IO PSYCH MT 2

Motivation

-Concerns conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality and direction of ongoing behavior

Rating Formats

-Graphic Rating Scales-Graphic Display of performance scores runs from high on one end to low on the other end. Usually have poor dimension definitions or poorly described scale anchor points. -Checklists- List of behaviors presented to a rater that then marks off items that best describe ratee. Weighted checklists- includes items that have values or weights assigned to them that are derived form the expert judgement of incumbents and supervisors of position in questions. Forced Choice- Requires rater to choose two statements out of four that describe ratee. Behavioral Rating-Rating format that includes behavioral anchors describing what worker has done, or might be expected to do in particular duty area. Tends to promote more strategic focus on performance improvement. Might take months to develop an effective set of scales. Behavioral Observation Scales- It's better to have raters evaluate what someone actually did rather than what they might do. Asks how frequenly an employee has been seen to act in a certain way.

Electronic Performance Monitoring

-Monitoring with eelctronic devices and can be very cost effective. Has potential for providing detailed and accurate work logs. Only positive perceived by employee if: -Believes activities monitored are job relevant -Able to participate in design/implentation of system -Able to delay or prevent monitoring at particular times -Advance warning that it will happen Must be used carefully or can demoralize staff.

Performance Evaluation and Culture

5 Dimensions of Culture might affect performance evals. Example: Modesty bias- Raters give themselves lower ratings thatn warratned because of high power distance in culture.

Rater Training

Administrative training- Important for uncommon rating systems. Building a consensus among raters about meaning of dimension headings. Pscyhometric training- Aware of common rating errors to reduce liklihood. Frame of Reference Training- Rater needs context for providing rating. Four steps-Providing info about multidimensional nature of performance, making sure understand meaning of anchors, engaging in practice rating exercises and providing feedback on exercises.

Utility Analysis

Assesses economic return on investment of HR interventions like staffing or training. Utility analysis can address the cost/benefit ratio of one staffing strategy versus another Base rate- percentage of current workforce performing sucessfully. If high, no need for new staffing system. Unfairness can lead to: Lawsuits, formal grievances and counterproductive behavior

Conceptual Issues in Staffing-Staffing Decisions

Associated with recruiting, selecting, promoting & separatings employees.

Concept of Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal. Developed and increased by: Mastery experiences, Modeling, Social persuasion, & physiological states. Action Theory (Rubicon Theory)- Theory that includes broad consideration of the role of intention in motivated behavior as well as the connection between intention and action. Predecisional- Examining one's desires in order to determine which desire is the strongest and most feasible to attain Postdecisional- Planning and developing strategies for successful action. Actional-Actually expending effort to achieve the desired outcome Evaluative- Comparing what was achieved to what was desired. Action Process-Process that starts with a goal, proceeds to a consideration of events that may occur in the future, and then progresses to the development of several alternative plans., the selection of a plan, the execution and monitoring of the chosen plan, and the processing of information resulting from the execution of the plan. The last step, feedback, then influences the goal development once again. Action Structure- Structure that includes the notion that Observable action is the result of a number of prior events and plans, hierahcally arranged and the feedback at resulting regulation of actions occur at different levels. Action theoriest more concerend with action over motivation. COMMON THEMES: Intention plays a key role. Concept of feedback is critical. Person as scientist, self assesmsent and non-cognitive element.

Rating Distortions

Central tendency error- Raters choose middle point on scale to describe performance even though more extreme may better describe it. Leniency/severity error- Unusuaully weighted Halo Error- Same rating assigned to an individual on a seriies of dimensions, causing ratings all to be similar. Lack of identification of strengths and weaknesses.

Selection vs Placement and Deselection

Challenge is placing individual rather than selecting. The process of matching multiple applicans and muliple job openings. Using Vocational guidance, Pure Selection, Cut and Fit Deselection- Two typical situations. Termination for Cause- Fired for a reason, not unexpected. Layoffs- Job loss due to downsizing or reductions in force. Often occurs with little to no warning. Best to use statistical rule to fire people than judgment.

Combining Information

Clinical Decision Making- Uses judgment to combine information and to make a decision about the relative value of different candidates or applicants. Tend to be unreliable and idiosyncratic. Statistical Decision Making- method combines information according to a mathematical formula. Compensatory system-Good score on one test can compensate for lower score on another test. Hurdle System-Noncompensatory strategy in which an individual has no opportunity to compensate at a later assessment stage for a low score in an earlier stage of assessment process Multiple Hurdle System- Strategy constructed from multiple hurdles so that candidates who do not exceed each of minimum dimensional scores are excluded from further considerations. Constructed sequentially, more expensive hurdles are placed later on, used to narrow extremely large applicant pools. Can also use multiple regression. Cross validation on R^2 Score Banding- Approach in which individuals with similar test scores are grouped together.Standard error of measurement. Very controversial. Fixed Band system- candidates in lower band not considered at all until higher band is exhausted. Sliding Band- Permits band to be moved down a score pint when highest score in band is exhausted. SUBGROUP NORMING IS ILLEGAL. Using seperate lists for individuals in different demographic groups.

Staffing Model

Comprehensiveness- Enough high quality information about candidates to predict likelihood of success. Compensatory Selection- Candidates can compensate for relative weakness in one attribute through strength in another one, providing both are required for job.

Motivational Interventions

Contigent Rewards-Good at individual behaviors. Job Enrichment-Motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs. 5 Different factors: Skill variety-Number of skills required to perform task scuessfully, Task identity-the relevance of job with clear beginning middle and end, task significance-Percieved importance of job for organization or society as a whole, Autonomy-Extent to which individual worker can control schedules procedures and like, and Task Feedback.-Review Promes-Productivity Measurement and Enrichment System: a motivational approach that utlizies goal setting, rewards, and feedback to increase motivation and performance. 7 Steps: 1)Forming a design team 2) Identifying objectives 3)Identifying indicators 4)Defining contigencies 5)Designing the feedback system 6)Giving and responding to feedback 7) Monitoring the system

Uses for Performance Information

Criterion Data-Correlating if performance data predicts successful performance Employee Devlopment-Create plans to fix weaknesses Motivation/satisfaction-Are people achieving their standards? Rewards-Salary inc and bonuses Promotion or Layoffs Three types: OBJECTIVE, PERSONNEL and JUDGMENTAL Data

Generation Differences

Dfined by group members who share birth years and significant life events. Younger employees more "me" oriented, Value pride in work less than baby boomers, Less important, less idealized.

Brief history of Motivation theory

First theories achorned motivation in notions of instincs (Freud)... The inborn tendency that is thought to direct behavior. Instinct was gradually replaced with terms such as need (internal motivation that is thought to be inborn and universally present in humans), motives, Drive (nonhuman equivalent of motives and needs) Behaviorist Approach- Emphasis of behavior was from the environment rather than any internal needs. Field theory-Approach by Lewin that various forces i npsychological environment interacted and combined to yield a final course of action. Gropu dynamics-when applied to industry.

Performance Evaluation and Law

Ford and forced distribution rating system: Forced to place managers in performance categories based on pre determined percentages. JUDGES PRIMARILY CONCERNED WITH ISSUES OF FAIRNESS. Not the technical characterisitics. Lawsuits most often brought against trait based systems- Ratings are subjective, have no bases in actual dehavior. research suggest performance evaluations do not dsicriminate against protected subgroups.

Impact of Staffing Practices on Firm Performance

High performance work practices- Practices that include use of formal job analyses selection from within for key positions, merit-based promotions and use of formal assessment devices for selection. Staffing practices have postive associations with firm performance

Motivation Lecture

Humans are irrational. Succesful theories of motivation must incorporate both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. "It Depends" Goal Setting theory- Goals themseleves are motivating. To improve motivation, figure out how to set the right goals. The more challenging the goal, the better the predicted performance. Control Theory- Motivation emerges with postive outcome of self regulator process. To improve process, get better feedback, particulalary discrepacny between expected and recieved feeback! Action Theory-High perofrmance is not the result of effort, but of a concrete implementation plan. Understanding is more important than motivation. Cross cultural differences- Goal setting, in collectviist cultures, modest achievable goals are more motivating than difficult goals. Importance of autonomy can vary as well. Some people have preference for interesting work compared to more pay Self-Determiniation theory- Emphasis on autonomy, mastery. Explains why external rewards can sometimes lead to decreased performance. External rewards work best when there is less intrinsic motivation to begin with. Algorithmic Work- Method and outcome are known Heuristic work: outcome unkown, can require creativity.

Overall Performance Ratings

Influenced by 3 factors: -Task Performance-Proficiency with which job incuments perform activities that are formally recognized as part of their job -Contextual Performance (Organizational Citizenship Behavior- Going beyond what is expected -Counter Productive Performance- Violates orgnizational norms and threatens well being of organization. Trait Ratings- WARNING, more likely to go on court. Can't really measure traits. Task-Based Ratings-Direct extension of job analysis and easily defended in court. Critical Incidents Methods-Examples of critical behaviors that influence performance. OCB and Adaptive Performance Ratings- New research being done in this field. Structural Characteristics of Performance Rating Scale-Three Characteristics of rating scales: -Extent t owhich duty being rated is behaviorally defined -Extent to which meaning of response categories is defined -Degree that person interpreting ratings can understand reponse that rater intended.

Motivational Theories: Person-as Machine theories

Internal Mechanical Theory- Maslow's needs. Internal mechanical theory- All humans have basic set of needs that express themselves over life span of individual as internal pushes or drives. Physiological-Basic needs. Security- Secure enviornment. Love or social needs- Desire to be accepted by others. Esteem needs- Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities . Self Actualization- Developing capabilities to fullest. Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating at. Group of workers may all functioning at different need levels. Alternates to Maslows- Herzberg two factor theory- Only 2 basic needs. The needs are independent, not hiearachary. Hygiene Needs- Physical and Security Needs Motivator needs- Social, esteem and self actualization needs. Meeting hygiene needs would eliminate dissastisfaction but not stat motivation. ERG Theory- 3 Basic needs. Levels of: -Existence -Relatedness -Growth Has not garnered much support. Reinforcement Theory: External Mechanical theory- Behavior depends on 3 elements:Stimulus, response and reward Contingent reward-Depends on response Intermittent & Continuous Rewards. Intermittent rewards produce higher performance levels.

Employee of Comparison Methods

Involve direct comparison of 1 person w/another Simple ranking- Ranking of employees from top to bottom according to assessed proficiency on some dimension, duty area or standard Paired comparison- Technique in which each employee in a work group or a collection of individuals with the same job title is compared with every other individual in group on various dimensions. (top 10%, middle 80% Makes feedback difficult with rankings because there is no clear standard of performance. Useful in making layoff or downsizing decisions. Difficult in comparing individuals in different groups. CARS- Uses performance levels instead of ability levels.

Staffing from international Perspective

Job descriptions are used universally. Educational qualifications and application forms widely used for initial screening. Interviews & references are common post-screening techniques Cognitive ability tests used less frequently; personality tests used more.

Number of Decisions to be made

Large Staffing Projects-Cost of testing can be expensive and labor intensive procedures are not feasible. Fariness is also an issue. Standard, well-established and feasible selection strategies are important. Also have to worry about utility, and need to have post training program for missing attributes. Small Staffing Projects- Luxury of using more assessment tools. Adverse Impact is less of an issue. Fariness is still important though and needs to be rational, job releated and feasible.

Stakeholders in staffing process

Line Managers- Seek an accurate, easy to administer and easy to defend staffing process. Line manager is the one who will supervise new addition. Co_workers- Fairness is important.People who survive layoff get guilt. Also important in determing effectiveness of supervisor. Applicants-Want unbiased, job related selection process that demonstrate their potential. Honest and sensitive treatment. timely and informative feedback.

Relationships Among Performance Measures

Low correlations between supervisor rating and objective performance measures. About 20 percent

Metaphors for Motivation

Machine- People's behavior and actions are reflexive and involuntary, performed without conscious awareness. Pushed by internal needs, but pulled by environmental stimuli! Person as Scientist- Reflective rather than Reflexive. Sought knowledge and understanding as a way of mastering their envionrment. People want to know! They intend to do something with the knowledge they have. Howver, people are not rational! Person as Judge- Individual seeks information abut the extent to which the person and others are percieved as responsible fo rpositive and negative events. Person looks for evidence of intention in actions of others and conisders those intentions in choosing a personal course of ation. Limited Rationality-Inability of Humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly rational ways!

Motivation and Entrepreneur

More socially skilled. Higher on self-efficacy and perseverance More likely to set goals related to starting a new business willing to tolerate greater risk. Raised in context of family business.

Meaning and importance of Motivation in Workplace

Motivation and Peformance. Motivation x ability - situational constraints = performance. Motivation and work life balance- Investigates whether satisfaction one experiences at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work and vice versa. Motivation and attitudes- Relatively stable feelings or beliefs directed towar specific persons, groups, ideas or jobs. Include job satisfaction, organizational committment and job invovlement! Motivation and Personality--Consistent relationships exist between personality characteristics and performance motivation. Neuroticism negatively related to performance motivation and conscientiousness positively related to motivation. Locus of control -Extent to which and individuals views events as resulting from his or her own actions. External LOC- less motivated than internal LOC

Social and Legal Context of Performance Evaluation

Motivation to rate- Suggestion s that raters use process as a means to an end, either personal or organizational. Performance appraisal is goal directed with 3 stakeholders Rater Goals-task performance, interpersonal, strategic and internalized Ratee Goals- Infor gathering and dissemenation. Organizational- Between person uses (Salary, promotion), Within-performance( Training needs) Systems-Maintance uses (Org development)

Modern Approaches to work motivation- Person as intentional approach

Motivational Approach that assumes that individuals are intentional in their behavior. Goal Setting theory- Theory proposed by Locke in which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivations. A goal is seen as a motivonal force, and individuals who set specific, difficult goals perform better than indidvudlas who simply adopt "do your best" There is a difference between goal acceptance and goal committment. Feedback loop is also important- Connection between knowledge of results and the intermediate states that occur between goal commitment and performance. Control Theory-Based on principle of feedback loop. Assumes individuals compare a standard to an actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring outcome into agreement with a standard. Questions about goals: Should goals be related to quality or quantity? How difficult? Should rewards be contigent on goal accomplishment? Should every kid get an award? Self-Regulation- Process by which individuals take in information about behavior and make adjustmentsor changes based on that information. These changes in turn will affect subsequent behavior.

Practical Issues in Motivation: Motivaiton can be measured

Motivational Trait Questionnaire: -Measure 6 aspects of general motivation. Desire to learn, master, other referenced goals, competitivness, worry, emotionality Cross cultural issues: In all cultures, differential distribution of rewards, Participation in goal setting and decision making, Design and redesign of jobs and Quality Improvement.

Person as Scientist Theories

Path-goal theory- First formal work motivation theory to suggest that people weighted options before choosing among them. If being productive will lead to greater rewards, likely to be higher producer Vroom's VIE- Theory that assuemed that individuals rationally estimate the relative attractiveness and unatractiveness of different rewards or outcomes (valence) ,the probability that performance will lead to particular outcomes or rewards (instrumentality) and the probabilty that effort will lead to performance (expectancy). Dissonance Theory-Suggests that tension exists when individuals hold incompatible thoughts. Assumes that individuals will always seek some sonse of balance and will direct their behavior toward mantaining that balance. Equity Theory- Individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs & outcomes. Compare their inputs and outcomes to those of comparison others.

Performance Feedback

Problematic when same info used for multiple purposes. Negative feedback, should be stretched over several sessions. Praise-criticism-Praise Sandwich Employees more likely to accept negative feedback if he/she believes: -Supervisor has sufficient sample of behavior -Agree on job duties -Agree on definition of good and poor performance -Focuses on ways to improve performance. Destructive Criticism- Feedback that is cruel, sarcastic and offensive, Usually general rather than specific. Often directed toward personal characterisits of employee. Leads to anger and tension. Apology is best way to fix this! Implementing 360 Degree feedback- Ensure anonymity of sources. Rater and ratee should jointly identify evaluator. Use for development and growth purposes. Train information sources and those giving feedback. Follow up feedback session with regular opportunities for progress assessment.

Reliability and Validity

Reliablity-many debates! Inter-rater reliability considered poor but this isn't necessarily bad considering they bring different perspectives. Validity- Depends on manner ratings scales were coneived and dveloped.

Hands on Performance Measures

Requires employee to engage in work-related tasks- Typically carefully constructed simulations of central or critical pieces of work that involve single workers. Walk-Through Testing- Explain to interviewer in detail how to do job.

Performance Ratings- Process

Supervisors- Most common source of information, but many actively avoid evaluation and feedback. Less confident incumbent is in system, more likely to feel unfairly evaluated. Peers- More likely to know about a worker's typical performance. But conflict of interest when competing for fixed resources. Self-Ratings- Discussion of ratings with supervisor increases perceptions of procedural fairness. Potential for distortion and inaccuracy but minimized with supervisor discussion. Conflict of interest if used for salaries and promotions. Subordinate Ratings- Critical that the feedback is kept anonymous! Customer and Supplier Ratings-Important from business strategy vantage point. 360 Degree Systems-Collect and provide an employee with feedback the comes from many sources. Often used for for employee development

Performance Managment

System that emphasizes the link between individual behavior and organizational strategies and goals by defining performance in the context of those goals: Jointly developed by managers and people who report to them. Differences between Appraisal and management: -App is once a year and initated by HR. Managment much more frequent and initiated by supervisor or subordinate. Three components: Definition of Performance, Actual measurement process, communication between supervisor and subordinate to which individual behavior fits with organizational expectations Perceptions of Fairness: -Supervisor's knowledge of duties of person being measured and the knowledge of the actual performance of person. Distributive Justice- Fairness of outcomes related to decisions Procedural Justice- Process by which ratings are assigned and decision is made Interpersonal Justice- Respectfulness and Personal tone of Communications

Performance Ratings- Substance

Theories of Performance rating: -Process model- Addresses the various factors comprising rating process -Content Model- Adresses content input to supervisory ratings -Rating Context- Both announced purpose and other non announced agendas surrounding ratings.

Legal Issues in employment Dscirminations

Title VII, ADA ADEA IO Psychologists are often expert witnesses in these lawsuits. Usually brought by individual claiming unfair termination Plaintiff needs to show that employer treated plaintiff differntly that majority applicants or employees for intentional descriminations. Adverse Impact- Employwer may not have intended it, but had impact on group. Statsitical dispartiies Burden of proof is on plaintiff! 80% 4/5 rules. Protected group recieved only 80% of desirable outcomes recieved by majority in order to meet burden of demonstrating Adverse Impact Ratio Affected by sample sizes. Once proved, burden of proof shifts to employer. Social Networking is also a big factor that is now playing in staffing decisions.

Evaluation of Staffing Outcomes

Validity-Accurateness of inferences based on test or performance data. Valididty Designs: Criterion related- Correlating test score with peromance measurem Selection Ratio -Index ranging from 0-1 that reflects ratio of available jobs to applicants n/N. Best when lower because more likely to find a good candidate. Prediction Errors: FP-Applicant accepted, but did bad. FN-Applicant rejected, but would have done well. TP-GREAT TN-DEUCES Cut score- Specified point in distribution of socres below which candidates are rejected. Cutoff score. Raising cut score reduces FP, but inc FN. Strategy for determining depends on situation. Criterion referenced cut score- Consider desired level of performance and find test score that corresponds with that level. Norm Referenced- Based on some index of ta-takers scores. Compare to each other in cohort.

Goal conflict

When single system is used to satisfy multiple goals from different stakeholders, rater must choose which goal to satisfy before assgining a rating. Often conflict! Possible solution: Use multiple evaluation systems, reward supervisors for accurate ratings, and obtain invovledment of stakeholders in developing the system.