IR101 Midterm

Ethnicity

A collective identity based on descriptive factors such as (imputed) common descent, language, culture, beliefs, race or color.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Regime

A set of rules by which a country is run. Rarely change. There can be democratic regimes

The Case of India (unlikely democracy)

Against Modernization Theory - India was far too poor, had little industry, and low literacy. Against Marxist Theory - Lack proper class structure. Against Cultural Theory - Low social equality, rigid hierarchy with caste system, and too much conflict to be conducive to democracy.

Institution

An ongoing organization that performs certain functions for society.

Dual Legitimacy (Linz)

Separation of Survival is when members of both the executive and legislative branches serve together for fixed terms of office and the legislature can change and so can the president without affected each other. ( Both "survive" until the end of the term)

Necessary versus Sufficient

Something is necessary if it is required to satisfy all conditions whereas sufficiency is only needing some subset of all possible conditions to satisfy the requirements.

atomization

The deliberate isolation of people from each other in society to keep them from forming a group that could threaten a leader's hold on power.

Overtaxed Development

The feeling of economic abuse by others in society, in that their resources used to support the rest of the country.

Amoral Familism

The promotion of family interests above all other moral considerations; the term was coined by Banfield to describe social relations in Sicily and was later used by Putnam

vote of no confidence

Vote taken by a legislature as to whether its members continue to support the current prime minister. Depending on the country, a vote of no confidence can force the resignation of the prime minister and/or lead to new parliamentary elections.

spurious

not genuine, not true, not valid

Primordialism vs. Constructivism

• Primordialism is a theory of ethnicity which posits that ethnicity is invariable and is defined by one's "primordial attachments," which stem from the "assumed givens of social existence." (Geertz). Primordialists view ethnicity as something that is deeply rooted and triggered by ancient hatreds. People have a basic human need for identity because a sense of belonging is critical to one's self-esteem. Even when competing ethnic groups have sustained peace for long periods of time, primordialists believe that ethnic conflict can still be instigated by certain triggers. For example, primordialists explain the ethnic conflict in Yugoslavia in the 90s to be the resurgence of deeply rooted hatreds which had been briefly quelled under Tito. This structuralist explanation views these primodial attachments to be the reason for the violence, not leaders like Milosevic who simply ride the wave of ethnic conflict. Thus, primordialists are pessimistic about the future of pluralistic states, because, sooner or later, cultural pluralist societies are going to line up along ethnic lines, and violence will occur. Authors: Isaac • Instrumentalism, on the other hand, is a theory of ethnicity which views it to be a strategic choice one makes in order to obtain political and material ends. While some characteristics like skin color may be impossible to choose, societies can control the extent to which innate characteristics are emphasized. According to Bates, people find that grouping along ethnic lines is a good way to secure access to valuable resources, as is the case in much of Africa. Inter-ethnic grievance, instrumentalists believe, is the result of inequality, scarcity, and fear. One sees ethnic conflict to arise often in areas where certain underprivileged groups desire the same advantages as other groups or when one group expresses physical insecurity. But, when economies are doing well and people do not have to compete for survival, ethnic conflict seems to fade. Instrumentalists also argue that ethnicity persists because it is useful for people to capitalize upon it, and examples such as Hitler and Milosevic demonstrate to instrumentalists the ability ethnic entrepreneurs have to use ethnicity to achieve their political goals. Politicians often emphasize ethnicity because it is simply the most efficient way to pursue power, playing upon ethnic grievances to amass votes from a dominant group. As a result, instrumentalism coincides with voluntarism because ethnic identities are very fluid, and the extent to which they are emphasized depends upon the individuals with power in a given society. However, if this was the case, opponents of instrumentalists, argue, ethnic change ought to occur much more frequently than it does. Instrumentalism also fails to explain why people often form ethnic groups in situations where no benefits can be found or why people from some ethnic groups readily embrace their leaders while others do not. Authors: Trover, Posner • Constructivism, while rejecting the primordialist notion that ethnicity is fixed or inherent, recognizes that ethnic conflict cannot be explained entirely through instrumentalism. Constructivists believe that ethnicity is socially constructed and is part of the context in which we are born and raised. While there is some degree of fluidity to ethnicity, ethnic groups are indeed formed, at least to some extent, from one's family and kinship ties, and as a result, not simply the sole product of strategic choice. In addition, Nagel argues that "political structural arrangements that spotlight diversity institutionalize ethnic differences, and increase the level of ethnic mobilization and conflict." Thus, certain institutions may encourage people to align along ethnic lines. For example, because the British possessed the power in their colonies, the ethnic lines that they set up had to endure because there was no other way to get ahead. Over time, these identities were strengthened, eventually leading to the tense relationships that currently exist among the various groups in the former British colonies. The same situation occurred when the Belgians encouraged the division of the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwanda.

Skocpol's Theory of Revolution

4 Criteria: -Peasants need a degree of autonomy -Need a weak state -International trigger -Marginal elite Note: international trigger may be a war Flaws: disregards international relations, difficult to explain Iran and Nicaragua in relation to international military competition.

Northeim

A city in Germany that was originally innocent and boring until the Nazis began to try and take over. By using a strategic party platform, having a strong party organization, promoting their message by using associational life, propaganda, and having charismatic leadership, they were able to use the Jews as scapegoats successfully at a town level. The Nazis took over all social groups in the city, but failed to instill positive enthusiasm for the Nazi state. The population was then atomized and deprived of the means to express group grievances.

correlation versus causation

A correlation is a predictable relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other. However, just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other.

Consociationalism

A democratic system designed to ease ethnic tensions via recognizing the existence of specific groups and granting some share of power in the central government to each, usually codified in specific legal or constitutional guarantees to each group. Originally developed and discussed by Lijphart, this theory describes a democratic system which encourages group representation, and guarantees seats for every group. The groups agree to compromise over many issues but can veto decisions deemed unreasonable. This theory is fragile, but was in use at one point. These systems are built with no room to grow (have a fixed size of representation). Increasing group sizes support formula change while decreasing group size is against formula changes. Agreement on no census. Rayify the ethnic groups, this prevents the resolution of many existing issues between groups. Quasi secesionist approach: doesn't work if you are not geographically concentrated, federalism will not work. Might predict why certain conflicts but when certain conflicts emerge.

Instituaionalism

A general approach to governance and social science. It concentrates on institutions and studies them using inductive, historical, and comparative methods. Social science, no matter how one defines it, has from its inception put great emphasis on the study of institutions.

Nation

A large aggregate of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular country or territory.

Democracy

A regime in which all people are citizens and have direct rule over the decisions of the government. The minimal procedural definition by Robert Dahl states that democracy has: free and fair elections in which individuals can be contested, universal or full adult suffrage, constitutionally vested powers in officials, and criticism of the government without punishment. While democracy allows for specific freedoms, it does not necessarily equate to faster growth, equality, economic wealth, or higher efficiency. Some examples of Democratic Regimes are the United States, Germany, and France.

Neopatrimonial or Sultanistic State

A state in which the bureaucracy and military are personally dependent on the ruler or set of rulers due to a fear of punishment and the hope of reward. These rewards have been stolen from the country's economy. The ruler(s) have a tendency to organize the ministries, so as to avoid an opposing institutions. Ruler(s) can execute law without restriction.

Independent Variable (IV)

A stimulus condition so named because the experimenter changes it independently of all the other carefully controlled experimental conditions.

Modernization Theory (Lerner Turkey and Lipset)

A theory asserting that as societies developed, they would take on a set of common characteristics, and ultimately asserts that democracy arises from industrialization. Additionally, the modernization theory asserts that industrialization will lead to higher literacy rates, increased wealth, higher rates of urbanization, and the rise of capitalism. The theory was first readily support by Seymour Lipset and Daniel Lerner. One example of Modernization Theory in practice is the case of Balgat Turkey as documented by Daniel Lerner. In Balgat Turkey, the town was lawless, poor, uneducated, and highly agricultural with no road connecting the town (communication). However, once the town was connected via a bus route, had modern commodities like electricity, a police force, and higher quality of living all the citizens follow the Demokrat party and supported a democratic regime. Issues with Modernizatin theory are that industrialization does not always lead to democracy, it is ethnocentric, and there are cases that are not supported by modernization theory such as India who is Democratic but not urban and China who is industrialized but not democratic.

Social Revolution

A total overhaul in the how a state is run. The are great humans experiments. All must happen for a social revolution - 1. Change in government 2. Change in regime type 3. Change in policy 4. Change in basic rules by which economy and society functions (class structure) 5. Change in the state

New Third World Revolutions (Farhi)

AUTHOR: Farhi CASES: Nicaragua, Iran -Weak state -Broad revolutionary coalitions -International permissiveness A revolution is not necessated by a autonomous peasant class. Revolutions can infact arise from the middle class between peasants and the elite. An modification to Skocpol's Theory of Revolution. States that these conditions are required for a revolution - broad revolutionary coalition, weak state, international permissiveness. Essentially, banks on the idea that Skocpol's theory disregards international interactions, relies on the fact that political elite can be autonomous with economic elite.

The Nicaraguan Case Revolutions (Third World Revolutions)

AUTHOR: Farhi TYPE: Third World Revolutions -weak states -broad revolutionary coalitions -international permissiveness / allowance The Rise of the Somoza Dynasty was followed by the Old Regime being put into crisis. This was due: -Emergence of a revolutionary coalition -Loss of US Support -Mass insurrection and revolutionary coalition (rising up against government) Did not consolidate successfully in 1979-1990

Relative Deprivation Theory (draw a J curve) (James Davies)

AUTHOR: James Davies CASES: -Dorr's Rebellion 1842 Families moved to cities for textile industry. Prosperity of the industry raised expectation in the early 1800's, depression of the industry before hand frustrated the workers -Russian Revolution 1917 Serfs and 1905 were precursors, expectations grew over that time yet crop yield decreased and poverty increased leading to more discontent Emanicpation of Serfs is beginning of J-Curve 1861. Goes up to assassination of Alexander II in 1881 and peaks with War on Japan in 1904. Curve Represses until War starts with German in 1914 Curve continues to drop until the revolution stars in 1917 -Egyptian Revolution A theory of social movements that focuses on the actions of oppressed groups who seek rights or opportunities already enjoyed by others in the society. Davies J-Curve theory: A period of social or political unrest is most likely to occur after a rapid decline in the economy or government which was preceded by a long growth. Gives the sense that progress was lost rapidly and that they have to take back control of it.

Voluntarism

AUTHOR: Lipset CASE: America Lipset argues that America would have failed the American Revolution were it not for George Washington. George Washington lost many battles and French Intervention was required to win. George Washington was just a strong leader who was able to maintain the charisma of his army in the worst of conditions. OTHER CASE: India Also known as a leader-centered approach, this theory states that Democracy can emerge despite inhospitable initial conditions as long as there is strong-leadership with good ideas in the perfect situation. One example of the Voluntarism theory is the case of India. Despite India having very inhospitable conditions for a Democracy - poor economy, agricultural society, low literacy, low urbanization, and little connection - India was able to establish a Democracy through the actions of the powerful leader, Gandhi.

Liberalism approach to Ethnicity

Belief that ethnicity is a morally suspect subject and that any social hierarchy based on ethnicity or birth should be condemned and replaced by one based on merit. The future or ethnic identities is bleak and it is believed that people will detach from these identities following industrialization and embrace civil and political rights. Identity would instead be based an individuals place in society.

1905 Revolution

Civil unrest that followed the failed Russo-Japanese War and the massacre of Bloody Sunday. Forced Tsar Nicholas to issue the October Manifesto in which he promised to create a Duma. Often viewed as the precursor the 1917 revolution.

Marxist Theory of Revolutions (Marx and Engles)

Class structure is still critical to understanding revolutions. These revolutions are caused by economic forces imposing a change on the class structure after which one class will fight against another over the controls that were put on them. Either the bourgeoisie kill off the landed elite or peasants or Bourgeoisie move peasants to workers. Workers rise up against the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and destroy the landed elite. Conditions: -Industrialization -Oppressive conditions for the workers -Oppressive degradation of the workers -Workers must realize that they are all in it together in order to successfully rise up

Primordialism

Clifford Geertz's term to explain the strength of ethnic ties because they are fixed in deeply felt or primordial ties to one's homeland culture. Readings of Issacs Theory by Geertz and Issacs Reading by Issacs discusses how ethnic conflict in America is benign but in other parts of the world it is not.

civic culture

Culture characterized by trust, legitimacy, and limited involvement, which some theorists believe is most conducive to democracy.

social capital

Democratic and civic habits of discussion, compromise, and respect for differences, which grow out of participation in voluntary organizations. the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively.

Anthony Downs

Develops coalition of minorities law in 1958 to explain why excluded groups will always eventually be incorporated into the polity.

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

Divisions within society that cut across demographic categories to produce groups that are more heterogeneous or different. Modernization theory says that all gaps should unify or that all groups should be able to find some common ground, thus unifying society.

NSDAP/ Nazis

Hitler took control of the German Worker's Party and renamed it the National Socialist German Worker's Party Wantede to distiguish it from other parties and turned it into a mass movement with uniforms, flags, and its own newspaper.

El Salvador - Why No Revolution

Institutional Military Regime - Separate from the Government / Leaders No revolutionary coalition Strong US support

Duverger's Law

Law of politics, formalized by Maurice Duverger, stating that plurality-rule electoral systems will tend to have two political parties

Vanguard or leadership-centered approach and Foco-theory (no author)

Leaders take advantage of mass discontent and should looked at as the main cause (Lenin or Mao). The conditions for these revolutions exist everywhere but it takes a good (or popular) leader to push the population to mobilize. It is a voluntaristic account, in which leaders embody a political doctrine and act as a "focal point" to inspire and mobilize groups within society around a particular and shared discontent (usually with the state). A popular example is Che Guevera mobilizing peasant led revolution in Cuba and his attempts to do the same in Bolivia. Focal point theory (Foco theory) - revolutionaries would be the geographic center of these movements Issues: it is possible to conclude that leadership alone isn't sufficient to cause a revolution

Islam and Democracy

Non-receptive to Democracy. Differs from Confucianism: non-hierarchical, volunteerism, and individualistic. Poor empirical evidence for Democratic Islamic nations (Turkey used to be). No distinction between state and society. No word for citizen in Turkish, Arabic, or Persian.

Confucianism and Democracy

Non-receptive to Democracy. Emphasis on the group rather than the individual. Authority over liberty. Responsibility over rights. No inherent rights of individuals. Harmony and agreement over disagreement and competition. Order and respect. Merges state and society. No room for civil organizations.

Catholicism and Democracy

Non-receptive to Democracy. Discourages the independent role of citizens. A hierarchical and authoritarian religion. Catholic countries are less likely to be Democratic.

norms of reciprocity

People tend to think that when someone does something nice for them, they ought to do something nice in return.

office seekers

Politicians seek government power

Civil Society

Realm of organized citizen activity that is autonomous from the state. Provides organizational muscle to overthrow dictators. With an increase of wealth and literacy (modernization) it follows that there is an increased access to groups and more free time for citizens to engage with these groups.

State

Set of permanent, administrative, legal bureaucratic institutions that poses a monopoly over all legitimate forms of coercion in the territory.

Russian Revolution of 1917

Skocpol's Revolution Theory -weak state (distaste for Nicholas II) -autonomous working class (lots of peasants who wanted revolution) -marginal elite (russian elite) -international trigger (World War 1) Prompted by labor unrest, personal liberties, and elected representatives, this political revolution occurred in 1917 when Czar Nicholas II was murdered and Vladimir Lenin sought control to implement his ideas of socialism.

Marxist Theory of Democracy (Barrington Moore)

States that Democracy arises from class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the landed elite. The bourgeoisie riot and destroy the landed elite after which they then control society. It then follows that Democracy must arise from this (and inevitably transform into communism). The two classes that arise from this are the workers and the capitalists. Barrington Moore argues that Democracy cannot arise without the presence of the bourgeoisie and cites the US, England, and France as democratic capitalist examples of Marxist Democratic development. All three lacked any peasantry but had a strong bourgeoisie which then overthrew the controlling landed elite (such as the US declaring independence from the UK).

Structural versus Voluntarism approaches to politics

Structural focuses on the role of the larger scene that individuals who act are situated in. Emphasizes that individuals will only act a certain way if they are in some specific situation. (Poor performance of Russian army in WW 1 allowed Lenin to take power) Voluntarism focuses on the role of the individual in making changes. (Actions of Lenin and Bolsheviks => Take control)

The Case of Sweden

Support for Modernization Theory - Had heavy industry which lead to increased and literacy. Against Modernization Theory - Primarily a rural society. Support for Cultural Theory - Very homogeneous society (few cleavages) and largely protestant (Huntington points out that this is favorable). Against Cultural Theory - Lack the liberal hierarchical values necessary for democracy Support for Marxist Theory - Lacked a landed elite which means that the bourgeoisie had little issue taking control over the function of society (the 1917 strike against the conservative government) Against Marxist Theory - Liberalizing forces were weak.

October Revolution of 1917

The Bolsheviks seized power by force in a second revolution in 1917. Once in power, they changed Russia to a Communist nation.

Modernist approach to Ethnicity

The belief that ethnicity is antiquated and obsolete. It is believed that once a society has increased literacy, urbanization, and industrialization (previous two arise from this), then the concept of ethnicity should dissolve.

Marxist approach to Ethnicity

The belief that social class should be held primarily above ethnicity. It is believed that ethnicity is a reflection of deeper, material forces or a convoluted reconfiguration of class. Ethnicity is often dismissed as false consciousness as anything that distracts from the focus on class is false consciousness. Workers will eventually realize that ethnicity is a planted idea and will eventually dissolve.

Internal colonialism

The exploitation of a society's minority group by its dominant group. There is a core and peripheries. Core treats periphery as lesser people relative to the core. Hierarchy is reinforced by a cultural division of labor - societal or laws, Ireland was religious division. Begins in the core and then in the periphery. Internal Colonialism occurs when relatively poorer periphery groups feel that they are oppressed artificially by the core who take all of the resources. This theory was proposed by Hechter and was applied to Ireland in the 1700s and 1800s. Internal Colonialism is based off of a cultural division between the core group who controls the majority of the resources and the periphery group who does not. The cultural divide in the case of Ireland is based off of religion, specifically Catholicism Ireland passed laws against Catholics which prevented them from becoming lawyers and going to universities like Dublin University.

Government

The group of people who are in power. Consists of three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial.

Doctrine of Self-Determination

The individuals have the right to determine how their country or territory is government which translates to the belief that they have the right to have their own government or country.

Crafting and Pacts

The manipulation of the rules of the game in order to reduce the cost for those playing the game. Equivalently the negotiation of political agreements to give political actors more power. Pacts are a negotiated agreement which requires some kind of credibility.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study.

District Magnitude

The number of representatives elected from a particular constituency

Civic and Political Freedoms

The right to vote and run for office.

median voter theorem

The theory that parties in a two-party system can maximize their vote by locating themselves at the position of the median voter—the voter whose preferences are exactly in the middle.

bridging social capital

The value we get from others who provide access to places, people, or ideas we might not be able to get on our own. briding different social groups in society, crossing cleavages

Cultural Theory of Democracy (Sam Huntington)

The values and norms in a society affect the likelihood of a country to develop Democracy. In other words some countries are simply more receptive to Democracy that are others. Sam Huntington highlights in Democracy's Third Wave that countries with certain religions appear to be more or less receptive to Democracy. Protestantism is very receptive to Democracy whereas Catholicism, Confucianism, and Islam are not receptive to Democracy. Issues with the Culturalist approach are that culture is not necessarily static over time and can change quickly. In the 70's and 80's many catholic countries move to Democracy (it should be noted that most Protestant countries were already Democratic by this point). A democratization theory that focuses on the ideas and values of the people instead of the conditions of the country. This theory values the rights of the people as a whole and the power is with the individuals, not a figure head. Cultures are not static or deterministic and they may change. This theory favors democratization in countries that have an egalitarian and self-deterministic culture.

Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)

Tsar Alexander II ended rigorous serfdom in Russia in 1861; serfs obtained no political rights; required to stay in villages until they could repay aristocracy for land.

Misery Breeds Revolt (no author)

Under extreme poverty people are pushed to the edge and when survival is necessary then you are left with nothing left but to revolt. Issues: - No empircal evidence -Lots of economically deprived people in the world, yet not enough social revolutions -Financially well off countries are more likely to have a social revolution -People are too busy trying to survive and are politically conservative since they are volatile.

Wasted Vote Theory

Voting for a party that never wins is a bad idea

Instrumentalism

a theory of identity politics that argues rational and self-interested elites manipulate symbols and feelings of identity to mobilize a political following Readings of Posner and Trevor-Roper In Posner reading: Zambia and Malawi, population proportions strongly affected identification of political allies Trevor-Report reading - the people of Scottland wear kilts to embrace their national identity, however many years before this was frowned upon and seen as barbaric and scottish culture was essentially repressed, but following the reassertion of Scottish culture it allowed the Scotts to dislapy their culture A theory to explain ethnic conflict that maintains that identity is chosen based opportunistic factors. This can be seen in the cases of Zambia and Malawi, where population proportions strongly affected identification of political allies. Examples can be found in Daniel Posner's Political Salience of Cultural Difference. An opposing theory, primordialism claims ethnicity is deeply rooted and not fluid.

Cohabitation

living together; coexistence

Bourgeoisie

the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people

associational life

the social sphere in which people voluntarily come together and form groups/associations to pursue shared goals, interests, or values totalitarian regimes attempt to remove all form of this life style bridging assocational life leads to bridging social captial leads to democratic vibrancy nonbriding institutions leaders to weaker form of social capital