lead to sexual problems? Once again, increased anxiety causes the sympathetic nervous system to dominate, which blocks blood flow to the genitals. Many psychological factors affect our sexual functioning. Consider one more example. People who are having difficulty becoming pregnant and are using fertility treatments such as in vitro fertilization may experience lower levels of sexual desire and pleasure. And on a related note, research has recently confirmed what was long suspected—women who are highly stressed are less likely to.In other words, psychological factors, such as anxiety about not becoming pregnant or high levels of stress, may interfere not only with the enjoyment of sex but also with the ability to become pregnant.

What is pair bonding?

the formation of enduring relationships between adult mates

What are sexual scripts?

the learned, socially constructed guidelines for our sexual interactions that can be provided or caused by social and cultural factors about what to do and when, where, how, and with whom we should do it *During the 1950s, societal messages said the "best" sex was at night, in a darkened room, only between a man and a woman, with the man on top and the woman on bottom. Today, the messages are bolder and more varied, partly because of media portrayals. *Television and movies in the 1950s and 1960s allowed only married couples to be shown in a bedroom setting (and only in long pajamas and separate twin-size beds). Contrast this with modern times, where very young, unmarried couples are commonly portrayed in one bed, scantily dressed or nude, and sometimes even engaging in various stages of intercourse. Sexual scripts may be less rigid today than they once were, but a major difficulty remains. Many sexual behaviors do not fit society's scripts and expectations, and we all unconsciously internalize societal messages without recognizing that they affect our values and behaviors. A recent study of 7th grade students found that those who believed that their peers were having sex were 2.5 times more likely themselves to have sex by 9th grade. Can you see how this increase in sexual behavior demonstrates the power of perceived peer norms and sexual scripts in influencing behavior? Another change is the increasing prevalence of "hooking up" among high school and college students. Not so recently, dating was the major route to sexual interactions. Following predictable scripts, the man was expected to initiate the first date, organize it, and initiate sexual activity, whereas the woman waited to be asked out and accepted or rejected the man's sexual overtures. Today, more casual, no-strings-attached, hooking-up relationships have at least partially replaced the more traditional romantic dating relationships. Some research, however, suggests the "hookup" culture on college campuses has been overstated. For example, one study of first-year college women found that 56% of the women reported having sex with a romantic partner, whereas only 40% reported having sex in the context of a hookup

What is gender?

the psychological and sociocultural traits typically associated with one sex (such as masculinity and femininity) *gender identity (self-definition), gender-role (societal expectations)

What is sex?

the state of being biologically male or female and their biological differences such as having a penis or vagina or to sexual activities such as masturbation and intercourse *Chromosomes, gonads, hormones (androgens and estrogens), external genitals, internal accessory organs, secondary sex characteristics (deep wide, breasts), sexual orientation

What does HIV positive mean?

the state of being infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) *HIV spreads only by direct contact with bodily fluids—primarily blood, semen, and vaginal secretions, but also occasionally through breast milk and nonsterile needles. Note that contrary to popular stereotypes, anyone can get HIV and AIDS, including men, women, children, and people who are gay or straight

What does transgender mean?

the state of having a gender identity that does not match one's biological sex; being born with the biological characteristics of one sex but feeling psychologically as if belonging to the other gender *People who are transgender often report feeling as if they are victims of a "birth defect," and they tend to have a deep and lasting discomfort with their sexual anatomy. In fact, there is ample evidence that gender identity is biologically driven, so it does not appear to be a personal choice or something that can be changed through therapy. Further evidence comes from a study with 32 transgender children, ages 5 to 12, indicating that their gender identity is deeply held and is not the result of confusion about gender identity or pretense. The study used implicit measures that operate outside conscious awareness and are, therefore, less susceptible to modification than self-report measures. These and other studies of transgender children suggest that gender identity is really deeply held and not just a phase that could be "outgrown."

What is the definition of rape?

the unlawful act of engaing in oral, anal, or vaginal penetration with a person through force or threat of force and without consent or with a person incapable of giving consent (due to age or physical or mental incapacity) *As with CSA, only around 10% of rapes are committed by strangers. In the United States alone, more than 2 million women are raped each year. Nationwide surveys reveal that 8% of high school students (11.8% of female students and 4.5% of male students) report having been forced to have sex, as do 20% to 25% of college women. Considering that most rapes are never reported to the police, you can see why the official numbers most likely underestimate the true prevalence of such violence. Sadly, the impact of rape is often long lasting and can include physical, psychological, and social consequences. Victims may experience chronic pain, headaches and migraines, back pain, and gynecological and gastrointestinal problems. Equally serious psychological and social consequences include lasting fear, anxiety, depression, guilt, distrust of others, and strained relationships with family members, friends, and romantic partners. Some victims develop PTSD and experience painful flashbacks in which they mentally reexperience the trauma of the attack. Some respond by engaging in unhealthy behaviors, including taking drugs, smoking cigarettes, vomiting, overeating, and even attempting suicide. Recovering from sexual violence takes time. Victims of rape may go through an initial period of coping with the immediate physical and emotional trauma, followed by a lengthy "reorganization" phase in which they try to get back to their normal life. They often benefit from group therapy with other survivors. When PTSD has developed, cognitive therapy or treatment with antidepressants may be useful. The victim's family, friends, and sexual partners also need support, education, and counseling to deal with their own feelings, as well as guidance in dealing appropriately with the victim. Preventing rape is obviously a crucial goal, and the best general strategies are to: Provide education about healthy sexuality and safe dating relationships. Help parents identify violent attitudes and behaviors in their children. Create and enforce policies in school and work environments that address sexual violence and harassment. Develop mass media messages—on television, on the Internet, and in newspapers and magazines—that promote violence-free relationships and norms. Increase public awareness of sexual violence and the importance of bystanders stepping in to prevent an assault. For more information, contact the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (www.rainn.org) or the National Sexual Violence Against Women Prevention Research Center (www.musc.edu/vawprevention).