Islam Exam 1

Denny argues that Zoroastrianism (in Iran-Iraq) declined rather quickly when

The religion no longer had royal favor; the kings and governors now supporting Islam

Thanks for filling out Shiites, Sunnis, and some historical details Here's what we got from you: VIEW SCORE Shiites, Sunnis, and some historical details Be sure to add your Gonzaga email below Email address * [email protected] The meaning of Shi'ah/Shiite/Shi'ite/ Shīʿism/Shi'i is translated as: * The Protestants [among Muslims] The Descendants [of Fāṭimah] Party/Partisans/Faction [of 'Ali] People of Salvation The True Believers The Rightly Guided [by God] Followers of the [Muhammadan] Light The main belief shared by the various denominations of Shiites is: * A genealogy of the first eight imams of the religion There is just one, transcendent God, who is near but never becomes something of His/Its creation. Continued religious guidance has to be drawn mainly from the family of the Prophet The Imams of Islam were Divine incarnation as Emmanuel—"God with us." Shiite Muslims see parallels in the descriptions of Abraham in the Qur'an with that of the successorship of Muhammad in that: * Abraham set up a Sanhedrin (council) among his wisest followers to lead after him, and Muhammad did likewise. Whoever is righteous, collaborative, and charismatic among his followers could become the next leader of the faithful. The black stone itself at the Kaaba would be the symbol of the unity and equality among all believers before the single God that none will exalt his self in power and authority over another. Just as Abraham's own progeny inherited the mantle of prophethood, so would religious authority continue in Muhammad's descendants. The institution of the Caliphate (deputy / successor / leader / vicegerent [of God]) drew upon tribal norms of the Arabs in which the _____________, literally "old man," was typically not just one who had distinguished himself as a wise and strong leader but was also elderly. Evidence of the Caliph initially seen in this manner is that 'Ali was thrice passed up for more senior leading Muslims Abu Bakr, then ________________, then 'Uthman. * ḥilm...Mu'āwiya amir...'Umar ahl al-bayt...Mu'āwiya shaykh...'Umar The split between Shiites and Sunnis is often explained as a difference in opinion about the matter of successorship to Muhammad. At Muhammad's death, a few of the Prophet's first leading believers propagated Abu Bakr as the new leader among a small group in Medina and secured bayah (hand-clasping oaths) from them. This was a controversial move, because: (choose three) * Muhammad had laid strict instructions that since all believers are equal and humble before God and so no one should rule over another but collectively search to find God's will. At-least some Muslims seemed to understand that Muhammad himself had appointed his cousin and son-in-law 'Ali to be the new leader. The Caliph emerged with king-pope-like authority rather than the traditional Arab concept of a chief being a "first among equals" who could fairly easily be overruled if he became overbearing. Deliberations were not enacted to secure a wider consensus among the Arab Muslims on who should be the new leader Many Muslims understood Muhammad's repeated statement, 'she who loves me, obeys 'Aisha' to indicate that his favorite wife was appointed as his successor. (Note: It may also be the case that--like the few communities of Christians--Muslims expected the Day of Reckoning and Resurrection to be very immanent and so Muslims need not worry about longterm issues of governance. However, this is debated among historians.) Although we do not have documents that confirm this that trace earlier than the mid-8th century, it seemed to have been understood from among the first successors of Muhammad that the Caliph was God's own deputy. In addition, he seemed to play a role of lead religious arbitrator in questions regarding practices of Muslims. Further evidence that the Caliph was not just seen as a political leader of the emerging Muslim empire but a religious leader was in his title: * General of Just Judges Superintendent of the Kaaba Commander of the Faithful Pillar of Islam Sunnis call _____________________________ the "rightly guided Caliphs." * the first three—Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, and 'Ali— the first four—Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, and 'Ali— the first six—Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, 'Ali, Mu 'awiya, and Hasan (or sometimes Yazīd)— the first two—Abu Bakr and 'Umar—and two of the last (Abdu'l-Azīz and Abdu'l Hamīd II) The Pact or "Covenant of Umar" (attributed to the 2nd Caliph but perhaps not composed until the 9th century) established the treatment and status of dhimmi: protected religious minorities who had Scripture (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and later Hindus and Buddhists too) under Muslim rule. What was their status? (Choose all that apply) * In the early centuries of the Islamicate, often having bureaucratic experience, they sometimes served in high positions in government. In the place of zakāt, they had to pay a poll tax (jizya) and a land tax (kharāj). They had to turn their temples (churches, synagogues, etc.) over to the Muslims and could only worship in each other's homes. They were not allowed to preach or publicize their religion beyond their own community and families. They could not bear arms or (frequently, although not always) serve in the military, but they were protected (dhimmi) from enemies of the state. They often had to wear distinctive clothing from that of the Muslims. The first generation could maintain their religion, but their children had to be sent to Islamic schools to learn the Qur'an. Denny argues that Zoroastrianism (in Iran-Iraq) declined rather quickly when: * The religion no longer had royal favor; the kings and governors now supporting Islam. Zoroastrians were forced to convert to Islam, under threat of the sword by the Arab invaders. Zoroastrians realized Islam is a clearer, more logical form of Zoroastrianism. What is the significance of garrison cities and the mawālī/client-master system in the early centuries after Muhammad? (Choose three) * To convert one had to become associated with, or clients to, Arab Muslim tribes, becoming assimilated into that tribe, its kinship patterns, its language, and Islamic ideals. Muslims preachers and storytellers accompanied (or were among) the conquerors and were funded to teach the locals and actively encourage them to take the shahāda. Muslim conquering leaders sought new land and wealth and so often preferred to keep large non-Muslim populations who would be keep paying the poll tax. In new areas they were conquering, Muslims gave the locals a choice to convert to Islam or die. Conquering Arabs set up towns away from the locals, striving to preserve their cultural, social, and religious integrity, purity, and (supposed) superiority. Which Caliph was principally responsible for constituting a commission of esteemed memorizers of the Qur'an to create one recension of the Holy Book? * The first one—Abu Bakr (reigned 632-4) The second one—'Umar (r. 634-644) The third one—'Uthman (r. 644-656) The fourth one—'Ali (r. 656-661) Mu'āwiya (r. 661-680) Yazīd (r. 680-3) Husayn ibn 'Ali (Imam, 669-680) I have heard generalizations that Sunnis were like early democrats who believed that the Muslim ruler should come to power by election while Shiites are of dynastic aristocracies (monarchy) in which the successor inherits rule from his father or another older family member. Although this differentiation may be useful to describe the early decades after Muhammad, after this it is not accurate, because... * The Caliphate itself soon fell into dynastic family lineages. Shiites soon developed the belief that the Imam should be elected from a wide consensus of leading followers. Both groups really came to emphasize individual religious conscience and ethical decision-making instead of obsessing about which human is in charge of the Muslims. Both groups effectively merged and could not be distinguished during the Abbasid dynasty. As explained in the PDF reading by Jafri, Twelver Shiites' twelfth Imam, the child Muḥammad al-Mahdī, is believed by Twelver Shiites to have been: * a political fiction propagated by Persia's king Ismāil I as a symbol of national unity in hope for return of this redeemer. murdered and tragically cuts the line of Imams as he was too young to have any children. the final Imam and the one who went into hiding at the beginning of his ministry yet would return on the Day of Resurrection. a reincarnation of Muhammad ibn Abdallah (570-632), the founder of Islam, who revealed his own second Qur'an called "The Revelation [of God]" (Al-Nazūl). Wilāyah is a Shiite doctrine referring to the Imams being the "friends of God" nearest to God in love and devotion. Each becomes the walī or Imam by virtue of: * Being explicitly designated as the successor by the previous Imam, each of whom are descendants of ʿAlī and Fāṭimah (Muhammad's daughter). Being most distinguished in piety and wisdom among the Muslims of the age Being the eldest son of the previous Caliph Being appointed by the previous council for this position According to the Shiites, the Imam is conferred by the previous Imam as having: (mark 3) * Nūr Muḥammadī—the Muhammadan Light or divine baraka (power-energy-blessing) initially carried by the Prophet Authority in religious matters through divine inspiration to interpret the Quran and Islam. Authority in political matters but requiring council from the 'ulama (religious scholars) in matters of faith and the sharī'a. Infallibility, inerrancy, and sinlessness The Imam can only be Imam if also holding political authority, governing the Islamic empire. * True False While Muslim rule began in Medina (625 CE) during the days of Muhammad and continued there during most of the period of the "rightly guided caliphs," it would move to _________________ (661 CE) and then to ____________________ (762 CE) which were not only cultural, political, and cosmopolitan urban centers for the growing empire but held factions of supporters of the dynastic rulers themselves. * Aleppo...Basra Cairo...Samarkand Damascus...Baghdad Jerusalem...Rey/Ray The martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is the most important commemoration for Shiites in which: (Check all that apply) * Ḥusayn and seventy-two relatives and companions laid down their lives at the altar of Truth in Karbala, Iraq for the sake of humanity, its freedom and dignity, and for the integrity of Islam Ḥusayn refused to give homage to or cooperate with the unjust and tyrannical assumption of power by Yazīd I, and for this he was brutally killed, his body trampled, and his head paraded on a spear through the streets of Damascus. In imitation of self-sacrifice, some young men will self-flagellate with chains and smear blood on their faces and bodies For ten days in the month of Muḥarram, Muslims will perform passion plays, tell stories, recite poetry and sing (along with beautiful pictorial art) in moving, passionate language of the events around the martyrdom of Ḥusayn. Jafri, pg. 325, says that "the second most popular practice among the Shīʿites" is: * Fasting for periods excess to Ramadan as a form of self-sacrifice and devotion. Giving an extra fifth of one's income for the promotion of Shiite missionary work. Cursing the names of Mu'awiya and Yazīd in ritualistic refrains at the end of Salah prayer in noon time Friday congregational gatherings at the mosque. Pilgrimage to the shrines of the Imams and close family members, paying homage to them, and evoking God's Mercy and blessings, which have been showered on these graves. Which statements are accurate about the similarities and differences of Sunnis and Shiites? * Fasting for periods excess to Ramadan as a form of self-sacrifice and devotion. The prayer rituals are basically the same, except that Shiites will also add the name "Ali" to the call to prayer and they will touch their heads in prostration to a piece of earth from Karbala and Husayn. They both have Hadith about Muhammad, but Shiites greatly emphasize in addition the Hadith of the Holy Imams. They both read, memorize, and recite the same Qur'an even if they sometimes interpret it differently. Sunnis are allowed to dissimulate their religious convictions if under threat and also to enter into temporary marriages of convenience (mut'ah), while Shiites must be brave and never hide their faith and only enter into marriages intended for the long haul. They both believe in one God, Muhammad, five obligatory prayers, pilgrimage to the Ka'aba, Ramadan fasting, and zakah tax. While Sunnis and Shiites share the Qur'an, traditions about Muhammad, and consensus of the religious scholars ('ijma) as sources of Islamic law, Sunnis have a source in restricted analogical deduction while Shiites have a broader use of reason to understand the legal principles. The Fatimid Caliphate/dynasty (909-1171) is noted for: (Check two) --refer to Denny, pg. 92 * Ruling much of north Africa and eventually Egypt, the Sudan, the Levant, Medina and Mecca Being of Zaydi/Fiver Shiite religious convictions Burning or destroying one of the world's oldest research institutions—the House of Wisdom of Baghdad. Initiating one of the oldest degree granting large universities in the world—Al-Azhar in Cairo Being of Sevener/Ismaili Shiite religious convictions Ruling Iraq, Iran, Uzbekistan, and western India Although much of the areas of Iraq and Iran have long leaned towards Shiite sympathies, Shiite national identity was systematically instituted in the 16th century when: * Muhammad al-Mahdi was believed to have returned and calling the people back to the family of the Prophet. The Fatimid (Seveners or Ismailis) Empire expanded their rule from North Africa into these regions. Rallies and marches that commemorated Husayn's martyrdom were held by a revivalist group of devotees, inspired by a series a dreams each independently experienced of the Imam. A Sufi leader of the Sāfavid dynasty, named Ismail, conquered much of the region and sent preachers and scholars to teach Twelver Shiitism across his growing kingdom. From in-class lecture/notes: At its height by 1650, what lands did the reborn Caliphate in the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire rule? (Check any and as many as apply) * Captionless Image Southeast Europe and Southwest Russia Holy cities of Mecca and Medina Egypt and port cities of North Africa The Levant and Iraq Persia and western India Spain and southern France From in-class lecture/notes: When did the Ottoman (and the closest thing to a Muslim World) Caliphate end? * Early 19th century, pressured by the British and Russians Early 2000s, as a consequence of the chaos and instability arising out of Iraq Early 20th century, in fall-out from WWI and a Turkish ethnic movement Mid 1950s when Gamal Al-Nasser of Egypt facilitated a Pan-Arab united nation From in-class lecture/notes: Mustafa Kemal, Ataturk, worked to reform the new nation of Turkey by: (check all that apply) * Captionless Image Adopting a Latin-based alphabet to be taught in schools and used in government Expelling non-Muslims Creating a court system not based on Islamic religious authority but European forms of law Arabizing the language and script of government and education Partnering with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (BP) to harvest Turkey's oil riches Emphasizing a Turkish-translation of the Qur'an and making the call to prayer in Turkish Discouraging the headscarf/veil for women and encouraging women's education and involvement in varied fields From in-class lecture/notes and Denny, pgs. 337-9: Although the Iranian Revolution represented a complex alliance between Iranians of varied religions and political ideologies, Ayatollah Khomeini was able to seize power in its victory through a strong Shiite base of protests against the Shah Reza Pahlavi. Although Iran has also had a president, the Ayatollah and his cast of religious scholars (mujtahids and mullas) see themselves as the supreme leaders of Iran due to the doctrine of

The religious scholars, or clergy, are the representatives of Shiite authority in the absence (or 'occultation') of the twelfth Imam

The institution of the Caliphate (deputy / successor / leader / vicegerent [of God]) drew upon tribal norms of the Arabs in which the _____________, literally "old man," was typically not just one who had distinguished himself as a wise and strong leader but was also elderly. Evidence of the Caliph initially seen in this manner is that 'Ali was thrice passed up for more senior leading Muslims Abu Bakr, then ________________, then 'Uthman

shaykh...'Umar

The Fatimid Caliphate/dynasty (909-1171) is noted for WRONG

-Ruling much of north Africa and eventually Egypt, the Sudan, the Levant, Medina and Mecca -Initiating one of the oldest degree granting large universities in the world—Al-Azhar in Cairo

Mecca is/was each EXCEPT

An oasis and prosperous farming community

The Imam can only be Imam if also holding political authority, governing the Islamic empire

False

The oasis town of Yathrib with various pagan and Jewish tribes...After Muhammad emigrated there and became its leader, it became known as the "city [of the Prophet]"

Medina

Jafri, pg. 325, says that "the second most popular practice among the Shīʿites" is

Pilgrimage to the shrines of the Imams and close family members, paying homage to them, and evoking God's Mercy and blessings, which have been showered on these graves

The Islamic supreme principle to worship only one God and to make all our affections, loyalties, and priorities focused on adoring and doing the will of this one Being

Tawhid

Muhammad worked to expand the principle of solidarity and care of one's own tribe to that of a religious unity based on a community of common worship of the one God, and although Muslims have on and off through history disdained, hurt, or killed one another based on denomination, ethnicity, or politics, this ideal of unity of one community remains strong and central to the religion of many Muslims

Ummah

Sunnis call _____________________________ the "rightly guided Caliphs."

the first four—Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, and 'Ali

From in-class lecture/notes: Mustafa Kemal, Ataturk, worked to reform the new nation of Turkey by:

-Adopting a Latin-based alphabet to be taught in schools and used in government -Creating a court system not based on Islamic religious authority but European forms of law -Emphasizing a Turkish-translation of the Qur'an and making the call to prayer in Turkish -Discouraging the headscarf/veil for women and encouraging women's education and involvement in varied fields

Iblīs / Satan / The Devil in Islam is presented as

-Created before even Adam was created, among the angels, but more likely a jinn -One who refused to prostrate in veneration before God's creation of Adam -Whispering into the breasts of humans, encouraging their proclivities towards egotism and mundane passions

As to Muhammad's status as an orphan

-His father died before he was born, and he was raised by a Bedouin family and his mother -His mother died by the time he was six and he was raised by his grandfather until he was eight -His uncle raised him and protected through his youth and half of his religious ministry

The Constitution/Charter of Medina is

-It was composed by Muhammad in the early couple years after the hijra in consultation with the new and old resident leaders. -It established religious freedom and mutual respect to Muslims and Jewish -It established the payment of blood money should one clan/tribe kill the member of another clan or tribe -It made the tribes and religious groups within the city, and those without who entered into alliance within them, become like a single supertribe and community who would respect and protection of one another if under attack

The Kaba/Kaaba

-Legend has it was built by Adam and then rebuilt by Abraham after the flood -It has a black stone that was probably from a meteorite, originally light but darkened -It is the central spot associated with pilgrimage

Muslims believe Adam is

-the first person and first prophet -taught by God—or inspired to create—the names of each thing

Although much of the areas of Iraq and Iran have long leaned towards Shiite sympathies, Shiite national identity was systematically instituted in the 16th century when

A Sufi leader of the Sāfavid dynasty, named Ismail, conquered much of the region and sent preachers and scholars to teach Twelver Shiitism across his growing kingdom

al-Jāhalīya refers to

Muslim representation of pre-Muhammad Arabs as ignorant, barbarous, and idolatrous

Arabs have traced their lineage to Biblical figures of

-Abraham and his third wife Keturah -Ishmael, son of Abraham

Among the most important values and practices of the pre-Muhammad Arabs were

-Devotion and obedience to one's clan and chief (shaykh) -Retaliation for murder -Defending one's honor ('ird) against personal slights -Demonstrating "manliness" through courage, loyalty, forbearance, and lavish generosity

What is the significance of garrison cities and the mawālī/client-master system in the early centuries after Muhammad?

-To convert one had to become associated with, or clients to, Arab Muslim tribes, becoming assimilated into that tribe, its kinship patterns, its language, and Islamic ideals -Muslim conquering leaders sought new land and wealth and so often preferred to keep large non-Muslim populations who would be keep paying the poll tax -Conquering Arabs set up towns away from the locals, striving to preserve their cultural, social, and religious integrity, purity, and (supposed) superiority

The main belief shared by the various denominations of Shiites is

Continued religious guidance has to be drawn mainly from the family of the Prophet

Linguistically Arabic is most closely linked to

Hebrew of the Jewish

Islamic concept that the Qur'an is first and foremost an eternal, invisible scripture with God that the Lord communicates to His prophets, although sometimes followers change and corrupt it; finally when given through Muhammad it would be preserved perfectly in perpetuity as a perfect copy of that which is with God in heaven

"mother of the book"

The Qur'an is of such distinguished proclamation of truth, its terseness and brevity in doing so, scientific insight, and literary beauty and excellence that no human being can produce its like

'ijaz/inimitability

In the Battle of the Trench

-A Persian suggested a trench be built around the city to delay the attackers -It ended in a stalemate, perhaps because there was not enough forage for the beasts in a long, drawn out siege -A Medinan Jewish clan called the Qurayza had been mustering a rear attack to support the Meccans; as punishment for breaking the Constitution, the men of the clan were slaughtered, and women and children were sold into slavery

How was the raid ghazwa (razzia) regarded in pre-Muhammad Arab times

-A legitimate quest to capture camels, horses, slaves (especially women), gold, fine fabrics, and other luxury items -An expression of stealth and vitality, and a kind of national sport, but one in which one should refrain from killing if possible

Omar/'Umar ibn al-Khattāb was

-A strong, stubborn man who persecuted and attacked the 'believers' -One who took his sword to kill Muhammad but instead encountered a sheet with a Qur'an surah and was touched to convert -The second Caliph under whose administration greatly expanded the Islamic empire

Khadījah was

-A wealthy, caravan-driving business owner -A widow -Muhammad's first and only wife throughout her life -The mother of Muhammad's only children to live into adulthood

From in-class lecture/notes: The Arab Spring, although often interreligious rather than monopolized by Muslims in protests and demonstrations, had a nonviolent methodology at its beginnings across many nations. Dr. Pschaida characterized this movement as

-Ad hoc adoption of the methods most likely to achieve organizers' political aims -Applying Qur'anic teachings that each person's conscience is made to recognize and respond to truth if clearly pronounced -Emulating preceding Islamic movements in 13th century West Africa of teaching by moral example, Egypt's 1919 Revolution, India-Pakistan (1930s-40s) Servants of God organization, and Muhammad's own paradigms of nonviolent attempts to establish justice in Mecca and then in the treaty of Hudaybiya -Applying Qur'anic teachings to return evil with good, to be one that saves lives instead of kills, to not be the aggressor but seek reconciliation, and that each person individually stands before God responsible for one's own moral choices -Adopting of religio-political methods of protest by self-immolation (burning) used for centuries in South and East Asian cultures and by Buddhist monks -Deliberate adoption of Thoreau's approach of civil disobedience, Gandhi's satyagraha (truth-force), Martin Luther King Jr.'s peaceful resistance (and marches), and César Chavez's own Catholic adaptation of such principles and methods

The split between Shiites and Sunnis is often explained as a difference in opinion about the matter of successorship to Muhammad. At Muhammad's death, a few of the Prophet's first leading believers propagated Abu Bakr as the new leader among a small group in Medina and secured bayah (hand-clasping oaths) from them. This was a controversial move, because

-At-least some Muslims seemed to understand that Muhammad himself had appointed his cousin and son-in-law 'Ali to be the new leader -The Caliph emerged with king-pope-like authority rather than the traditional Arab concept of a chief being a "first among equals" who could fairly easily be overruled if he became overbearing -Deliberations were not enacted to secure a wider consensus among the Arab Muslims on who should be the new leader

The 'Arab pre-Muhammadan poem or qaṣīdah (ode) was defined by

-Celebration of the beauty of one's camel -Longing for a former campsite and grieving one that's been abandoned -Lovers—describing her physical loveliness, lamenting losing one, or bragging about one's sexual exploits -Proclaiming one's military victories and prowess -The solace and joy of wine -Poetry slams in which one's enemies were also slighted or made fun of -Yearly fairs—such as in 'Ukāz and Mecca—in which poetry competitions was a central event

From in-class lecture/notes: The Hizmet or Gülen movement born out of Turkey is currently characterized by Turkey's head of state as a seditious movement aimed at taking over the country. On the other hand, the movement advertises itself as a civic, cultural, and faith-based movement that is non-political. Characteristics of this Islamic movement include

-Deliberate involvement and network in business, news media, education, medicine, and military with aims to instill humanistic-Islamic values in every sector of (Turkish) society -Creating bridges for mutual acceptance and flourishing between the "Muslim world and the West," the poor and the rich, the educated and less educated -Replacing the Ottoman value of manliness through participating in imperial, military campaigns with sacrificial service to fellow humans, country, and world -"love, tolerance, human rights, democracy, synthesizing science and religion," and strong moral and scientific education for all -humanitarian aid: private schools, disaster relief, poverty, hospitals and clinics

From in-class lecture/notes: Although Amr Khaled has lost much of his once enormous popularity in recent years, this former accountant-banker effectively used online and satellite TV media to

-Encourage participation in a philosophy called "Life Makers," which aimed to change society from grassroots, forming nongovernmental organizations to promote literacy, micro-finance projects, and environmental care, and to oppose drug abuse -Preach a message that especially appealed to college-aged and young professionals to transform society through self-improvement: good morals, good manners, empowered by dynamic relationship with God, and service to others

The sonic importance & power of Qur'an recitation for Muslims can be witnessed in

-Families who do not speak Arabic teach their children how to recite it melodically, even without necessarily knowing the meaning -That Muslims actually use a different word to refer to the Qur'an as a book—muṣ'ḥaf/codex -That Muslims spend years memorizing correct Qur'anic pronunciation and practicing beautiful recitation, even competing in televised local, regional, and global competitions

Pre-Islamic, pagan (i.e. not Jewish or Christian) Arabs' religious beliefs were defined by

-Fatalism, life in this world then individual annihilation when our Time comes -The shaman-like kāhin who would go into ecstatic trances and pronounce rhymed prose and was a kind of oracle, healer, and finder of lost camels -Veneration of spirits of stones, wells, trees, and sacred precincts -Polytheism, worship and offerings to many gods, perhaps 360 in the Kaaba -Worship, and telling stories of, some Biblical figures, such as Abraham, Jesus, and Mary -Ritual circumambulation, circling of a sacred place, such as around the Kaaba -A minor movement of monotheists, called ḥanīfs -Casting or drawing arrows before a god to predict the future or decide on a dilemma

The Pact or "Covenant of Umar" (attributed to the 2nd Caliph but perhaps not composed until the 9th century) established the treatment and status of dhimmi: protected religious minorities who had Scripture (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and later Hindus and Buddhists too) under Muslim rule. What was their status?

-In the early centuries of the Islamicate, often having bureaucratic experience, they sometimes served in high positions in government -In the place of zakāt, they had to pay a poll tax (jizya) and a land tax (kharāj) -They were not allowed to preach or publicize their religion beyond their own community and families -They could not bear arms or (frequently, although not always) serve in the military, but they were protected (dhimmi) from enemies of the state -They often had to wear distinctive clothing from that of the Muslims

The Qur'an is

-Mostly organized by length of the chapter, longer chapters residing early in the Book -Has stories of Biblical prophets, especially Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus, and some non-Biblical Arabian prophets like Sāliḥ and Hūd -Has both rhyming poetry and prose

Among the sources to learn about Muhammad's life are each, EXCEPT

-Muhammad's companion and personal chronicler during his life--Abu Ishrāqī -Letters Muhammad wrote to kings, competing tribal chiefs, and his followers in distant lands

According to the Shiites, the Imam is conferred by the previous Imam as having

-Nūr Muḥammadī—the Muhammadan Light or divine baraka (power-energy-blessing) initially carried by the Prophet -Authority in religious matters through divine inspiration to interpret the Quran and Islam -Infallibility, inerrancy, and sinlessness

While some farming and caravan transportation of commercial goods were also important, besides raiding, what does Denny mention as part of pre-Islamic means of livelihood

-Pastoralists, especially of sheep and camel -Hunting -Giving for hire services as mercenaries -Bodyguards or escorts of caravans

From in-class lecture/notes: At its height by 1650, what lands did the reborn Caliphate in the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire rule?

-Southeast Europe and Southwest Russia -Holy cities of Mecca and Medina -Egypt and port cities of North Africa -The Levant and Iraq

As to the Treaty of Hudaybiya (628 CE) with the Meccans and its consequences

-The Muslims were turned away peacefully from performing pilgrimage and each side agreed to desist from aggressions against the other for ten years -Clans around Arabia were allowed to enter into alliance with whichever party they wished -The Muslims were allowed to peacefully perform pilgrimage at the Kaaba the following year (629 CE) -After a breaking of the treaty with some killings by the Meccan side in 630 CE, Muhammad assembled a force of 10,000 soldiers to march on Mecca -After a predominantly peaceful surrender to Muhammad in 630, Muhammad's group destroyed the idols statues of the Kaaba

In the battle of Badr

-The first major battle, in March 624 CE, although greatly outnumbered, the Muslims defeated the attacking army of Meccans, believed to be assisted by a concourse of God's angels -In connection in Surah 8, God reveals that God confirms believers so ten men can overcome a hundred

Sunna is best defined as

-The traditional practice of Muhammad and his followers passed down through the generations -The path, habit, or usual practice of the present communities of pious Muslims -The example of how Muhammad lived by God's will -The collection of Ḥadīth (and Sīra)

Which statements are accurate about the similarities and differences of Sunnis and Shiites? WRONG

-They both have Hadith about Muhammad, but Shiites greatly emphasize in addition the Hadith of the Holy Imams -They both read, memorize, and recite the same Qur'an even if they sometimes interpret it differently -They both believe in one God, Muhammad, five obligatory prayers, pilgrimage to the Ka'aba, Ramadan fasting, and zakah tax -While Sunnis and Shiites share the Qur'an, traditions about Muhammad, and consensus of the religious scholars ('ijma) as sources of Islamic law, Sunnis have a source in restricted analogical deduction while Shiites have a broader use of reason to understand the legal principles

Zayd/Zaid ibn Hārithah was

-a former slave of Khadijah and Muhammad -an adopted son of Muhammad -the ex-husband of Zaynab. Zaynab then married Muhammad

'Ali was

-a younger cousin who lived in Muhammad household -left as Muhammad's double in his bed when Muhammad escaped in his hijra -Muhammad's son-in-law, marrying Fatima, who gave the Prophet two grandsons who in turn became Muslim leaders -the first Imam of Shiite Islam -the fourth Caliph of Sunni Islam -an important memorizer of the Qur'an and army leader

'Aisha was

-an important transmitter of ḥadīth about Muhammad -a religious teacher, political and military leader after Muhammad -a beloved wife and close friend of Muhammad, even though she was about forty years his junior

Abu Bakr was

-the first male adult, and the second male overall, to believe in Muhammad -Muhammad's companion in his hijra -The father of 'Aisha, Muhammad's favorite wife after Khadija -the first Caliph of Sunni Islam

The raids of the Emigrants/Muhājirūn on the Meccan caravans

-was seen by the Meccans as a type of piracy/banditry that aggressively stole property and made routes unsafe -was seen by the Emigrants as an attempt to recuperate some of their losses when they were forced, under persecution, to leave Mecca -forced the Meccan leaders' hand to deal with the Muslim problem

The martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is the most important commemoration for Shiites in which

-Ḥusayn and seventy-two relatives and companions laid down their lives at the altar of Truth in Karbala, Iraq for the sake of humanity, its freedom and dignity, and for the integrity of Islam -Ḥusayn refused to give homage to or cooperate with the unjust and tyrannical assumption of power by Yazīd I, and for this he was brutally killed, his body trampled, and his head paraded on a spear through the streets of Damascus -In imitation of self-sacrifice, some young men will self-flagellate with chains and smear blood on their faces and bodies -For ten days in the month of Muḥarram, Muslims will perform passion plays, tell stories, recite poetry and sing (along with beautiful pictorial art) in moving, passionate language of the events around the martyrdom of Ḥusayn

This prophet is believed to have proclaimed the oneness of God and to have (re-)built the Kaaba with his son. The Qur'an asserts that he was not Jewish or Christian but a monotheist (hanifi) and muslim

Abraham/Ibrahim

This is the word that Christian and Muslim Arabs typically use for "God." The Qur'an presents this God as being the exclusive Supreme, Creator of all of existence, all-knowing, all-powerful, gracious, merciful, just, and wise Reality, who has continually revealed Himself to humanity (and jinn) via the prophets named in the Bible and the Qur'an (and some not named)

Allah

These beings are believed to base composed of light, usually invisible, can cross the universe as quick as they intend to do so, and perform duties of carrying the message of God to the prophet, recording human deeds, taking the soul at death, guarding hell, and blowing the trumpet on the Day of Resurrection/Judgment

Angels

This word means 'sign' or 'miracle' and is used to designate each 'verse' of the Qur'an, which is believed to be beyond non-prophetic power to produce utterances of such power, eloquence, wisdom, and insight. It is also used for the lessons and indications of an All-Wise Creator contained in the natural things and processes of the world around us

Ayat

Wilāyah is a Shiite doctrine referring to the Imams being the "friends of God" nearest to God in love and devotion. Each becomes the walī or Imam by virtue of

Being explicitly designated as the successor by the previous Imam, each of whom are descendants of ʿAlī and Fāṭimah

Although we do not have documents that confirm this that trace earlier than the mid-8th century, it seemed to have been understood from among the first successors of Muhammad that the Caliph was God's own deputy. In addition, he seemed to play a role of lead religious arbitrator in questions regarding practices of Muslims. Further evidence that the Caliph was not just seen as a political leader of the emerging Muslim empire but a religious leader was in his title

Commander of the Faithful

While Muslim rule began in Medina (625 CE) during the days of Muhammad and continued there during most of the period of the "rightly guided caliphs," it would move to _________________ (661 CE) and then to ____________________ (762 CE) which were not only cultural, political, and cosmopolitan urban centers for the growing empire but held factions of supporters of the dynastic rulers themselves

Damascus...Baghdad

From in-class lecture/notes: When did the Ottoman (and the closest thing to a Muslim World) Caliphate end?

Early 20th century, in fall-out from WWI and a Turkish ethnic movement

Under fierce persecution and threat of death, Muhammad's flight in the middle of the night from Mecca north to Medina where he had been invited to take refuge and be an arbitrator between various ethnic communities. This moment in history, year 622 CE came to designate the beginnings of the Islamic calendar

Hijra/Hegira

Companionship with these beautiful, black eyed maidens the Garden came to be considered the reward of the good, interpreted as either wonderful sexual partners or as metaphors for the indescribable joys and bliss of the heavenly realm

Houri

Read/Recite/Proclaim! The command of the angel Gabriel to Muhammad when he first came to him in a cave outside of Mecca when he was about forty years old. Muhammad answered that he couldn't read or perhaps he knew not what to recite, when Gabriel taught him the first words of the Qur'an

Iqra

To surrender one's will to God. Such surrender and harmonizing with God's plan and desire for you is supposed to constitute both inner and outer peace

Islam

A scholar of Islam, whether or not he/she is also a Muslim

Islamicist

Someone who believes Islamic ethics and rules should inform government and the laws of the society and actively participates in trying to realize this goal

Islamist

As to Islamic beliefs about what happens when we die, what is the significance of the Grave

It is a kind of holding tomb of the semi-conscious soul with the body, awaiting the Day of Judgment

Meaning "struggle," it can be a personal struggle to become a more moral and God-conscious person each day and/or a collective struggle to protect one's family and community through diplomatic, economic, and legal means, or through the use of force/violence

Jihad

Made from a smokeless fire, they are usually invisible but sometimes appear like humans or an animal, they sometimes have magical powers of varying degrees, and these are the only beings—who like humans—can choose to accept or reject God, His revelation, and His will

Jinn

Shiite Muslims see parallels in the descriptions of Abraham in the Qur'an with that of the successorship of Muhammad in that

Just as Abraham's own progeny inherited the mantle of prophethood, so would religious authority continue in Muhammad's descendants

Although most commonly used to say infidel or disbeliever in Islam, the word more nuanced refers to someone whose innermost being recognizes the Divine truth of the Qur'an but in arrogance or attachment to tradition or worldly pursuits, ungratefully rejects it, making excuses for rejecting it, and dishonestly ascribing inaccurate qualities to it

Kafir

Like the Biblical idea of humans created in God's image and likeness, Islam presents the purpose of the human being is to be God's representative, delegate, or ambassador on earth, that is striving to spread on the earth the Divine attributes such as justice, mercy, compassion, goodness, and beauty

Kahlifah/Vicegerent

Means "one who has surrendered to the will of God," and although one finds the term 'believer' much more in the Qur'an than this word, it has come to designate the religious community that follows the message of the prophet Muhammad (570-632 CE).

Muslim

Muhammad is believed to have been quickly transported to Jerusalem where he ascended to a meeting with God, met many Prophets along the way, and received the command to fulfill five prayers a day

Night Journey

The meaning of Shi'ah/Shiite/Shi'ite/ Shīʿism/Shi'i is translated as

Party/Partisans/Faction [of 'Ali]

Literally the "recitation" or "reading aloud," main Scripture of Islam, considered the word-for-word Word of God, an eternal Book with God communicated via the angel Gabriel to Muhammad and then proclaimed aloud in Arabic and memorized by believers

Qur'an

Literally meaning to "make partners" with God, i.e. to make equal (or even superior) in value or status with God or something of the created world (i.e. That which is not God). While the obvious historical implications are of statues or images taken as a god, anything can become an idol—TV programs, video games, a hobby, one's profession, a romantic relationship, addictions to drugs and alcohol or food or shopping or sex, thrill-seeking... This act of idolatry or polytheism became considered the gravest sin in Muslim understanding

Shirk

The first revelation to Muhammad, commands him to read or recite in the name of the Generous Lord who created humans, taught humans even by the pen (and books), yet arrogant people transgress God's teachings

Surah 'Alaq / Clot of Blood

This chapter asserts the singularity and uniqueness of God as the exclusive absolute and eternal Being and that He has no children God(s) or Goddesses like unto Him

Surah Al-Ikhlas—Sincerity / Purity of Faith / Monotheism

This chapter of the Qur'an equates denying the Day of Judgment with being insincere in prayer and with those who do not assist the orphan or the poor

Surah Ma'un / Small Kindnesses

This short chapter admonishes us of the quickly passing hours of our life and all the valuable opportunities we lose each hour unless we truly have faith, do righteous deeds, and enjoin upon each other truthful living and steadfast patience

Surah al-'Asr / the Afternoon

This most popular and commonly recited chapter of the Qur'an, praises God—the Merciful and Compassionate Lord of the Day of Judgment—Who alone do we worship and cry for help, and one beseeches Him to guide us on the straight path of those who receive God's grace instead of displeasure

Surah al-Fatiha / The Opening

The period of persecution of the Muslims in Mecca included each, EXCEPT

Systematic slaughter of any convert whose clan was not powerful

Often interpreted to constantly have "God-consciousness," this Arabic word means to bear of God's nearness at each moment and know that God sees you each moment, and so to revere and fear Him at all times, as He is both Just and Merciful

Taqwa

I have heard generalizations that Sunnis were like early democrats who believed that the Muslim ruler should come to power by election while Shiites are of dynastic aristocracies (monarchy) in which the successor inherits rule from his father or another older family member. Although this differentiation may be useful to describe the early decades after Muhammad, after this it is not accurate, because...

The Caliphate itself soon fell into dynastic family lineages

Which Caliph was principally responsible for constituting a commission of esteemed memorizers of the Qur'an to create one recension of the Holy Book?

The third one—'Uthman

According to your instructor, while all of these interrelated messages are emphasized in the Qur'an, the Islamic Holy Book most repeated phrase, command, and message is:

To believe in God and do righteous deeds

Muhammad is seen as the best and beautiful example of how to apply the teachings of God in everyday life and so Muslims study the details of his life to learn how to be holy in this world

Walking or Living Qur'an

One popular legend about Muhammad is that the idols of the Kaaba bowed down in veneration at his birth. Others, as recounted by Denny, include

When she was pregnant, his mother Amina had a dream that she should name her son Muhammad, and a light would emanate from her body by which she could see certain castles in far-off Syria

There are reports of Muhammad saying things which were not Qur'anic revelation proper but were also not just his own words but articulated with authority a sentiment from God, such as "My mercy prevails over my wrath" or "Take on step towards Me, I will take ten steps towards you."

hadith qudsi

As explained in the PDF reading by Jafri, Twelver Shiites' twelfth Imam, the child Muḥammad al-Mahdī, is believed by Twelver Shiites to have been

the final Imam and the one who went into hiding at the beginning of his ministry yet would return on the Day of Resurrection