J201 Final Exam Study Guide
key journalistic standards
-accuracy -balance -checks on pure profit maximization -democratic accountability focus -editorial separation
strategic communication in the 21st century global environment
-advertising has morphed into "integrated marketing communication" -traditional advertising expanding to online, digital, and social media -advertising extends to PR, cause-related marketing, event promotion, etc.
uses and gratifications approach
-an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs -paradigm shift from content to audience; channel proliferation; recognition of the importance of individual differences
Shannon-Weaver model for mass communication
-assumes that communicators are isolated individuals -makes no allowances for differing purposes -makes no allowances for differing interpretations -makes no allowances for unequal power relationships
truth and facts
-truth: the real facts about something -fact: something that truly exists -things are true because they correspond to facts -facts are not only about natural occurrences but also about human creations -ultimately facts are based on observation, but also on human agreement (not mere opinions or "truthiness" but established processes for making decisions about reality)
forms of inquiry
-two ends of a continuum of inquiry 1) idiographic orientation 2) nomothetic orientation
journalism's obligations
-report the verifiable truth -what should be objective--the journalist or the method the journalist uses? -is fairness or balance a good substitute for truth?
problems of democracy
-scope/expertise/time -direct democracy -representative democracy -deliberative democracy
reputation management stage
-should be an ongoing process; should always try to manage company reputation and goodwill -but if crisis occurs, may take a very long time to recover (if at all), depending on how bad the crisis was; must work hard to restore public trust
response to diminished effectiveness of media
-strategic communicators need to become less reliant on traditional marketing tactics and pursue a new generation of tools/techniques -traditional marketing is not going away -must be complemented by emerging strategic communication techniques
positioning and branding
-strategies must build visibility, trust, and loyalty through the creation and reinforcement of a clear identity -differentiates your brand from competitors with messages that are relevant, original and impactful
big data for digital
-technology allows narrowcasting and micro-marketing to individuals -grounded in synthesis of purchasing and media consumption behaviors -detailed data on individual consumers -all the opportunities of the Internet
story telling systems and cultivation
-television transformed the cultural process of story-telling by making it into a centralized, standardized system, coordinated by the advertising market -cultivation does not privilege the impact of one specific show, or its production quality, nor audience contingent interpretations of it -TV is understood as a message system that exposes a community to an aggregate and repetitive system of images that a community can adopt over time -operates outside the democratic system of political decision making
media ecology
-the constellation of information-based organizations that provide a community with news and contribute to discourse -the associations, relationships, and connections that work together to create the information flow in any given community -dependent, organic, living, fluid, amorphous
agenda-setting effect
-the extent to which the amount of media coverage of an issue affects the public's attention to and interest in that issue -concerned with the transfer of salience from one entity to the other -agenda is limited, agenda is skewed, changes to the agenda are explosive
research in PR
-the first step in the public relations process -clearly define situation/problem (situational analysis) -S.W.O.T. (organizational analysis- strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) -audience analysis (needs, wants, desires, VALs)
political polarization
-the process by which the public opinion divides and goes to the extremes -polarization is a measure of distance -increased issue extremity -political alignment -affective phenomena
massive growths in strategic communication over time
-the size of retail outlets -the number of brands and products -the number of media vehicles carrying advertising -challenges of getting people to see your messages
elements of newsworthiness
-timely, proximal, conflict, affects audience, understandable -beat reporting -deadline pressures
objectivity
-treating facts without influence from personal feelings or prejudices -not about the person but the method employed -journalism is being constituted along a larger process of scientific rationality, positing that there are ways of "seeing" that can lead to an objective truth -journalists by employing methods of verification can be objective, if they adhere to the method
issues with truth
-truth in the sense being discussed here is temporal and contextual (this does not mean that anything goes) but rather that through open inquiry it is self-corrective over time -homogenous versus multicultural societies; multicultural societies need more mechanisms of inquiry to assert truths
elaboration likelihood model (emotions)
-under the peripheral route emotional states have a stronger impact on persuasion (form of classical conditioning) -when elaboration likelihood is high, emotion can introduce "biased thinking" by influencing the nature of thoughts that come to mind
idiographic orientation
-unique characteristics of phenomena -rich description of "idiosyncratic" features -intention is to explain one case fully
equivalency framing
-using different, but logically equivalent, words or phrases -result reflects a general tendency for people to be risk averse when exposed to a gains frame and as risk seeking when exposed to a losses frame -most frames are not tested in an equivalency environment
optimizing your content for the algorithm
-video -invite interaction -humor and emotion -user generated content -write back -report the news -invite followers in -ask for what you want
entertainment that is newsworthy
-we learn from infotainment -we become more politically cynical -we are less tolerant of the positions of others
classical conditioning- behaviorism
-when an individual learns to produce an involuntary emotional or physiological response to an instinctive or reflexive response -associative learning: associating a neutral stimulus to an existing association -rewards and punishments
spiral of silence individual differences
-willingness to self censor -shyness; increased social anxiety -lower self esteem -communication apprehension -reduced political efficacy; smaller interest in public affairs -lower knowledge levels -topic is less salient -less confidence in being correct -gender: females; age: older -lower SES
types of journalism
1) "traditional" journalism (neutral-fact oriented) 2) advocacy journalism (advancing a particular policy solution) 3) tabloid journalism (commercial considerations) 4) entertainment media
historical perspective main points
1) a media effect is a cognitive, affective, physiological, attitudinal, or behavioral response to media content 2) early studies found little support for magic bullet notions of media effects; they found effects, but they tend to be contingent and limited 3) this led to a limited effects view
persuasion principles
1) authority: recognizing someone's expertise on an issue/object and believing 2) likability: flows from positive connections (similarities, compliments, and cooperative endeavors) 3) social proof: particularly by people who are just "like you" 4) scarcity: confers value (we make a decision to want what few can have); context of loss motivates 5) reciprocity: obligation to give back; hard to remain inflexible in the face of concession 6) consistency/commitment: what we already believe, what we have already done before
effects of demassified audience
1) choice creates challenge 2) diminished effectiveness -hard to find consumers -hard to get noticed -hard to hold attention -hard to encourage response
strategic objectives/goals for consumers
1) cognitive: -increase brand knowledge/awareness -create associations between products: persons/celebrities/experts, lifestyles, emotions -shape images of brand -differentiate product from competition -correct misperceptions 2) affective: -shape attitudes toward brand 3) behavioral: -expand market shares/sales -reinforce brand loyalty
social networks and news distribution
1) news has a place in social media 2) getting news on Facebook is incidental 3) range of news on social media is broad 4) engagement goes beyond exposure 5) online opinion versus general opinion 6) online sentiment "changes" rapidly 7) SNS news and time on news websites
Limits to the agenda setting function of the news
1) obtrusiveness of the issue 2) political conversation 3) personal goals and motivations 4) declining trust in news
uses and gratifications main points
1) people are different and these differences affect media use, message interpretations, and effects 2) audiences can be active and this impinges their processing of information 3) effects are not necessarily uniform, but contingent on predispositions and use 4) sometimes we are not as active users
media ecology main points
1) polarization is conditional and is dependent upon: -issue preferences across economic and social -geography -diversity of media use -diversity of talk networks 2) pro-civil society building view vary and are most prevalent in those living in and selecting diverse information ecologies
hostile media effect main points
1) publics may be more biased than media and interpret content in a biased way 2) the stronger/more extreme issue positions are, the more susceptible we are to experiencing the media as hostile
where does false balance come from?
1) recognition of the increasing importance of media as power 2) audience increasing perception that the media are biased; in part because the media debate bias 3) political strategy of "working the refs"
types of misinformation
1) satire or parody: no intention to cause harm but has potential to fool 2) misleading content: misleading use of information to frame an issue or individual 3) imposter content: when genuine sources are impersonated 4) fabricated content: new content is 100% false, designed to deceive and do harm 5) false connection: when headlines, visuals, or captions don't support the content 6) false context: when genuine content is shared with false contextual information 7) when genuine information or imagery is manipulated to deceive
SPJ Code of Ethics
1) seek truth and report it 2) minimize harm 3) act independently 4) be accountable and transparent
early studies of voting behavior
1) study of how media influence the electoral process -political predispositions -media effects 2) found media mostly reinforced people's beliefs; very limited conversion -selective exposure -two step flow of communication
Graber's Four Functions of Journalism
1) surveillance -newsworthiness -required for agenda setting 2) interpretation -defines what the news means -required for framing -required for ideological bias 3) socialization -required for cultivation and mean world syndrome 4) manipulation -required for investigative reporting -required for corporate/commercial bias
norms and practices main points
1) through objectivity, balance, and fairness, we try to make rational reconstruction of an event 2) objectivity is not a personal characteristic, but a professional method of inquiry 3) objectivity as a method is plausible and desirable 4) in an advocacy journalism model we need new institutions to adjudicate claims
protecting against vampire creativity
1) tie the creative appeal to the product 2) tie ads together thematically 3) update theme to keep it fresh
success of a persuasive campaign depends on
1) transmitted communication is effective in changing/preserving attitudes in a desired way 2) modified/preserved attitudes influence people's behavior in the expected way
issues with supply/demand gaps in journalism
1) will media continue to fulfill their agenda-setting function? 2) is the public mission of commercial mainstream media sustainable? 3) is the democratic function of news in jeopardy? 4) change in our conception of citizenship? (from informed citizens to monitorial citizens that scan the media environment and become involved only if they perceive a problem) 5) opens citizens for persuasion and manipulation
relationship marketing
-a strategy that focuses on keeping and improving relationships with current customers -develop a long-term interactive communication process between a defined segment and the brand -use a full array of communication messages and channels to build ties -digital, social, and mobile media are key to building relationships
crisis communication
-a sub-specialty of the public relations profession that is designed to protect and defend an individual, company, or organization facing a public challenge to its reputation -prevent crises from happening, deal with it when it does happen, and restore a brand's reputation after it happens
click baiting
fabricated stories mimicking news reports for profit
VALs
popular psychographic method in consumer research that divides consumers into groups based on resources and consumer behavior motivations
third person perception
predicts that people tend to perceive that mass media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves, based on personal biases
consequences of third person perceptions
pro media censorship attitudes
persuasion
process of attitude formation and/or change and modification/confirmation of behavior based upon attitude change/reinforcement
The 4 P's
product, price, place, promotion
indexing
reporting opinions expressed by political elites; ignores most people's perspectives most of the time
audience perspectives on fake news
satire: not seen as news, parody, funny, amusing poor journalism: superficial, inaccurate, sensationalist propaganda: hyperpartisan content: politicians lying, extreme spin/PR some advertising: ads and pop-ups, "around the web" links, sponsored content false news: not seen as news, for-profit fabrication, politically motivated fabrication, malicious hoaxes
Schramm's Communication Model
source, encoder, signal, decoder, destination; communication is not complete until there is a response
knowledge gap hypothesis
states that as new information enters society, wealthy and better-educated members acquire it at a faster rate than poor and less-educated people
assimilation bias
tendency to interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms what we already believe
personalization
the consumer-initiated practice of generating content on a marketer's website that is custom tailored to an individual's specific needs and preferences; new communication technologies "personalize" what essentially continues to be mass communication
mean world syndrome
the cynical mindset of general mistrust of others subscribed to by heavy TV viewers
theory of planned behavior
the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
the five C's
the ideal chronic care communication system encourages expressive "communication," fosters networked "connections," creates a "community" of support, works across the care "continuum," and can be "customized" by the user based on their needs
diffusion of innovations
the process by which the use of an innovation, whether a product or a service, spreads throughout a market group over time and over various categories of adopters
mass communication
the process of creating shared meaning between the mass media and their audiences 1) reach mass audiences, not an individual 2) it is mediated (print, radio, TV, computer, game consoles, mobiles, etc.) 3) we consume a lot of it
media ecology
the study of different personal and social environments created by the use of different communication technologies
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
losses frame
when you focus on the costs or the loss, such as opportunity cost
gains frame
when you frame a message focused on the positive outcome
focus group technique
-a facilitator places respondents into a group -ask questions, listen to responses and interactions -reactions are in an artificial social context -level of representativeness: low -level of detail: medium
infotainment
-a mix of information and diversion oriented to personalities or celebrities, not linked to the day's events, and usually unrelated to public affairs or policy; often called "soft news" -dumbing down or expanding news coverage to everyday life -goes beyond the news (docudramas, "reality" TV, talk shows) -commercialism and competition; public orientation vs audience orientation (more space, less time, cost efficiency) -news form cognitive reactions to emotional reactions -rise of "advertainment"
network ethnography
-a mixed-method technique -begins with a "whole" network analysis (quantitative) -followed by interviews, community observation, focus groups, textual analysis (qualitative) -allows for a holistic appreciation of a singular phenomenon
observation of behavior technique
-a researcher "visits" a person/group and observes them -opportunity to see what they actually do -not dependent on accurate recall -responses are in a genuine social context -level of representativeness: depends -level of detail: high
automated content analysis
-a robust body of work uses language as a lens through which to understand physiological processes relevant to health and behavior -automated coding has advantages relative to human coding in a number of aspects (efficiency: process vast amounts of content, reliability: consistent coding absent biases, sensitivity: coders unaware of language use) -code for concept-derived language categories
uses and limits to algorithmic journalism
-automated journalism is most useful in generating routine news stories for repetitive topics for which clean, accurate, and structured data are available -automated journalism cannot be used to cover topics for which no structured data are available and is challenging when data quality is poor -the key drivers of automated journalism are an ever-increasing availability of structured data, as well as news organizations' aim to both cut costs and increase the quantity of news -algorithms rely on data and assumptions, both of which are subject to biases and errors; as a result, algorithms could produce outcomes that were unexpected, unintended, and contain errors -algorithms cannot ask questions, explain new phenomena, or establish causality and are thus limited in their ability to observe society and fulfill journalistic tasks, such as orientation and public opinion formation -the writing quality of automated news is inferior to human writing but likely to improve, especially as natural language generation technology advances
predicting relapse
-baseline characteristics and system use did not effectively predict relapse; linguistic features account for the most variance -impulsivity/negativity: swearing or negative emotion words=increased risk -cognitive surfacing: cognitive mechanism words=reduced risk; inhibition words=increased risk -personal reflection: achievement words=reduced risk; death words=increased risk
politics and journalism- polarization
-because news tends to highlight conflict -cover politics like a "horse race"; what matters is who is ahead and not issues -new media may create ideological cocoons
relapse prediction
-benefits of online communication environments may extend beyond providing and receiving recovery support -data collected passively as users interact with mobile systems can reveal relapse risk, allow for predictive modeling/intervention -allow tailoring of services to intervene prior to relapse
transformation of news
-blurring lines between news and entertainment -supply/demand gaps in the journalism market
roles and blurred boundaries of integrated marketing communications
-boundaries are blurring and roles are constantly changing 1) situation analysis 2) account strategy 3) creative plan 4) media/digital plan 5) public relations and promotions
integrated marketing communications
-carefully integrating and coordinating the company's many communications channels to deliver a clear, consistent, and compelling message about the organization and its products -need to coordinate strategic communications approaches -advertising, public relations, promotions, direct response, interactive, and more -mutual reinforcement of core themes -creates synergy and memorability
demographic changes driving choice
-changes in household composition -growth of economic populations -"graying" of America -shifts in women in the workforce -polarization into rich and poor
the television world
-characters are young, energetic, and appealing -older people are rare and often portray sick/dying characters -woman = 1/3 of characters except daytime serials -violent crime involves more than half of all characters -for every male victim of violence there are 17 females -villains are disproportionately male, lower-class, foreign -lower classes and non-white are mostly invisible
individual needs that media can satisfy
-cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge, and understanding) -affective needs (emotion, pleasure, feelings) -personal integrative needs (credibility, stability, status) -social integrative needs (family and friends) -tension release needs (escape and diversion)
elaboration and making the right choice
-common knowledge holds that thorough conscious thought leads to good decisions -the notion of unconscious thought or thought without attention
what do the areas where strategic communication are practiced have in common?
-common objectives: changing knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors -common strategies: target marketing -common tactics: social media messaging
underlying justification for knowledge gap hypothesis
-communication skills -stored information -relevant social contacts -selective exposure, acceptance, and retention
strategic communication
-communication that is purpose directed- it directs everyone's attention toward the vision, values, and desired outcomes and persuades people to act in a way that helps to achieve the vision -creating effective campaigns in a cluttered media environment
agenda building
-concerned with how the media agenda and the public agenda influence the policy agenda 1) powerful political and social actors and their agents 2) sociological factors related to news organizations 3) professional norms 4) ideological factors (owners and practitioners) 5) competing media sources
survey technique
-contact many people, ask them about what they do, think, value -large number of respondents -built on statistical properties to enable representativeness -dependent on accurate recall -level of representativeness: potentially high -level of detail: low
crisis communications stage
-control the message before it controls you -crisis tactics: 1) acknowledge problem exists; don't speculate 2) take responsibility 3) be honest 4) show concern 5) communicate regularly
world of the heavy television viewer
-desire for luxury items -overestimate of crime stats -more traditional roles for females -stronger orientation towards consumption -underestimate # of old people in society -less knowledge of environmental issues -unhealthy views of nutrition
experimentation technique
-manipulation introduced to randomly assigned conditions -opportunity to establish causality -somewhat artificial -level of representativeness: depends -level of detail: high
target marketing
-marketing directed toward those groups (market segments) an organization decides it can serve profitably -processes of market segmentation -fragmenting audiences into pieces that have something in common based on demographics, geographics, psychographics, and behaviors
types of PR
-reactive PR must react or respond to a public relations issue or problem -proactive PR allows organizations to plan and execute public relations activities on their own timeline
causes of third person perceptions
-ego enhancement/biased optimism -differential media effects "theories"
how framing affects decision making
-frame can be construed as a dimension on which one bases his/her evaluation of an object -these dimensions involve either substantively distinct considerations (ex: emphasis frames) or logically equivalent ones (ex: equivalency frames) -in both cases, the frame leads to alternative representations of the problem and can result in distinct evaluations and preferences
nomothetic orientation
-generating generalizable principles -establishing "trans-situational" laws -intention is to explain a class
elements of good/effective health communication campaigns
-goal-oriented attempts to inform, persuade, or motivate behavior change -ideally aimed at the individual, network, organizational and community/societal levels -aimed at a relatively large, well-defined audience -provide non-commercial benefits to the individual and/or society -occur during a given time period, which may range from a few weeks to many years -involve an organized set of communication activities
strategic and risk communications stage
-goals: 1) communicate the company's position 2) try to positively influence attitudes and behaviors about the company -the company senses a particular issue is going to blow up or that competitors or opposing forces could organize against it -proactively put a plan in place to address issue and communicate it 1) establish trust with key publics and influencers 2) use the media to help
problems with studying bias
-hard to define -hard to measure -hard to distinguish between structural bias versus political bias and separate these from the influence of reality, economic forces, and governmental pressures
hostile media effect
-idea that partisans see media as less sympathetic to their side, more sympathetic to the opposing side, and generally hostile to their point of view
understanding audiences
-identify audiences and their media environment -craft message to fit audiences -select/cost media to target audiences -starting point: market research
effects of organizational strategies
-identity issues -structural constraints -historical (in)actions
politics and journalism bias
-in the US, the coverage of politics is the coverage of elite conflict -this makes politics one of the most difficult beats -where objectivity is most critical and unbalance more noticeable
effects of hostile media effect
-increased participation -more confrontation and corrective action -can lead to lower political efficacy -third person perceptions in the direction of perceived bias
health communication
-increases knowledge and awareness of a health issue, problem, or its solution -influences perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and social norms about health -generates effective action -demonstrates or illustrates health related skills -shows the benefit of behavior change -increases appropriate use and demand for health services -reinforces knowledge, attitude, and behavior -refutes myths and misconceptions -advocates for a health issue or a population group
theoretical assumptions of uses and gratifications approach
-individual differences lead people to select content -individual differences influence message interpretation
spiral of silence main findings
-individuals are more willing to express their opinions when they think others hold similar opinions, but this empirical relation albeit significant is small -if a minority opinion is perceived to be on the rise, being in the minority does not inhibit expression -individuals' reservation to express true opinions is heightened for controversial topics -cultural norms regarding group affiliation moderate opinion expression
Cultural Indicators Project
-institutional analysis (how are messages produced and distributed) -message system analysis (what is recurring media content) -cultivation analysis (how television exposure molds perceptions about the "real" world)
how is digital media different from traditional media?
-it's a "lean-forward" medium -users "pull" content through instead of having it "pushed" at them (like on TV) -can be more interactive, not static -two way communication -has a lot of user-generated content rather than media or brand-generated content -user is more in control -extremely targetable
elaboration likelihood model (peripheral route)
-likability or attractiveness of source -credibility of source -number of arguments contained -length of arguments -number of other people perceived to agree with the position -production quality of the message
changes in communication ecology
-major decline in newspapers -diminishing local news reporting across media formats -news deserts across wide regions of many states -rise of talk radio, especially in suburban and rural areas -social media as information and organizing platform -rise in political advertising spending across elections -partisan news and cloistered political talk
spiral of silence theoretical argument
-members of a group engage in a constant evaluation of the prevailing climate of opinion in the group -done to avoid the possible social isolation that could result from expressing an opinion that is contrary to the majority opinion -fear of isolation is so strong that a person would be willing to silence their opinion, to express an opinion that they do not really share, or even to modify their initial opinion in order to maintain fluid social ties
goals of crisis communication planning
-minimize damage to a company's reputation when it's in crisis -help the customers/consumers affected
Media's reality
-mix of reality and media agenda creating a public perception of reality
segmentation and targeting
-need to define multiple audiences -defined by usage, lifestyle, and behavior -speak to targets based on their individual needs and wants
bias vs slant
-news slant and political bias are not the same thing -slant is more or less favorable coverage for an individual or group, which can be due to reality as well as bias -bias is a distortion from reality that can be shaped by a variety of factors that can be hard to distinguish
party press
-newspapers created, sponsored, and controlled by political parties to further their interests; this form of press existed in the early years of the American republic; circulation was chiefly among political and commercial elites 1) polarized; Federalist vs Democratic Republican newspapers 2) a party organ characterized by partisan bitterness 3) heavily subsidized distribution via the postal service; government advertisement
penny press
-newspapers that, because of technological innovations in printing, were able to drop their price to one cent, therefore making papers affordable to working and middle classes and enabled newspapers to become a genuine mass medium 1) revolution in mass production: 19th century consumer markets: cutlery, guns, boots, clothing, mass produced goods 2) print: paper making and high speed presses 3) required a new style of journalism that would attract new audiences: scandal and sensationalism 4) newspapers for profit not for politics 5) made money from advertising and large circulation 6) advertising became more democratic 7) want ads came into existence 8) denied any authority or responsibility for exercising moral judgment in advertising 9) shift to human interest and everyday life stories; any story, no matter how trivial was fair game 10) rise of reporting on crime and "society" (the wealthy), family fights, and scandals 11) ground work for "objective reporting," reduction to the fact within genre narratives
organizational strategies exacerbate problems
-objectivity (as exercised) by journalists -deadline/efficiency strategies -hierarchal structured meetings/interviews -decision-making processes, policy work routines -privileging credentials born from systems that benefit mostly white people
balance
-one of the techniques used by journalists as part of the push towards objectivity is that of balance -since you are suspending your own beliefs on an issue, you rely on the accounts of others and their interpretations of events -you offer narratives based on contrasting claims about the truth and you take these seriously
online social networks
-online communities where people congregate, socialize, and exchange views and information 1) participants have uniquely identifiable profiles that consist of user-supplied content, content provided by other users, and/or system-provided data 2) participants can publicly articulate connections that can be viewed and traversed by others 3) participants can consume, produce, and/or interact with streams of user generated content provided by their connections on the site
colonial press
-political or commercial -partisan -elite, educated white men -little attention to women's interests -legacy: editorial, business pages -led to political satire -became politicized around independence
political polarization- new media environment
-post broadcast democracy; by product learning -deliberative potential of "new" media -echo chambers: extreme views become more extreme; groups drift far away form each other
action coordination mechanisms
-power -market -common understanding
strategic campaign planning
-process starts with the client (The Marketing Plan: The Four P's) -an agency is hired to handle promotion -agency develops strategic communication plan
living in a mediated society
-professionalization of human communication -rise of the mass scale -mediatization -personalization of media
assumptions of the uses and gratifications approach
1) communication as goal directed (purpose) 2) social and psychological factors filter and mediate media-behavior relationships 3) instead of being used by media, people select and use media to satisfy needs 4) media compete with other forms (functional alternatives) to satisfy needs (however, dependency can arise from patterns of use)
why plan for crises?
1) crises are inevitable -it's not a matter of IF they will happen, but when and how badly -companies are measured by how well they respond to the inevitable 2) not having a plan to deal with crises is planning to fail
central changes in the current media environment
1) decline in traditional news media's gatekeeping role 2) increase in the number and type of media choices 3) blurring -of fact and opinion -of news and entertainment -of producers and consumers -of interpersonal and mass media 4) collapsing -space -time
the era of choice
1) dominant factor affecting strategic communicators: choice -more consumer options -more media options 2) different forces drive this trend -changes in demographics and lifestyles -technological development
the challenging environment to strategic communication
1) expanding media (TV, internet, etc.) 2) fragmented audiences 3) technologies of avoidance (remote control, DVRs eliminating ads, paying for cable and streaming networks without ads) 4) audience resistance to advertising
differences with previous media effects research
1) focus is no longer on the message/sender side of the equation 2) does not assume direct influence from content 3) audience is no longer considered passive 4) can't explain media effects unless first you understand audience: -characteristics -motivations -content selection -involvement with content
digital media marketing campaigns
1) have a goal in mind 2) target a specific audience 3) find the key "aperture moment" 4) pick the right digital medium to reach your audience
grand principles of American journalism
1) independence 2) transparency 3) citizen engagement 4) holding power accountable 5) objectivity 6) balance 7) fairness 8) accuracy/verification 9) telling the truth
modes of communication
1) interpersonal communication: two people have a conversation 2) mediated communication: two people talk to each other on the telephone or via instant messaging 3) mass communication: an anchor talks to a camera and his/her image and voice are transmitted to a large number
four planning stages of crisis communications
1) issues management: smoldering issues that could result in a crisis if not dealt with 2) strategic and risk communications: strategically positioning the organization to attempt to mitigate potential crisis 3) crisis communications: managing through the crisis itself 4) reputation management: attempt to recover from crisis and repair corporate reputation
fairness
1) it is not about pleasing a source, but rather about being willing not to dismiss what they say outright 2) it is about making the same effort to understand different perspectives 3) it is about giving sources that chance to give their side of the story 4) it is not about an appearance of fairness but of a pursuit of fairness
bias main points
1) journalists are generally moderate, but more liberal than conservative 2) systematic analyses suggest little to know general ideological bias 3) conservative media's volume is greater than liberal media's 4) conservatives discuss liberal media bias more than liberals discuss conservative media bias 5) strategies: -multiple sources -diverse sources -point of view -double standards -lack of context
societal functions of journalism
1) keep those in power accountable: -informed of what government is doing -how that affects you 2) enhance citizenship/self government 3) Entman: provide knowledge on: -policy issues -actions of those in power -ideology (perspectives that shape decisions) -self interest (your stakes on issues) 4) Curran (traditional functions) -inform -scrutinize -debate -represent 5) platform for open debate/ voice of the people 6) media is not alone; other intermediaries of civil society (parties, NGOs, independent judiciary) 7) there is multiplicity in media (civic, social, core)
presumed media influence main points
1) media can have effects that are not direct but rather indirect (because we think they are having an effect) 2) third-person perceptions are ubiquitous and can lead to attitudes and behaviors 3) presumed influence of media on others may lead us to change us behaviors 4) most of us live in worlds of perceptions not fact; thus the importance of perceptions
cultivation main points
1) media cultivate in viewers interpretations of the world in line with the TV world 2) heavy doses of violence in television result in a mean-world syndrome 3) political attitudes tend to converge among heavy TV users 4) new interactive settings may enhance the cultivation of attitudes
agenda setting main points
1) media focus attention signaling what is important 2) forces shaping media's agenda include: powerful external factors, media routines and organization, professional norms and ideology 3) obtrusiveness of issues, political talk, personal interests and declining trust can limit agenda setting capabilities of the media 4) new communication environment, emergence of issue publics and partisanship, challenge media's agenda setting role
mass communication and mediation
1) mediation becomes part of our experience of "real" things 2) powerful forces shape our perceptions of experience
issues management stage
1) monitor the environment and identify smoldering issues 2) develop proactive plans that attempt to fix or minimize smoldering issues, before they become wildfires 3) this includes making a full blown crisis communications plan for each issue
examples of strategic communication response to growing complexity
1) more modest strategic goals 2) make messages more entertaining -ads need "stopping power" -danger: "vampire creativity"
political challenges to the agenda setting function of the press
1) new media environment including Twitter, Facebook, blogs & news aggregators, and online news 2) issue publics 3) partisanship
entertainment media
entertain or divert our attention from more serious concerns
direct democracy
a form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives
traditional journalism
a form of journalism that exhibits a strong commitment to news norms
digital media marketing
a form of marketing that uses digital mediums to achieve marketing goals
crisis
a major event with a potentially negative outcome that could significantly damage an organization, its products, and/or its reputation
vampire creativity
a marketing term used to describe advertisements with overly-developed creative themes; viewers remember the commercial, but not the product or service it's for
emphasis framing
a persuasion technique where focus is placed on those specific aspects of a solution that encourage certain interpretations of the meaningful context, and discourage certain others
tabloid journalism
a style of journalism emphasizing sensational crime stories, gossip columns about celebrities and sports starts, and astrology.
representative democracy
a system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people.
spiral of silence
a theory that links the mass media, social psychology, and the formation of public opinion; the theory says that people who hold minority views on controversial issues tend to keep their views silent
commercial press
a type of newspaper that reported on trade and business dealings and was paid for by the promotion of products and the sale of advertisements 1) results from technological development in mass production, the rise of the advertising industry, and the incorporation of human interest stories as legitimate content 2) the telegraph (1844) linked cities in a national network that provided news instantly; telegraphic columns became a leading feature and the Associated Press (AP) would become a dominant player in news production 3) advertising industry as the main funding source of the press; political autonomy based on market dependence 4) these factors are at the basis for objectivity in journalism (reduction to facts), that is enhanced by professionalism 5) with the emergence of broadcast technologies, radio (1930s) and then television (1940s) became the main source of news for most people; push towards abbreviated news 6) cable news appear in 1980 (CNN) followed by other stations in 1996 (Fox and MSNBC)
where strategic communication is practiced
advertising, public relations, political campaigns, sports marketing, public health campaigns, non-profits
advocacy journalism
an approach in which the reporter actively promotes a particular cause or viewpoint.
cultivation theory
argues that mass-media exposure cultivates a view of the world that is consistent with mediated "reality"
fake news
associated with misinformation from different sources, including journalists; seen as distinguished from news primarily by degree; also recognized as weaponized by critics of news media and platform companies
what does digital media include?
audio and video streaming, Google searches, social media, digital billboards, podcasts, display ads, apps, blogs, livestreaming
public relations (PR)
building good relations with the company's various publics by obtaining favorable publicity, building up a good corporate image, and handling or heading off unfavorable rumors, stories, and events
Persuasion Matrix Model (McGuire)
exposure, attention, interest, comprehension, acquisition, yielding, memory, retrieval, decision, action, reinforcement, consolidation
action coordination mechanisms and political regimes
democracies privilege common understanding; sure force is used as well as markets, but they are not enough to sustain a democratic system of government
deliberative democracy
democracy that asks citizens not only to assume their rights and minimally participate through voting but also to engage actively in democratic discussion in the effort to build a better society
research techniques about consumers
focus groups, surveys, observation of behavior, experimentation
humans as storytellers
from interpersonal modes of storytelling, we have developed forms that make possible mass audiences
action in PR
goals/objectives, themes/key messages, strategies/tactics, calendar, budget, evaluation
conventional wisdom for knowledge gap hypothesis
increasing flow of information on a topic ensures widespread acquisition of knowledge
presumed media influence
people's presumption of media effects tend to impact their willingness to engage in unhealthy behaviors (e.g., smoking) by shaping the normative perception of such behaviors
political bias
political preferences of journalists, editors, owners, and the market may make their way into the news
Magic bullet theory / hypodermic needle model
media that penetrates peoples minds and instantly creates effects. Messages communicated via the media are received and accepted by audiences (speculates a powerful, direct effect of the mass media)
options for demassified audience
more options are giving viewers/listeners more control over what/when/where they watch/listen to podcasts, DVR, VOD, laptops, smartphones
mediated society
much of what we know about, care about, and think is important is based on what we see in the media; what happens in politics and society is not independent of what happens in the news media, social media and interpersonal communication
traditional media
newspapers, radio, television news shows, and magazines
relative hostile media effect
occurs when individuals with different attitudes toward the issue exhibit significantly different evaluations of the same media content
structural bias
organization pressures that affect decisions of what to cover (ex: criteria of newsworthiness) and how to report it (ex: standard operating procedures journalists follow to acquire, convert, and present a story); aside from their political views, journalists work in an organization that emphasizes routines and procedures for covering the news
signals of lapse likelihood
who they talk to, what they say, where they go, who they spend time with, daily mood, geo-location, content of their text messages, network of their communication partners, daily video check-in
PR skills
writing, research, interpersonal communication, media and cultural literacy, critical thinking, business knowledge
