Introduction to Sociology, Anthropology
What principle was central in Durkheim's research?
"Human behavior cannot be understood only in terms of the individual; we must always examine the social forces that affect people's lives."
Verstehen
"emphatic understanding", Weber's term to describe good social research, which tries to understand the meaning that individual social actors attach to various actions and events
Anomie
"normlessness", term used to describe the alienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker bonds and an increased feel connected to other members of their group
Parkinson's law
(C. Northcote) given too much time for a job will make the job seem much bigger than it is.
"The power elite" (1956)
(Mills) consists of military leaders, politians & business leaders (warlords, corporate chieftans & the political directorate) are responsible to no one but themselves.
organin solidarity
(durkheim) bonds thatunite members of indestrialized nations.
characteristics of a bureaucracy
1) paid officials (main income) 2) officials have privileges 3) seniority rights and salary increases 4) degrees or vocational training 5) responsibilities rigidly defined by the organization 6) separation of funds & files from their personal ones.
Auguste Comte (1838)
3 stages of scientific development and coined the term sociology.
Social inequality
A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power
Theory
A general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another
Sociological Imagination
A quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our individual circumstances and larger social forces
Conflict perspective
A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation.
Functionalist perspective
A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability
Interactionist perspective
A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole
Feminist perspective
A sociological approach that view inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization
Generalization
A statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation.
Functional Analysis
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium, also known as functionalism and structural functionalism
Latent Function
An action that has unintended consequences that help a system adjust
Manifest Function
An action that is intended to help some part of the system
Sociological imagination
An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past
Dysfunction
An element or process of society that may disrupt the social system or reduce its stability
Macro-Level Analysis
An examination of large scale patterns in society.
Macro-Level Analysis
An examination of large-scale patterns of society
Micro-Level Analysis
An examination of small-scale patterns of society; such as how the members of a group interacts
Manifest function
An open, stated, and conscious function
Latent function
An unconscious or unintended function that may reflect hidde purposes
Public Sociology
Applying sociology for the public good; especially the use of the sociological perspective (how things are related to one another) to guide politicians and policy makers
Who is credited as the founder of sociology?
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Most hominin fossils older than 3 million years are called
Australopiths
according to some Islamic scholars in France, a French civil marriage already meets the conditions for an Islamic marriage because
Both French and Islamic marriages are contracts, both spouses must agree to the marriage, and the legal requirements imposed on spouses meet the Islamic goal of keeping spouses together.
Globalization of Capitalism
Capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe's dominant economic system
The claim that similar living species must all have had a common ancestor or origin was made by
Charles Darwin
Nonverbal Interaction
Communication without words through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on
Charles Darwin
Darwin proposed that organisms evolve as they adapt to their environment. This led Herbert Spencer to come up with social Darwinism: the belief that only the fittest survive.
Social Facts
Durkheim's term for a group's patterns of behavior
mechanical solidarity
Durkheim's term for social bonds that are based on shared moral sentiments.
The famous "Lucy" fossil was found in
Ethiopia
during the last half of the twentieth century, the countries of ________ were the target of large waves of immigration from all over the world
Europe
Functionalist
From the perspective of functional analysis , society is a functioning unit, with each parts related to the whole. Whenever we examine a smaller part we need to look for its functions and dysfunctions to see how its related to the larger unit.
Emile Durkheim
Got sociology recognized as a separate discipline. Achieved this goal when the Unv. of Bordeaux awarded the first academic appointment in sociology. Durkheim also studied suicide rates and concluded that Protestant males were most likely to commit suicide.
Who is considered the second founder of sociology?
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), coined the term "Survival of the Fittest"
The species of large-brained, robust hominins that lived between 1.8 and 0.4 mya is
Homo erectus
Stages of research
ID the problem, research, hypothesis, test, conclusion.
Holism in anthropology is defined in the text as
Integrating what is known about human beings and their activities at an inclusive level
Dialectical Model
Marx's model of historical change, whereby two extreme positions come into conflict and create some new third between them
Class Conflict
Marx's term for the struggle between capitalists and workers
Iron Cage
Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization
generalized other
Mead's term for thhe cultural norms and values we use as references when evaluating ourselves.
Cultural capital
Noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts.
The style of stone-tool making that involves knocking a few flakes off tennis ball-shaped rocks to produce cutting edges is called the
Oldowan tradition
Social Interaction
One person's actions influencing someone else; usually refers to what people do when they are in one another's presence, but also includes communications at a distance
the appearance of domesticated plants is taken to be the end of one great cultural period and the beginning of another. The period that ends with the beginning of domestication is called the
Paleolithic
C. Wright Mills
Professor of sociology at Colombia and wrote the book The Power Elite in which he introduces the elite theory which says is a theory of the state which seeks to describe and explain the power relationships in contemporary society.
Patterns of Behavior
Recurring characteristics or events
Functions
Refer to the beneficial consequences of people's actions: Functions help keep a group (society, social system) in balance
The theory of common ancestry holds that
Similar species are descended from a common ancestor
Basic sociology
Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology.
Macrosociology
Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations
Microsociology
Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means
Basic/Pure Sociology
Sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Sociology as a separate science on the grounds that it has both an object (patterned reularities as a group distinct from that of individuals) and a substratum (society as a whole).
The panda's elongated wrist bone or "thumb" would be explained by Darwin's theory in which of the following way/s
Some pandas had "thumbs" of different lengths, and in a new environment those with longer "thumbs" were better able to survive and produce offspring
Harriet Martineau
Studied American society in depth and was an advocate for slaves, women's rights, and wrote extensive analyses of social life. Also, translated August Comte's ideas into English.
Science
The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation
Social capital
The collective benefit of social networks to a person, which are built on reciprocal trust
Social Integration
The degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion
Social Location
The group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society
Globalization
The growing interconnections among nations due to the expansion of capitalism
Dysfunctions
The harmful consequences of people's actions, they undermine a system's equilibrium
Natural Sciences
The intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environments
Subjective Meanings
The meanings that people give their own behavior
Replication
The repetition of a study in order to test its findings
Nonverbal communication
The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and postures
Values
The standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly
Natural science
The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change
Applied Sociology
The use of sociology to solve problems - from the micro level of classroom interaction and family relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution
Clinical sociology
The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions.
Applied sociology
The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations
Value Free
The view that a sociologist's personal values or beliefs should not influence social research
Globalization
The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas
What makes sociology different from anthropology, economists/political scientists, and psychologists?
They focus primarily on industrialized and postindustrialized societies, they do not concentrate on a single social institution, and they stress factors external to the individual to determine what influences people and how they adjust to life.
Common Sense
Those things that "everyone knows" are true
Sociological Perspective
Understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context. Stresses the social contexts in which people live.
Objectivity
Value neutrality in research
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Verstehen; Protestant Catholicism "produced the spirit of the modern form of industrial capitalism.
Critical Theory
a contemporary form on conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression
When anthropologists distinguished between "culture" and "cultures" they were distinguishing between ___________ and _______________.
a defining attribute of human beings / ways of life of specific groups of people
Society
a group of people who shape their lives in aggregated and patterned ways that distinguish their group from other groups
stigma
a mark of social disgrace
Structural Functionalism
a paradigm that begins with the assumption that society is a unified whole that functions because of the contributions of its separate structures
Modernism
a paradigm that places trust in the power of science and technology to create progress, solve problems, and improve life
Conflict Theory
a paradigm that sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change, and emphasize a materialist's view of society, a critical view of the status quo, and a dynamic model a historical change
Postmodernism
a paradigm that suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux
role conflict
a person with statuses that contradict.
Socialism
a political system based on state ownership or control of principal elements of the economy in order to reduce levels of social inequality
Communism
a political system based on the collective ownership of the means of production; opposed to capitalism
Scientific Method
a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment
Bureaucracy
a rationally designed organizational model whose goal it is to perform complex tasks as efficiently as possible.
a ritual that serves to mark the movement and transformation of an individual from one social position to another is called
a rite of passage
gentrificatioin
a rundown section of a city has been repaired and revitalized and das become attractive to a middle class population.
Paradigms
a set of assumption, theories, and perspective that make up a way of understanding social reality
Structure
a social institution that is relatively stable over time and that meets the needs of society by performing functions necessary to maintain social order and stability
Conversation analysis
a sociological approach that looks at how we create that looks at how we create meanings in naturally occurring conversation, often by taping conversations and examining them
Ideology
a system a beliefs, attitudes, and values that direct a society and reproduces the status quo of the bourgeoisie
caste system
a system of stratification where groups are strictly ranked on the basis of thnic group.
Feminist Theory
a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequalities in society and the way that gender structures the social world
Symbolic Interactionism
a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with each other.
Pragmatism
a theoretical perspective that assumes organisms (including humans) make practical adaptions to their environments. Humans do this through cognition, interpretation, and interaction
Deconstruction
a type of critical post-modern analysis that involves taking apart dissembling old way of thinking
The Chicago School
a type of sociology practiced by researches at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 30s which centered on urban sociology and fired research methods
in the Hindu ranking of jatis, in terms of purity and pollution, which of the following activities is the least polluting?
a vegetarian diet
social mobility
ability of a given individual or group to move through social levels.
The role women play in food procurement in contemporary foraging societies suggests that a unique skill in the earliest human societies was the
ability of women to arrange their reproductive lives around the demand of their food-gathering activities
Nonmaterial culture
abstract terms for defining, describing, explaining, clarifying....what they do & how they live (languages, ideas, belief systems, rules, customs, politics).
Metaphysical stage of scientific development
abstract, human nature
kinship relationships based primarily on nurturance are examples of
adoption
the systematic modification of the environments of plants and animals to increase their productivity and usefulness is called
agriculture
Participant observation
aka field research, researcher is part of the group he/she is studying.
which of the following is an example of redistribution?
all of the above
which of the following statements correctly presents a position taken by those whose language is dying? (1) some parents care less about preserving their dying language than they do about making sure their children become literate in a world language (2) some indigenous groups are concerned that loss of language will mean loss of access to traditional sources of religious power (3) some indigenous speakers would not like to see what was once a fully functioning mode of communication reduced to nothing but ceremonial use
all of the above
the French approach to multiculturalism is characterized by the promise to immigrants of
all the rights and privileges of native-born citizens as long as the adopt French culture and language
Status set
all the statuses of a person. ie: wife, mother, teacher, coworker)
Secondary socialization
an additional socialization experience into a new sector of society by an already socialized person.
Midrange theory
an approach that integrates empiricism and grand theory
when artifacts and structures from a particular time and place are grouped together, they are called
an assemblage
peer group
an association of self-selected equals
Capitalism
an economic system based on private ownership
Micro-Level Analysis
an examination of small-scale patterns of society; such as how the members of a group interact.
Means of Production
anything that can create wealth; money, properly, factories, and other types of businesses, and the infrastructure necessary to run them
Beginner's Mind
approaching the world without preconceptions in order to see things in a new way
all material objects constructed by humans or near-humans revealed by archaeology are considered part of the
archaeological record
The major specialty within anthropology that involved analysis of the material remains of the human past is
archaeology
a cultural anthropology of the human past focusing on material evidence of human modification of the physical environment is called
archaeology
Mores
are Norms of such moral & ethical importance as to be punishable by institutionalization.
ranked groups within a hierarchically stratified society that are closed, prohibiting individuals to move from one rank to another,
are castes
Agricultural societies
are more complex than horticultural & pastoral societies in the level of technology used to support crops.
Cultural universals
are the basic elements essential to idevidual and collective survival.
Folkways
are the usual customes and conventions of everyday life. differs from values in the lack of a moral component) antonym: eccentric.
play with form producing some aesthetically successful transformation-representation is a definition of
art
objects that have been deliberately and intelligently shaped by human or near-human activity are called
artifacts
negative correlation
as one increases the other decreases.
the social positions assigned to people at birth are
ascribed status
democratic
authority ultimately lies with the people.
a small, egalitarian social grouping whose members neither farm no herd but depend on wild food resource is called a
band
class system
based on achievement
traditional authority
based on sacred customs (blood lines)
Empirical
based on scientific experimental or observation
the hijras of Gujarat, India, are an example of a supermumerary sex
based on surgical removal of genetalia on adult males
Karl Marx
believed social development grew out of conflict.
the principle that a descent group is formed by people who believe they are related to each other by connections made through their mothers and fathers equally is the
bilateral descent
the traditional concept of race in Western society is
biologically and genetically meaningless
the form of power preoccupied with bodies, both the bodies of citizens and the social body of the state itself, is called
biopowe
Walking on two feet rather than four is called
bipedalism
which of the following statements reflects the way anthropologists understand myth? (1) myths are flawed attempts at science or history (2) myths may justify past action (3) myths are tools for overcoming logical contradictions that cannot otherwise be overcome
both b and c are true
The anthropological research methodology called participant observation is characterized by
both getting involved in social activities and watching those activities
positive correlation
both variables either go up or down.
the substinence strategy based on collecting a wide range of plants and animals by hunting, fishing, and gathering is
broad-spectrum foraging theory
the ritualist
bureauscrat who is more concernedwith following the rules and keeping his job than personal achievement.
achieved status
by choice, (husband, rock star, english major...)
Master Status
by which a person is most identified. (its the most important)
in an ethnically stratified society, ambitious individuals and groups
can manipulate ethnicity as a resource to pursue their interests
an economic system dominated by the supply-demand-price mechanism called the "market" is
capitalism
the way of life that grew in response to and in service of the "market" is referred to as
capitalism
emergent-norm theory
certain individuals construct new norms that are quickly adopted by the collective. (rocks/copycat)
a society in which one person and his or her relatives have privileged access to wealth, power, and prestige is called a
chiefdom
hierarchically arranged social groups defined on economic grounds are called
classes
ranked groups within a hierarchically stratified society whose membership is defined primarily in terms of wealth, occupation, or other economic criteria are called
classes
ranked groups within a hierarchically stratified society whose membership is defined primarily in terms of wealth, occupation, or other economic criteria is the text's definition of
classes
in the traditional view, what is the difference between classes and castes?
classes are open; castes are closed
when individuals belonging to upper and lower levels in a stratified society are linked socially, anthropologists call their relationship
clientage
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
coined the term "class" in which people are organized in social ranks.
a system of social identities negotiated situationally along a continuum between white and black is called
colorism
according to the text, a central theme in multicultural debates within Europe is
coming to terms with increasing numbers of Muslims living in countries where Christianity has been dominant
impersonal economic exchanges typical of the capitalist market in which goods are exchanged for cash are called
commodity exchanges
the transfer of info from one person to another human is
communication
metacommunication refers to
communication about communication
the ability of native speakers of a language to use words in ways that are socially and culturally appropriate is called
communicative competence
Archaeologists are coming to agree that domestication was everywhere invented by
complex foragers living in areas of relatively abundant resources
societies with large populations, an extensive division of labor, and occupational specialization are known as
complex societies
structure
composed of positions, roles, groups, and institutions.
role strain
conflicting expectations exist for a status. (a teacher being friends with students outside the classroom)
material culture
consists of things that people attach meaning to and use: cars, clothing, books, and burial sites
the stage in human-animal relationships that is characterized by selective hunting of herds is called
controlled hunting
Strain theory
crime as the result of structural constraints, blocking means for achievement.
cultural transmission theory
crime is learned through cultural norms.
to argue that "their culture made them do it" is to take the position of
cultural determinism
understanding another culture sympathetically enough so that it appears to be a coherent and meaningful design for living is called
cultural relativism
sets of learned behavior and ideas that human beings acquire as members of society, together with the material artifacts and structures humans create and use, is an anthropological definition of
culture
the human condition is distinguished from the condition of other living species by
culture
False Consciousness
denial of the truth on the part of the oppressed when they fail to recognize the interest of the ruling class in their ideolgy
the principle based on culturally recognized parent-child connections that define the social categories to which people belong is called
descent
which of the following observations about kinship is stressed by the authors of the text?
different societies have chosen to highlight some features of the universal human experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance, while downplaying or ignoring others
primary group
direct interaction, with intimate warm and personal relationships.
informal sanction
direct social pressure from those around us to conform.
Resocialization
discarding previous behaviors for new ones as part of a transition in life. (becoming a parent, for example)
a stretch of speech longer than a sentence united by a common theme is a
discourse
Culture Shock
disorientation that occurs when you enter a radically new social or cultural environment
serial monogamy
divorce...rmarriage.
"primitive" human languages
do not exist
human interference with the reproduction of another species, with the result that specific plants and animals become more useful to people and dependent on them, is called
domesticaton
masses
don't have to be in proximity to each other, just have similar goals.
Functionalism
each part of a society serves a function necessary for the survival of the system as a whole.
the part of the discipline of anthropology that debates issues of human nature that relates directly to the decision of daily life and making a living is
economic anthropology
social relations in which no great differences in wealth, power, or prestige divide members from one another are called
egalitarian social relations
Peter's Principle
employee's are promoted until they reach a position in which they cannot work competantly
the process by which human beings living together with one another must learn to come to terms with the ways of thinking and feeling considered appropriate in their respective cultures is
enculturation
social control
ensures that people conform to norms.
social groups that are distinguished from one another on the basis of cultural features such as language, religion, or dress are referred to as
ethnic groups
a principle of social classification that creates groups on the basis of a set of distinctive cultural criteria that people in the group are believed to share is referred to as
ethnicity
the opinion that one's own way of life is natural or correct and the only true way of being fully human is called
ethnocentrism
A description of a particular culture is called an
ethnography
control theory
everyone deviates.
The claim that "living species can change over time and give rise to new kinds of organisms, with the result that all organisms ultimately share a common ancestry" is central to which theory?
evolutionary theory
the systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through removal of deposits of soil and other material covering them and accompanying them is called
excavation
roles
expected behavior for a status.
W.E.B. Du Bois
first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard. Founded the NAACP. Taught Sociology at Atlanta University.
power=conflict theory of prejudice
focuses on the power dynamics between those who are prejudiced and those who are against prejudice.
association
formed of the basis of common interest or agreement.
Sigmund Freud
founder of psychoanalysis, and considered biological needs as the human drive; socialization and repression forms personality (ego, superego, id).
August Comte
founder of sociology. He analyzed the bases of social order.
a cognitive boundary that marks certain behaviors as "play" or "ordinary life" is called
framing
the freedom of self-contained individuals to pursue their own interests about everything else and to challenge one another for dominance is known as
free agency
which of the following terms do anthropologists use to refer to the cultural construction of beliefs and behaviors considered appropriate for males and females in a particular society?
gender
if the distinctiveness of male and female characteristics can be used to make concrete people's ideas about the nature of social relations, then
gendered forms of inequality can be used to structure relations between different categories of men
Deductive theory
general ideas used to form logical, testable theories.
Conflict
generated by the competition between different class groups for scare resources and the source of all social changes, according to Karl Marx
noncapitalist forms of economic exchange that are deeply embedded in social relations and always require reciprocity are called
gift exchanges
the actions taken by many contemporary nation-states to identify the level of terrorist threats, take action to stop them, and institute policies to minimize damage and disruption in the even of a terrorist attack would be considered examples of
governmentality
the art of governing appropriately to promote the welfare of populations within a state is the art of
governmentality
the set of rules that aim to describe fully the patterns of linguistic usage observed by members of a particular speech community is called
grammar
A single hierarchy of all organisms, each differing slightly from the ones above it and below it, was known as
great chain of being
the sensing method that reflects pulsed radar waves off features below the surface is called
ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
those parts of culture that are absorbed in the course of daily practical learning are called
habitus
the social category of race
has real consequences, even if it has no reality in biology
closed systems
have clear, rigid, and impermeable boundaries between classes.
control variable
held constant
many anthropologists accept that ethnicity is created by
historic processes
The foramen magnum is the
hole at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes on its way to the brain
the "Neanderthals" are
hominin fossils from Europe and western Asia that apparently evolved from an earlier population of archaic Homo sapiens about 130,000 yrs ago
Primates that walk on two feet are now called
hominins
self-rationalization
how an official observes & calculates how he/she must change their personality to meet the 'market's' demand.
structural functionalist perspective
how society's parts fit together to maintain stability.
the exercise of at least some control over their lives by human beings is called
human agency
Symbolic interaction
human beings shape their world and are shaped by social interaction.
In the textbook, anthropology is defined as the study of
human nature, human society, and the human past
Systematic sampling
i.e. every 50th person in the phone book is selected, thus assuring everyone in the in the population is guaranteed the same chance of being selected for study.
values
ideals and goals.
a worldview that justifies the social arrangements under which people live is called
ideology
Theories
in sociology, abstract proposition that explain the social world and make predication about the future
group conformity
individual compliance with group goals.
To say that anthropology is a field-based discipline means that
info about particular social groups comes through direct contact with them anthropology is based on experience with other ways of life, and the experience of being in the field is central to modern anthro.
postindustrial
information is created, processed, and stored.
Primary socialization
initial socialization that a child receives.
complex, variable, and enduring forms of cultural practice that organize social life are called
institutions
complex, variable, and enduring forms of cultural practices that organize social life are called
institutions
Secondary groups
interaction is anonymous, impersonal, and short-lived.
primary sector of economy
involves the extraction of raw materials & resources.
secondary sector
involves turning the raw materials into manufactured goods.
sect
is a cult minus the charismatic leader.
ascribed status
is a label by which a person is identified without choice. (son, widower, american indian...)
communal relationship
is formed on the basis that "they belong together"
characteristic intitution
kin/clan/siblings now known as a bureaucracy.
which of the following distinguishes a bilateral kindred from a lineage?
kindreds have overlapping memberships, whereas lineages don't
social relationships that are derived from the universal human experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance are called
kinship
the activity linking human social groups to the material world around them is referred to as
labor
the system of arbitrary symbols used to encode one's experience of the world and of other is
language
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf believed that
language has the power to shape the way people see the owrld
language, like culture, is
learned, coded in symbols, and shared
culture is defined as being
learned, shared, and symbolic
the ability of native speakers of a language to distinguish correctly between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences is called
linguistic competence
the scientific study of language is known as
linguistics
religion
linked with ethics, personality, historical condition, & theodicy.
nuclear family
made up of extended family members.
a set of beliefs and practices designed to control the visible or invisible world for specific purposes is called
magic
looting archaeological sites
makes any scientific analysis of a site impossible
Some anthropologists have claimed that meat eating was the crucial behavioral change leading to the appearance of early Homo. This story of human origins is called the
man the hunter scenario
governmentality can best be understood as a way to
manage individuals, goods, and wealth
the exchange of goods calculated in terms of a multipurpose medium of exchange and standard of value carried out by means of a supply-demand-price mechanism is called
market exchange
the institution that transforms the status of the participants, carries implications about permitted sexual access and the position of offspring in the society, and establishes new kin connections is
marriage
rigid endogamy
marriage within one's only group.
a unilineage can be
matrilineal or patrilineal
In a world in which people from different cultural backgrounds come into contact with one another for extended periods, anthropology offers a
means of learning to cope with cultural differences
group think
members begin to think simalarly and develop a narrow view
pluralist movement
minority groups try to maintain their own distinctive cultural features.
patterns according to which distribution takes place, such as reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange, are referred to as
modes of exchange
group marriage
more than one of each.
the term anthropologists use for stories that recount how various aspects of the world came to be the way they are is
myths
a group of people believed to share the same history, culture, language, and even physical substance constitute a
nation
an ideal political unit in which national identity and political territory coincide is known as a
nation-state
Darwin's theory that the "fitter" survive and reproduce more offspring, which then inherit the trais that made their parents "fitter", is called
natural selection
deliberate representations of particular identities as if they were a result of biology or nature, rather than history or culture, thus making them appear eternal and unchanging, are known as
naturalizing discourses
the deliberate representations of particular identities such as caste, race, or nation as if they were the result of biology or nature, rather than history or culture, are called
naturalizing discourses
when an organism actively perturbs the environment or when it actively moves into a different environment, it is engaging in
niche construction
"art by intention" includes
objects that are made to be art
profane
objects, persons, & behaviors capable of being understood and altered.
Unobtrusive observation
observation from a distance.
Labeling theory
one is labeled & defined as a criminal
according to the text, play displays which of the following concepts in linguistics and cognition?
openness
George Herbert Mead
originated the field of social psychology.
when myths and related beliefs that are taken to be self-evident truths are highly codified and deviation from the code is considered a serious matter, we may call this
orthodoxy
Bourgeoisie
owners; the class of modern capitalists who own the means of production and employ wage labors
in the vocabulary of kinship studies, father's brother's children or mother's sister's children are called
parallel cousins
social group
people interact with one another in an orderly fashion.
aggregate
people who happen tho be in the same place at the same time
social category
people with certain characteristics in common
Countercultures
people/cultures whose values, beliefs, and ways of life do not conform to the norm. Characterized by unconventional or eccentric behavior.
in traditional Western thought, the prototype of power in human social relations is based on
physical coercion
a language with no native speakers that develops in a single generation between members of communities that possess distinct native languages is a
pidgin
Positive stage of scientific development
pinnacle of social development, society governed by reliable knowledge and understood by facts. (When people can predict and change their own destinies.)
the study of social power in human society is called
political anthropology
A contemporary cultural anthropologist is likely to study
political institutions in a village in another country, kinship systems in an urban setting, patterns of material life in his/her own society
in recent years, the anthropology of politics has addressed questions about
power and inequality
the study of the way speakers of a language actually use the language to communicate with one another is called
pragmatics
formal sanction
pressure to conform that is enforced by a formal institution
religious practitioners skilled in the practice of religious rituals, which they can carry out for the benefit of the group, are known as
priests
Socialization
process in which we learn to be members of society and develop a personality.
tertiary sector
provides services in areas such as health, & education.
the human population category whose boundaries allegedly correspond to distinct sets of biological attributes is
race
Natural selection acts on
randomly produced variation
the exchange of goods and services of equal value is called
reciprocity
the mode of exchange that requires some form of centralized social organization to receive economic contributions from all members of the groups and to allocate them in such a way as to provide for every member of the group is called
redistribution
Cultural Relativism
refers to scientists' efforts to be objective in their observations by avoiding attaching meaning to observations, only why and how.
sociocultural evolution
refers to the tendency for society as a system to become more complex over time.
The socially recognized ties that connect people in a variety of different ways are called
relatedness
the social connections linking human beings who engage in different production tasks and who must work together are called
relations of production
the ideas and practices that postulate reality beyond that which is immediately available to the senses are known in anthropology as
religion
"The Elementary Forms of Religious life" (durkheim)
religion as a means of validation the existance of society.
Theological stage of scientific development
religious view
Qualitative methods
relying on personal observation and description to explain behavior.
cultural relativism
requires us to take many things into account before we form opinions about other cultural practices
Totalitarian
rulers have no limits to their power.
authoritarian gov
rulers tolerate little of no opposition to their rule.
Norms
rules whose violation results in some form of punishment.
the process of increasingly permanent human habitation in one place is called
sedentism
authoritarian-personality theory of prejudice
sees prejudice as stemming from certain personality characteristics.
According to the text, culture consists of
sets of learned behaviors and ideas that human beings acquire as members of society, together with the material artifacts and structures that human beings create and use
which of the following terms do anthropologists use to refer to the observable physical characteristics that distinguish the two kinds of human beings, male and female, needed for human biological reproduction?
sex
part-time religious practitioners who are believed to have the power to travel or contact supernatural forces directly on the behalf of individuals or groups are known as
shamans
fad
short-term obsessions with a behavior that is unexpected and widely copied like streaking.
a precise geographical location of the remains of past human activity is an archaeological
site
cult
small group of followers with a charismatic leader.
Iron law of Oligarchy
small number of specialists hold sway over the entire organization.
Culture is
social heritage of beliefs, customs, skills, traditions, and knowledge that members pass on to one another.
the patterning of human interdependence in a given society through the actions and decisions of its members is called
social organization
the process by which human beings, as material organisms living together with other similar organisms, cope with the behavioral rules established by their respective societies is called
socialization
symbolic interatction
society is the result of an individual's interactions
Normative theory of prejudice
states that individuals become prejudiced when such attitudes are so ingrained in their society's norms and values that they get passed on from generation to generation without question.
a person's social position in a group is that person's
status
social stratification
structured inequality (our place among the ranks)
Robert Merton
studied at Colombia University and was a major proponent of functionalism one of the main theoretical perspectives in Sociology. Coined the terms manifest, latent functions and dysfunctions which added to the functional perspective.
Survey method
subjects are asked about their opinions, beliefs, or behavior, such as how they have behaved in the past or how they intend to behave in the future, in a series of questions.
the physical examination of a geographical region in which promising sites are most likely to be found is
survey archaeology
something that stands for something else is
symbol
the study of the various processes that affect the formation of a particular site, explaining how certain objects in that site (such as bones or stone tools) came to be where they are found, is called
taphonomy
Mechanical Solidarity
term developed by Emil Durkheim to describe the type of social bonds present in premodern, agrarian societies, in which shared traditions and beliefs created a sense of social cohesion
Organic Solidarity
term developed by Emile Durkeim to describe the type of social bonds present in modern societies, based on difference, interdependence, and individual rights
Evolutionary theory is based on a set of
testable hypothesis
Rationalization
the application of economic logic to human activity; the use of formal rules and regulations in order to maximize efficiency without consideration of subjective or individual concerns
Social Darwinism
the application of the theory of evolution and the notion of "survival of the fittest" to the study of society
Ethnocentrism
the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture.
which of the following is a topic of interest to political anthropologists?
the classification and evolution of political system, the structure and functions of political systems, and the modernization of formerly tribal societies
Solidarity
the degree on integration or unity within a particular society, the extent to which individuals feel connected to other members of their group
Social Integration
the degree to which members of a group or society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion.
Social Sciences
the disciplines that use the scientific method to examine the social world, in contrast to the natural sciences, which examine the physical world
Thesis
the existing social arrangements in a dialectal model
linguistic determinism holds that
the grammars of people's native languages determine how they think about the world
Sacred
the holy, divine, or supernatural
Latent Functions
the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure
Micro-sociology
the level of analysis that studies face-to-face and small-group interactions in order to understand how to affect the larger patterns and institutions of society
Macro-sociology
the level of analysis that studies large-scale social structures in order to determine how they affect the lives of groups and individuals
The principle which asserts that language has the power to shape the way people see the world is
the linguistic relativity principle
suburbanization
the movement of people to areas surrounding the urban region.
Synthesis
the new social system created out the conflict between thesis and antithesis in a dialectical model
Manifest Functions
the obvious, intended functions of a social structure for the social system
Antithesis
the opposition to the existing arrangements in a dialectical model
Profane
the ordinary, mundane, or everyday
research by political anthropologists has led to a reconsideration of
the political role of the state, the political role of kinship, and traditional Western notions about human natrre
In your text, evolution is defined as
the process of change over time
Disenchantment
the rationalization of modern society
Class Consciousness
the recognition of social inequality on the part of the oppressed, leasing to revolutionary action
Alienation
the sense of dissatisfaction the modern worker feels as a result of producing goods that are owned and controlled by someone else, according to Marx
Collective Conscience
the shared morals and beliefs that are common to a group and which foster social solidarity
Ethnomethodology
the study of "folk methods" and background knowledge that sustain a shared sense of reality in everyday interactions
Content Analysis
the study of recorded human communication such as books, paintings, and laws.
Sociology
the systematic or scientific study of human society and social behavior, from large- scale institutions and mass culture to small groups and individual interactions
Eurocentric
the tendency to favor European or Western histories, cultures, and values over other non-Western societies
Positivism
the theory, developed by Auguste Comte, that sense perceptions are the only valid source of knowledge
Culture includes
the tools we use, the rules we live by, the ideals to which we are committed, and the ideas we express.
Social Inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society
Cultural Variability
the variety of things human beings have devised to meet their needs.
Hawthorne Effect
the very presence of a researcher affects the subject's behavior.
to an archaeologist, which of the following would be considered a feature at an archaeological site?
the wall of a house
social structure
the way in which people's relatioins in society are arranged to form a network
Studying material culture is important to anthropologists because
the way people deal with artifacts is shaped by the cultural meanings people attach to those artifacts AND the same object can mean different things to different people
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)
theory of the genesis of the mind and self. The outcome of socialization is the ability to anticipate the reactions of others and to adjust our behavior accordingly.
a kindred is composed of
those people linked to Ego through Ego's mother and Ego's father
In Darwinian terms, who are the fit?
those who reproduce and replace themselves
a society generally larger than a band, whose members usually farm for a living, is a
tribe
the anthropological definition of cultural relativism requires that we make an effort to _______ the practices of other cultures
understand
Deviance
unexpected behavior.
in Haiti, gender relations are incorporated into the nature of the state, such that
until recently, women who married foreigners lost their Haitian citizenship
Horticultural and pastoral societies
use domestic animals and hand tools to cultivate plants for their source of food.
Quantitative methods
use statistical and mathematical techniques of measurement to describe and interpret observations.
industrial societies
uses complex machinery and energy sources are used for production.
Stratified sampling
uses the differences that already exist in a population, such as between males and females, as the basis for selecting a sample. (f/m = % in the given population)
Inductive theory
using concrete observations to form general conclusions through a process of reasoning.
Secondary analysis
using information gained from past recorded experiments. (like official government statistics)
spurious relationship
variables appear to be related but are actually related to a third vaiable which explains both of them.
Conflict paradigm
views society as being characterized by conflict and inequality. (Whose interests are expressed, and who benefits/suffers from social arrangements).
craze
wanting something because everyone else has it
play communicates about _________; ritual communicates about ___________.
what can be; what ought to be
convergence theory
when a # of like-minded individuals converge, they are likely to generate a collective action.
relative mobility
when the son's education, occupational prestige, and income exceeds that of his father.
the unconscious
where the unpleasant, or perhaps antisocial memories of experience are stored.
Interpretive Sociology
whereby humans attach meaning to their lives and shape their actions based upon both the real and anticipated responses of others.
fashion
widely held beliefs, styles, and attitudes toward dress, hair, music....
artists in non-western societies
work with symbols that are of central importance to their societies
Proletariat
workers; those who have no means of production of their own and so are reduced to selling their labor power in order to live
