Jap His Quiz 2, 3, 4, 5

Korean War

(June 1950 — July 1953) Heightens needs for Japan as capitalist success 1952 UN military purchases from Japan accounted for 32% of its foreign currency income and 62% of its dollar income Example of Toyota: US Eighth Army contracts with Toyota to buy 4,679 Model BM trucks"In response to this special demand, Toyota Motor Co., Ltd. increased its monthly production plan from 650 units to 1,000 units.""Toyota Motor Co., Ltd. fell into a condition of management crisis as a result of the effects from the Dodge Line and it was necessary to reduce personnel, but following the outbreak of the Korean War, business performance recovered and the company was able to take new steps forward."

Treaty of Shimonoseki

(1895): Disastrous treaty for China, ending the Sino‑Japanese War (1894‑1895). Under its terms Korea effectively became a Japanese protectorate. China ceded to Japan Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Liaodong region of Manchuria, added four more treaty ports, and promised to pay Japan 200 million taels in war indemnities.; His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and His Majesty the Emperor of China, desiring to restore the blessings of peace to their countries and subjects and to remove all cause for future complications, have named as their Plenipotentiaries for the purpose of concluding a Treaty of Peace, that is to say: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Count ITO Hirobumi, Junii, Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Paullownia, Minister President of State; and Viscount MUTSU Munemitsu, Junii, First Class of the Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs. And His Majesty the Emperor of China, LI Hung-chang, Senior Tutor to the Heir Apparent, Senior Grand Secretary of State, Minister Superintendent of Trade for the Northern Ports of China, Viceroy of the province of Chili, and Earl of the First Rank; and LI Ching-fong, Ex-Minister of the Diplomatic Service, of the Second Official Rank: Who, after having exchanged their full powers, which were found to be in good and proper form, have agreed to the following Articles:— Article 1 China recognises definitively the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea, and, in consequence, the payment of tribute and the performance of ceremonies and formalities by Korea to China, in derogation of such independence and autonomy, shall wholly cease for the future. Article 2 China cedes to Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty the following territories, together with all fortifications, arsenals, and public property thereon:— (a) The southern portion of the province of Fêngtien within the following boundaries: The line of demarcation begins at the mouth of the River Yalu and ascends that stream to the mouth of the River An-ping, from thence the line runs to Fêng-huang, from thence to Hai-cheng, from thence to Ying-kow, forming a line which describes the southern portion of the territory. The places above named are included in the ceded territory. When the line reaches the River Liao at Ying-kow, it follows the course of the stream to its mouth, where it terminates. The mid-channel of the River Liao shall be taken as the line of demarcation. This cession also includes all islands appertaining or belonging to the province of Fêngtien situated in the eastern portion of the Bay of Liao-tung and the northern portion of the Yellow Sea. (b) The island of Formosa, together with all islands appertaining or belonging to the said island of Formosa. (c) The Pescadores Group, that is to say, all islands lying between the 119th and 120th degrees of longitude east of Greenwich and the 23rd and 24th degrees of north latitude. Article 3 The alignment of the frontiers described in the preceding Article, and shown on the annexed map, shall be subject to verification and demarcation on the spot by a Joint Commission of Delimitation, consisting of two or more Japanese and two or more Chinese delegates, to be appointed immediately after the exchange of the ratifications of this Act. In case the boundaries laid down in this Act are found to be defective at any point, either on account of topography or in consideration of good administration, it shall also be the duty of the Delimitation Commission to rectify the same.The Delimitation Commission will enter upon its duties as soon as possible, and will bring its labours to a conclusion within the period of one year after appointment. The alignments laid down in this Act shall, however, be maintained until the rectifications of the Delimitation Commission, if any are made, shall have received the approval of the Governments of Japan and China. Article 4 China agrees to pay to Japan as a war indemnity the sum of 200,000,000 Kuping taels; the said sum to be paid in eight instalments. The first instalment of 50,000,000 taels to be paid within six months, and the second instalment of 50,000,000 to be paid within twelve months, after the exchange of the ratifications of this Act. The remaining sum to be paid in six equal instalments as follows: the first of such equal annual instalments to be paid within two years, the second within three years, the third within four years, the fourth within five years, the fifth within six years, and the the sixth within seven years, after the exchange of the ratifications of this Act. Interest at the rate of 5 per centum per annum shall begin to run on all unpaid portions of the said indemnity from the date the first instalment falls due.China shall, however, have the right to pay by anticipation at any time any or all of the said instalments. In case the whole amount of the said indemnity is paid within three years after the exchange of the ratifications of the present Act all interest shall be waived, and the interest for two years and a half or for any less period, if any already paid, shall be included as part of the principal amount of the indemnity. Article 5 The inhabitants of the territories ceded to Japan who wish to take up their residence outside the ceded districts shall be at liberty to sell their real property and retire. For this purpose a period of two years from the date of the exchange of ratifications of the present Act shall be granted. At the expiration of that period those of the inhabitants who shall not have left such territories shall, at the option of Japan, be deemed to be Japanese subjects.Each of the two Governments shall, immediately upon the exchange of the ratifications of the present Act, send one or more Commissioners to Formosa to effect a final transfer of that province, and within the space of two months after the exchange of the ratifications of this Act such transfer shall be completed. Article 6 All Treaties between Japan and China having come to an end as a consequence of war, China engages, immediately upon the exchange of the ratifications of this Act, to appoint Plenipotentiaries to conclude with the Japanese Plenipotentiaries, a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation and a Convention to regulate Frontier Intercourse and Trade. The Treaties, Conventions, and Regulations now subsisting between China and the European Powers shall serve as a basis for the said Treaty and Convention between Japan and China. From the date of the exchange of ratifications of this Act until the said Treaty and Convention are brought into actual operation, the Japanese Governments, its officials, commerce, navigation, frontier intercourse and trade, industries, ships, and subjects, shall in every respect be accorded by China most favoured nation treatment. China makes, in addition, the following concessions, to take effect six months after the date of the present Act:— First.—The following cities, towns, and ports, in addition to those already opened, shall be opened to the trade, residence, industries, and manufactures of Japanese subjects, under the same conditions and with the same privileges and facilities as exist at the present open cities, towns, and ports of China: Shashih, in the province of Hupeh. Chungking, in the province of Szechwan. Suchow, in the province of Kiangsu. Hangchow, in the province of Chekiang. The Japanese Government shall have the right to station consuls at any or all of the above named places. Second.—Steam navigation for vessels under the Japanese flag, for the conveyance of passengers and cargo, shall be extended to the following places: On the Upper Yangtze River, from Ichang to Chungking. On the Woosung River and the Canal, from Shanghai to Suchow and Hangchow. The rules and regulations that now govern the navigation of the inland waters of China by Foreign vessels shall, so far as applicable, be enforced, in respect to the above named routes, until new rules and regulations are conjointly agreed to. Third.—Japanese subjects purchasing goods or produce in the interior of China, or transporting imported merchandise into the interior of China, shall have the right temporarily to rent or hire warehouses for the storage of the articles so purchased or transported without the payment of any taxes or extractions whatever. Fourth.—Japanese subjects shall be free to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in all the open cities, towns, and ports of China, and shall be at liberty to import into China all kinds of machinery, paying only the stipulated import duties thereon. All articles manufactured by Japanese subjects in China shall, in respect of inland transit and internal taxes, duties, charges, and exactions of all kinds, and also in respect of warehousing and storage facilities in the interior of China, stand upon the same footing and enjoy the same privileges and exemptions as merchandise imported by Japanese subjects into China. In the event additional rules and regulations are necessary in connexion with these concessions, they shall be embodied in the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation provided for by this Article. Article 7 Subject to the provisions of the next succeeding Article, the evacuation of China by the armies of Japan shall be completely effected within three months after the exchange of the ratificatioins of the present Act. Article 8 As a guarantee of the faithful performance of the stipulations of this Act, China consents to the temporary occupation by the military forces of Japan of Weihaiwei, in the province of Shantung. [3]Upon payment of the first two instalments of the war indemnity herein stipulated for and the exchange of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and navigation, the said place shall be evacuated by the Japanese forces, provided the Chinese Government consents to pledge, under suitable and sufficient arrangements, the Customs revenue of China as security for the payment of the principal and interest of the remaining instalments of the said indemnity. In the event that no such arrangements are concluded, such evacuation shall only take place upon the payment of the final instalment of said indemnity.It is, however, expressly understood that no such evacuation shall take place until after the exchange of the ratifications of the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation. Article 9 Immediately upon the exchange of the ratifications of this Act, all prisoners of war then held shall be restored, and China undertakes not to ill-treat or punish prisoners of war so restored to her by Japan. China also engages to at once release all Japanese subjects accused of being military spies or charged with any other military offences. China further engages not to punish in any manner, nor to allow to be punished, those Chinese subjects who have in any manner been compromised in their relations with the Japanese army during the war. Article 10 All offensive military operations shall cease upon the exchange of the ratifications of this Act. Article 11 The present Act shall be ratified by their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of China, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Chefoo on the 8th day of the 5th month of the 28th year of MEIJI, corresponding to the 14th day of the 4th month of the 21st year of KUANG HSÜ.In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the same and affixed thereto the seal of their arms.Done in Shimonoseki, in duplicate, this 17th day of the fourth month of the 28th year of MEIJI, corresponding to the 23rd day of the 3rd month of the 21st year of KUANG HSÜ.

Treaty of Portsmouth

(1905) ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was signed in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, after negotiations brokered by Theodore Roosevelt (for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize). Japan had dominated the war and received an indemnity, the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, and half of Sakhalin Island, but the treaty was widely condemned in Japan because the public had expected more.; The Emperor of Japan on the one part, and the Emperor of all the Russias, on the other part, animated by a desire to restore the blessings of peace, have resolved to conclude a treaty of peace, and have for this purpose named their plenipotentiaries, that is to say, for his Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Baron Komura Jutaro, Jusami, Grand Cordon of the Imperial Order of the Rising Sun, his Minister for Foreign Affairs, and his Excellency Takahira Kogoro, Imperial Order of the Sacred Treasure, his Minister to the United States, and his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, his Excellency Sergius Witte, his Secretary of State and President of the Committee of Ministers of the Empire of Russia, and his Excellency Baron Roman Rosen, Master of the Imperial Court of Russia, his Majesty's Ambassador to the United States, who, after having exchanged their full powers, which were found to be in good and due form, and concluded the following articles: ARTICLE I. There shall henceforth be peace and amity between their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of all the Russias, and between their respective States and subjects. ARTICLE II. The Imperial Russian Government, acknowledging that Japan possesses in Korea paramount political, military and economical interests engages neither to obstruct nor interfere with measures for guidance, protection and control which the Imperial Government of Japan may find necessary to take in Korea. It is understood that Russian subjects in Korea shall be treated in exactly the same manner as the subjects and citizens of other foreign Powers; that is to say, they shall be placed on the same footing as the subjects and citizens of the most favored nation. It is also agreed that, in order to avoid causes of misunderstanding, the two high contracting parties will abstain on the Russian-Korean frontier from taking any military measure which may menace the security of Russian or Korean territory. ARTICLE III. Japan and Russia mutually engage: First. -- To evacuate completely and simultaneously Manchuria, except the territory affected by the lease of the Liaotung Peninsula, in conformity with the provisions of the additional article I annexed to this treaty, and,Second.--To restore entirely and completely to the exclusive administration of China all portions of Manchuria now in occupation, or under the control of the Japanese or Russian troops, with the exception of the territory above mentioned.The Imperial Government of Russia declares that it has not in Manchuria any territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions in the impairment of Chinese sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity. ARTICLE IV. Japan and Russia reciprocally engage not to obstruct any general measures common to all countries which China may take for the development of the commerce or industry of Manchuria. ARTICLE V. The Imperial Russian Government transfers and assigns to the Imperial Government of Japan, with the consent of the Government of China, the lease of Port Arthur, Talien and the adjacent territorial waters, and all rights, privileges and concessions connected with or forming part of such lease, and it also transfers and assigns to the Imperial government of Japan all public works and properties in the territory affected by the above-mentioned lease. The two contracting parties mutually engage to obtain the consent of the Chinese Government mentioned in the foregoing stipulation.The Imperial Government of Japan, on its part, undertakes that the proprietary rights of Russian subjects in the territory above referred to shall be perfectly respected. ARTICLE VI. The Imperial Russian Government engages to transfer and assign to the Imperial Government of Japan, without compensation and with the consent of the Chinese Government, the railway between Chang-chunfu and Kuanchangtsu and Port Arthur, and all the branches, together with all the rights, privileges and properties appertaining thereto in that region, as well as all the coal mines in said region belonging to or worked for the benefit of the railway. The two high contracting parties mutually engage to obtain the consent of the Government of China mentioned in the foregoing stipulation. ARTICLE VII. Japan and Russia engage to exploit their respective railways in Manchuria exclusively for commercial and industrial purposes and nowise for strategic purposes. It is understood that this restrictiction does not apply to the railway in the territory affected by the lease of the Liaotung Peninsula. ARTICLE VIII. The imperial Governments of Japan and Russia with the view to promote and facilitate intercourse and traffic will as soon as possible conclude a separate convention for the regulation of their connecting railway services in Manchuria. ARTICLE IX. The Imperial Russian Government cedes to the Imperial Government of Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty the southern portion of the Island of Saghalin and all the islands adjacent thereto and the public works and properties thereon. The fiftieth degree of north latitude is adopted as the northern boundary of the ceded territory. The exact alignment of such territory shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of the additional article II annexed to this treaty. Japan and Russia mutually agree not to construct in their respective possessions on the Island of Saghalin or the adjacent islands any fortification or other similar military works. They also respectively engage not to take any military measures which may impede the free navigation of the Strait of La Perouse and the Strait of Tartary. ARTICLE X. It is reserved to Russian subjects, inhabitants of the territory ceded to Japan, to sell their real property and retire to their country, but if they prefer to remain in the ceded territory they will be maintained protected in the full exercise of their industries and rights of propperty on condition of of submitting to the Japanese laws and jurdisdiction. Japan shall have full liberty to withdraw the right of residence in or to deport from such territory of any inhabitants who labor under political or administrative disability. She engages, however, that the proprietary rights of such inhabitants shall be fully respected. ARTICLE XI. Russia engages to arrange with Japan for granting to Japanese subjects rights of fishery along the coasts of the Russian possession in the Japan, Okhotsk and Bering Seas. It is agreed that the foregoing engagement shall not affect rights already belonging to Russian or foreign subjects in those regions. ARTICLE XII. The treaty of commerce and navigation between Japan and Russia having been annulled by the war the Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia engage to adopt as a basis for their commercial relations pending the conclusion of a new treaty of commerce and navigation the basis of the treaty which was in force previous to the present war, the system of reciprocal treatment on the footing of the most favored nation, in which are included import and export duties, customs formalities, transit and tonnage dues and the admission and treatment of agents, subjects and vessels of one country in the territories of the other. ARTICLE XIII. As soon as possible after the present treaty comes in force all prisoners of war shall be reciprocally restored. The Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia shall each appoint a special commissioner to take charge of the prisoners. All prisoners in the hands of one Government shall be delivered to and be received by the commissioner of the other Government or by his duly authorized representative in such convenient numbers and at such convenient ports of the delivering State as such delivering State shall notify in advance to the commissioner of the receiving State.The Governments of Japan and Russia shall present each other as soon as possible after the delivery of the prisoners is completed with a statement of the direct expenditures respectively incurred by them for the care and maintenance of the prisoner from the date of capture or surrender and up to the time of death or delivery. Russia engages to repay as soon as possible after the exchange of statement as above provided the difference between the actual amount so expended by Japan and the actual amount similarly disbursed by Russia. ARTICLE XIV. The present treaty shall be ratified by their Majesties the Emperor of Japan and the Emperor of all the Russias. Such ratification shall be with as little delay as possible, and in any case no later than fifty days from the date of the signature of the treaty, to be announced to the Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia respectively through the French Minister at Tokio and the Ambassador of the United States at St. Petersburg, and from the date of the latter of such announcements shall in all its parts come into full force. The formal exchange of ratifications shall take place at Washington as soon as possible. ARTICLE XV.The present treaty shall be signed in duplicate in both the English and French languages. The texts are in absolute conformity, but in case of a discrepancy in the interpretation the French text shall prevail.SUB-ARTICLESIn conformity with the provisions of articles 3 and 9 of the treaty of the peace between Japan and Russia of this date the undersigned plenipotentiaries have concluded the following additional articles:SUB-ARTICLE TO ARTICLE III. The Imperial Governments of Japan and Russia mutually engage to commence the withdrawal of their military forces from the territory of Manchuria simultaneously and immediately after the treaty of peace comes into operation, and within a period of eighteen months after that date the armies of the two countries shall be completely withdrawn from Manchuria, except from the leased territory of the Liaotung Peninsula. The forces of the two countries occupying the front positions shall first be withdrawn.The high contracting parties reserve to themselves the right to maintain guards to protect their respective railway lines in Manchuria. The number of such guards shall not exceed fifteen per kilometre and within that maximum number the commanders of the Japanese and Russian armies shall by common accord fix the number of such guards to be mployed as small as possible while having in view the actual requirements.The commanders of the Japanese and Russian forces in Manchuria shall agree upon the details of the evacuation in conformity with the above principles and shall take by common accord the measures necessary to carry out the evacuation as soon as possible, and in any case not later than the period of eighteen months. SUB-ARTICLE TO ARTICLE IX. As soon as possible after the present treaty comes into force a committee of delimitation composed of an equal number of members is to be appointed by the two high contracting parties which shall on the spot mark in a permanent manner the exact boundary between the Japanese and Russian possessions on the Island of Saghalin. The commission shall be bound so far as topographical considerations permit to follow the fiftieth parallel of north latitude as the boundary line, and in case any deflections from that line at any points are found to be necessary compensation will be made by correlative deflections at other points. It shall also be the duty of the said commission to prepare a list and a description of the adjacent islands included in the cession, and finally the commission shall prepare and sign maps showing the boundaries of the ceded territory. The work of the commission shall be subject to the approval of the high contracting parties. The foregoing additional articles are to be considered ratified with the ratification of the treaty of peace to which they are annexed.In witness whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have signed and affixed seals to the present treaty of peace. Done at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, this fifth day of the ninth month of the thirty-eighth year of the Meiji, corresponding to the twenty-third day of August, one thousand nine hundred and five, (September 5, 1905.)

Satō's Non-Nuclear Principles

1) Japan will not produce nuclear weapons 2) Japan will not possess nuclear weapons 3) Japan will not permit the introduction of nuclear weapons on its territory

Washington Naval Conference

1921--Britain, France, Italy, Japan & US agree to limit size of navy 5:5:3 naval tonnage ratio No new naval fortifications N of Hong Kong or W of Hawaii

Kellogg-Briand Pact

1928 agreement in which many nations agreed to outlaw war

Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) (Jimintō)

1955 center right coalition; LDP governs from 1955 to 1993 Japanese politics is dominated by factions within LDP rather than multiparty rule Center — origins with men like Yoshida Shigeru 吉田 茂 (1878-1967) Right — origins with men like Kishi Nobusuke (1896-1987) 岸信介- grandson Abe Shinzō PM 2006-07

"Nixon Shocks"

1971-73: the beginning beginning of trouble in US-Japanese alliance Normalization of relations with PRC- US recognizes Beijing (PRC), rejects Taiwan, without informing Tokyo beforehand Bretton-Woods- US abandons Bretton-Woods, floats the dollar and allows it to fall Trade Friction- US demands restrictions of Japanese textile exports to US (Nixon threatens to impose restrictions unilaterally under the Trading with the Enemy Act)

Bubble economy

A highly inflated economy that cannot be sustained. Bubble economies usually result from rapid influx of international capital into a developing country. Plaza Accords (1985) - designed to increase value of Yen, but overshoots targets Strong yen drives "bubble" investments Mitsubishi - Rockefeller Center Sony - Columbia Pictures Cosmo World — Pebble Beach Golf Course Financial deregulation — supports bubble investments

Itagaki Taisuke (1837-1919)

A samurai who advocated for parliamentary constitutional government in 1870's, but would sometimes leave his fellow activists to return to the government. His activism appealed to former samurai. His efforts eventually sparked a much wider political movement; growth particularly imp among wealthy farmers, former samurai dissidents; in 1898, Okuma and him form cabinet but can't govern

League of Nations

A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by President Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined the League. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946.

Tianamen Protests

April 1989 — Chinese students began gathering in Beijing's Tiananmen Square to mourn the death Hu Yaobang, a high-ranking Chinese Communist Party member known as a reformer Protests quickly turned into a movement demanding reform freedom of the press freedom of speech government transparency end to political corruption Students refuse to leave Red Square during Gorbachev visit in May First Sino-Soviet summit in 30 years BUT CCP is embarrassed Protest begin to draw support from PLA police lower party officers farmers truckers Students demand that Chinese premier Li Peng 李鹏 retract editorial called protests unpatriotic — stage hunger strike June 2 1989 Government tells Beijing residents to stay indoors People instead flood the streets to block PLA June 4 1989 CCP stages massive crackdown

Gen. Douglas MacArthur

During the Korean War, he was commander of Allied Forces in the South Pacific during World War II and of UN forces in Korea. He lead the American, British, and South Korean forces. MacArthur fought up until the Yalu River by the Chinese border. Truman told him to only use Korean forces in case China got involved. However MacArthur did not follow orders and sent US, British and Korean forces to fight. The Chinese responded heavily and the troops were pushed back to the 38th parallel. Truman was extremely upset and dismissed MacArthur. Some believe that MacArthur was the reason that the US failed to "liberate" North Korea. Also MacArthur, while back in the states, was always publicly dismissing Truman's ideas. At one point he was even going to run for president.; Reforms Jap

Nakasone Yasuhiro

Died last year; PM 1982-87; Something of a political outsider: first in his family to go into politics Naval officer (paymaster) Wrote directly to MacArthur insisting that Japan should have army As PM he believes that Japan need to rethink alliance with US as an equal "Nakasone Doctrine" to replace "Yoshida Doctrine"Age of American supremacy was ending Japan will be economic giant of 21st century Japan can and should be less protectionists Nakasone commissioners official government report to support his views" Maekawa Commission" — not MITI, EPA, MoF" It is necessary to view a continuation of Japan's large imbalance in the current trade account as a crisis condition not only in managing our own economy but also in the cooperative development of the world economy. Today, Japan has entered a period in which historic changes must be made in its economic policies as well as in the lives of the people. Without such changes, there can be no progress for Japan.""In order to create an internationally cooperative economy and for Japan to become a truly international state, it is essential that Japan endeavor to achieve economic growth, led primarily by domestic demand, as well as to promote fundamental changes in its trading patterns and industrial structure . . . To achieve these goals, the roles of government finance, including the tax system and monetary policy, are important. Thus, there is a special need to make a fundamental reexamination of the tax policies promoting saving."Proposed Policy changes 1) increase domestic demand 2) transform the industrial structure to reduce trade surplus 3) improve access to Japanese markets and promote the import of foreign manufactured goods 4) cooperate in international efforts to stabilize exchange rate 5) make contributions to the world economy appropriate Japan's position . . . (foreign aid 6) change fiscal and monetary policies to reduce trade surplus Domestic response"Ron Yasu" LDP rejects Nakasone's plan"It is simply unforgivable to make such promises at a meeting of the heads of state regarding Japan's policies; the party has not been consulted."BUT, success on JNR and "metal bats" (cf. 1981 NY Times story) Pushed for strong Japanese military Despite opposition from former PM Fukuda and Suzuki - pushed through a military budget which exceeded 1% of GNP -- the 1986 military budget was 1.004% of GNP Argued that Japan had to be able to control the Sea of Japan, so as to be able to bloc the passage of Soviet submarine into the Pacific during time of crisis Argued for an expansion of Japanese air power so as to stop the overflight of Soviet backfire bombers -- "unsinkable aircraft carrier." Hinted at constitutional revision Visits Yasukuni Shrine and signs in as PM in 1985 . . . but not in 1986

Ikeda Hayato (1899-1965), (PM 1960-64)

Focus on economic growth and reducting domestic tensions "Income Doubling Plan": focused on balanced growth across economic sectors and companies size Social welfare: national health insurance Price supports for farmers Protection for small business: see department store regulations Coopt (rather than combat) labor unions: emphasize that productivity will be shared with job security, higher wages

Sato's acceptance speech w 4 things listed at bottom of Sato

Excellencies, Ladies and Gentlemen, Having the exceptional honor to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, rich in tradition and honored throughout the world, before such a distinguished assembly, was, indeed, the most memorable occasion of my life. I believe that it is not upon me alone that this rare honor has been bestowed; the Japanese people share it with me. All through the years since World War II, the Japanese people have, I am convinced, made strenuous efforts to preserve and promote world peace, contributing to the progress and prosperity of mankind. It is, therefore, on behalf of the Japanese people as well that I respectfully express my profound gratitude to the Nobel Committee of the Norwegian Parliament for their decision to award this prize to us. It is with great pride as a Japanese and with deep humility as an individual that I accept this prize. I have held the post of Prime Minister of Japan for one-third of the 22-year period since the San Francisco Peace Treaty1 entered into force. It seems to me that this is an appropriate opportunity to look back upon the Japanese people's opting for peace, and the efforts they have made to give substance to that decision. If the attainment of peace is the ultimate objective of all statesmen, it is, at the same time, something very ordinary, closely tied to the daily life of each individual. In familiar terms, it is the condition that allows each individual and his family to pursue, without fear, the purpose of their lives. It is only in such circumstances that each individual will be able to devote himself, without the loss of hope for the future of mankind, to the education of his children, to an attempt to leave upon the history of mankind the imprint of his own creative and constructive achievements in the arts, culture, religion and other activities fulfilling social aspirations. This is the peace which is essential for all individuals, peoples, nations, and thus for the whole of humanity. Though frequent turmoils vitiated life in other parts of the world during the two and half centuries from the beginning of the 17th century, Japan managed to live in tranquility in a state of isolation, neither threatening other nations nor threatened by them. It was only in the mid-19th century that Japan, faced with the growing presence of European powers in Asia, abandoned its policy of isolation, and opened its doors to the outside world, and, with the Meiji Restoration2, began to move towards the creation of a modern nation state. Subsequently, the Japanese people experienced a variety of vicissitudes and were involved in international disputes, eventually, for the first time in their history, experiencing the horrors of modern warfare on their own soil during World War II. Japan is the only country in the world to have suffered the ravages of atomic bombing. That experience left an indelible mark on the hearts of our people, making them passionately determined to renounce all wars. Fully conscious of the bitter lessons of defeat in 1945 and unswervingly determined to seek an enduring peace, our people revised the old Constitution. The new Constitution is founded on the principles of the protection of human rights on the one hand, and the renunciation of war on the other. Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution stipulates as follows: "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or the use of force as means of settling international disputes". Such a declaration renouncing the use of force in the settlement of international disputes, incorporating the philosophy of the Kellogg-Briand pact3, has been made by peoples other than the Japanese. It is noteworthy, however, that a major power like Japan should have persevered in this direction by national consensus and be determined to retain this attitude in the future. Japan has changed greatly during the thirty years since the period of confusion following defeat - rebuilding the nation's life and regaining its sovereign independence, with vigorous economic and social development complemented by scientific and technological progress in the sixties. In the meantime, our people made certain important choices. The first among them was the spontaneous formation of a national consensus not to be armed with nuclear weapons. It has often been pointed out that, with the rise in the level of economic activity and the great strides made in science and technology, Japan has the capacity to produce nuclear arms. However, it is, in spite of Japan's potential, or precisely for that reason, that our people have, on their own initiative, made the firm choice not to be armed with nuclear weapons. This is also the firm policy of the Japanese Government. I wish to take this opportunity to declare this again unequivocally, and beg that my distinguished audience will bear this fact in mind. It is only natural that for any statesman at the helm of any government the question of his country's security should be a concern of the utmost importance. Upon assuming the reins of government, I adopted, always conscious of the importance of the role of the United Nations, a policy of following a formula of collective security based on the Charter of the United Nations for the maintenance of my country's security in the prevailing international situation. In the light of the circumstances in which my country was placed, this meant the maintenance of the Japan-US Mutual Security and Cooperation Treaty which took effect in 1960. This treaty is not directed against any country but rather seeks to establish the basic conditions prerequisite for the maintenance of peace. This is the meaning of the treaty. We, in the latter part of the 20th century, are, however, living in the nuclear age. I pointed out in a basic policy speech delivered in the National Diet in early 1968, that the common task confronting all countries today is the question of how we are to survive this nuclear age. I established three non-nuclear principles as a policy of the Japanese Government after deep reflection on the course Japan should take as a country which will not possess nuclear arms. This policy states that we shall not manufacture nuclear weapons, that we shall not possess them and that we shall not bring them into our country. This was later reaffirmed by a resolution of our Diet. I have no doubt that this policy will be pursued by all future governments. It was also during my tenure of office that the Japanese Government agreed to the conclusion of a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and signed it, pursuing a policy in harmony with the avowed desire of the people. Under the terms of our Constitution, the assent of the Diet is required before ratification procedures can be completed; it is my desire to see these procedures completed with the least possible delay. Thermonuclear energy, used as a means of warfare, has terrifying potential for destruction. In fact, the proliferation of nuclear weapons may well jeopardize the very survival of mankind. Nuclear disarmament has now become a matter of the utmost urgency. Consequently, it is gratifying that the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics have made a certain amount of progress. Nevertheless, this progress represents only a freezing at present level. It is the earnest hope of our people that the world may see the day when all nuclear weapons are abolished. If I may, however, be allowed to put this in more realistic, if more modest, terms, the nuclear Powers, with the United States and the USSR taking the lead, should, at least, cease their quantitative and qualitative nuclear arms race, and sincerely explore effective and practical means for the gradual reduction and international control of nuclear arms. In this context, I wish to point out to the five nations which at present possess nuclear weapons that they have especially heavy responsibilities for assuring the peace and security of the world. The Japanese people hope most earnestly that constructive efforts will be made by these nuclear powers with a view to bringing about some epoch-making progress in nuclear arms control and disarmament. II. The second achievement during my tenure of office that I should like to refer to was Japan's attainment of the reversion to Japan of the Ogasawara and Okinawa Islands. The international order established at the end of World War II could certainly have been worse. However, this order did contain certain factors which bore within them the seeds of instability. The divided countries provide the most vivid example of this situation. Moreover, the fact that the majority of the divided countries in the world are in Asia indicates how global tensions might concentrate in that continent. Under the Japanese Peace Treaty, signed in San Francisco in 1951, Okinawa and Ogasawara, integral parts of our national territory, were placed under the administration of the United States, with Japan retaining residual sovereignty. The fact of defeat obliged our country to acquiesce in this arrangement. However, with the passing of time, the world gradually moved towards stability and prosperity, while our country regained sufficient economic and diplomatic potential to contribute to the progress and development of the community of nations. As these developments took place, the desire that the arrangements I have mentioned should be revised gradually gained ground in our national consciousness. It was a clearly anomalous situation for one million Japanese people to be still under foreign domination more than twenty years after the termination of hostilities. The desire to see Okinawa returned to Japan developed into a broad national consensus among our people. By that time, Okinawa had come to occupy a key strategic position in Asia in the framework of the Cold War. Nevertheless I declared soon after my assumption of office as Prime Minister my conviction that: "Until Okinawa is returned, Japan will not have completely emerged from her post-war period". For I had came to the conviction that to leave Okinawa in such an anomalous state would create greater tension in Asia because of the very important position of this group of islands and that to realize the reversion of Okinawa would contribute to a stable peace in the Western Pacific. I came to be convinced that between countries like Japan and the United States, each with a democratic system and a high standard of living, it would, by means of peaceful negotiations, not be at all impossible to avoid a confrontation, even given considerable differences of interest. The negotiations on the reversion of Okinawa did indeed present a challenge. Fortunately, owing to the wisdom and foresight of its drafters, Article 3 of the San Francisco Peace Treaty left us with ways to obtain a readjustment. In the light of the mutually shared basis of friendship and trust in the soundness of Japan-US relations, and with the purpose of relaxing tensions in Asia, with the ultimate aim of achieving a stable world peace, I sought from the United States the return of Okinawa in the form of a peaceful alteration of the then prevailing situation. It cannot be said that these negotiations were easy. However, the United States, as a friendly country, lent a willing ear to the Japanese request. Finally, the great achievement of realizing the return of territory through diplomatic negotiations, an event rarely witnessed in world history, was achieved. As a result of this political solution, peace and stability in the East Asian region surrounding Japan have been strengthened. Furthermore, the friendly relations existing between America and Japan, which are the key to this peace and stability, have been placed on an even firmer foundation. A situation had been created, moreover, which would serve as the basis for a gradual relaxation of tension with China. It is my belief that the return of Okinawa is a shining example of a peaceful modification of the status quo and that it also contributed to the relaxation of tension in Asia, and to stability in the Western Pacific region. As for Japan, the return of Okinawa has served as a major factor in fostering political stability. III. In the area of foreign relations, I have always sought to maintain friendly relations with all countries, indeed to improve them further. Prince Shotoku who lived from the end of the 6th century to the 7th century was a distinguished political leader of ancient Japan, as well as a great religious leader of the period when Buddhism was introduced into Japan. Japan's first constitution established by Prince Shotoku begins with the declaration: "Harmony is the basic principle to be respected". This spirit is a national and popular ideal which has run throughout Japanese history. As for myself, I have expressed this spirit of harmony in the words "magnanimity and harmony", making it one of the guiding principles of my political life. There is a favorite saying of mine: "Here I stand and there stand you; but we remain friends". It is only natural that people should differ. Nevertheless, all should accept these differences with tolerance and seek a way in which they can live together in peace through mutual understanding. This, indeed, is the moral principle which has guided me in the reality of politics. I am happy to say that it has the support of many people of goodwill in Japan and elsewhere. This spirit, when applied in the fields of external relations, can develop into policies for the maintenance of peaceful and fraternal relations, whatever differences may exist among countries whose ideologies, social systems and policies differ. Prompted by this spirit, I emphasized first and foremost the development of good-neighbor diplomacy in Asia. Depending on the countries and the problems involved, there were occasions when it was not easy to put this policy into practice. However, I never adopted a policy which meant that we looked upon a foreign country with hostility, and I always conducted myself with the utmost sincerity, always being ready for dialogue. It was with this viewpoint in mind that I undertook in earnest negotiations to normalize relations with the Republic of Korea soon after my assumption to office as Prime Minister. These negotiations encountered numerous difficulties, due largely to national feeling on the part of both the Japanese and Korean peoples, attributable to the historical fact of the past domination of Korea by Japan and to the reality of the Korean Peninsula being divided into two camps. Nevertheless, the guiding spirit of equality and mutual advantage and the realistic approach of seeking to establish friendship with close neighbors first proved effective. In January, 1966, the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea and the related agreements became effective, thus solving a major pending issue in post-war Japanese diplomacy. Now to look at Southeast Asia in the 1960s. The economy developed over the entire area at a comparatively steady pace, despite the grave problem of the Vietnam War which fortunately did not spread beyond the Indo-China Peninsula. This progress was the fruit of the unceasing initiatives and efforts made by various countries under the wise leadership of their leaders. I believe that Japan was also able to make some contribution to this progress. Japan was in the forefront of the nations participating in the establishment of the Asian Development Bank in 1966, took an active part in the convening of the first Ministerial Conference for the Economic Development of Southeast Asia, and also participated in the Asian and Pacific Council. She, thus, made every effort to further the development of regional cooperation and mutual solidarity. The leaders of Southeast Asia rate highly the role our country has played in the non-military areas of the economy and technology. I believe we must continue this cooperation ever more actively in order to achieve tangible results. In addition, the activities of the Youth Overseas Cooperation Corps, whose members devote themselves to working hand-in-hand with and sweat alongside the local people for the improvement of the standard of living in developing countries, not only in Southeast Asia but throughout the developing world, greatly increased during my premiership. I like to believe that, thanks to numerous opportunities for heart-to-heart talks with Asian leaders in order to deepen mutual understanding, I was able to contribute to the cultivation of friendly and good-neighborly relations in our part of the world. IV. By an interesting coincidence, my life began in 1901, the year in which the first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded. For 74 years the Nobel Prize has witnessed the bright and dark phases in the quest for world peace. During my lifetime, I have also shared the same experiences. Therefore, I feel that I might be allowed to venture some observations on one of the subjects confronting our contemporary civilization. That subject is none other than the problem of the utilization of thermonuclear energy. One of the aspects of thermonuclear energy is its massive, and potentially destructive, power. For this reason, this energy source could clearly pose a dire threat to humanity, depending on the manner in which it is used. Another aspect which cannot be denied is that it is a source of potentially limitless energy which could well open up new vistas for the civilization of tomorrow. Today, humanity faces difficult challenges in areas such as population, food, natural resources, energy and the environment. These are grave problems which could destroy peace in this world should we make wrong choices in our efforts to find solutions. The discord among the advanced industrialized countries, the countries possessing natural resources, and the developing countries is growing greater. Unless this difficulty is overcome by the promotion of new sources of energy, especially the peaceful use of nuclear energy, which could assure a stable supply of energy throughout the world, we shall come to an impasse. However, this peaceful utilization of atomic energy confronts us with problems such as the disposal of waste materials and safety, and one has the impression that its development has come to a standstill. Such a standstill, however, is an unavoidable stage we must accept until technological innovation achieves a major breakthrough. I am convinced that so long as we maintain an unshakable confidence in the progress of science and technology, and provided the world's most brilliant minds are united in their efforts, humanity is capable of building a new civilization of untold possibilities for the future. However, research and development in nuclear fusion - which is considered to be the cleanest source of nuclear energy - face grave problems when reaching the stage of practical use, unless an international system and organization for research and cooperation is established. Several years ago, I set down the three non-nuclear principles which gave concrete expression to the determination of the Japanese people to achieve peace. As I said before, this was because the entire nation is against the use of thermonuclear energy as a means of killing their fellow men. However, I am entirely in favor of the peaceful utilization of nuclear energy. That is why I wish to express here today three views on the peaceful uses of this energy. First of all, we need the creation of international safety standards. I believe that research and development in the peaceful use of nuclear energy should be carried out under common worldwide regulations that take environmental problems into account. One of the basic requirements for this is the establishment of internationally unified safety standards. I hope to see early progress in the establishment of such standards by the International Atomic Energy Agency, which is contributing effectively towards the promotion of the peaceful uses of atomic energy. Next, an international agreement on the exchange and allocation of nuclear fuel will have to be concluded. In view of the trend towards a worldwide shortage of energy resources, there is the risk that at some time in the future an unbridled race for the acquisition of nuclear fuel may develop. Needless to say, such a development would be a threat to peace and detrimental to the well-being of mankind. Therefore, I believe that effective steps should be taken now, based upon a sound vision for the future. In the light of the above, it would be most desirable to see the establishment of a system where, under the terms of an agreement to be concluded for the exchange and allocation of nuclear fuel, such fuels would be placed under the control of an international agency, which would see to it that countries needing fuel would be assured of a stable supply. However, an immediate issue upon which the development of the peaceful use of atomic energy hinges is an international agreement providing for, at the very least, mutual accommodation with regard to nuclear fuel needs. Lastly, there is the problem of international cooperation in research and development work on nuclear fusion. The rapid development of a system for the effective use of thermonuclear energy seems to be beyond the capacity of a single nation, no matter how great its resources may be. I suppose that if we could bring together the greatest minds of the world, the time required to bring nuclear fusion into practical use might be considerably shortened, as against present predictions that such a breakthrough may require another twenty to thirty years. Japan has reached an advanced stage in science and technology. I have no doubt that, should an international research facility be created, young and able brains from among us will gladly volunteer to participate in its work. I would like to state the three points I have referred to as the "Three Principles for the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy". For a considerable time now, warnings have been given of an approaching fossil fuel energy resources crisis. In spite of these warnings, only inadequate progress has been made in the peaceful uses of atomic energy. One of the reasons for this has been attributed to narrow-minded nationalism. It is true that nationalism has played a role as a symbol of the freedom and equality of each of the countries which make up the community of nations. Politically speaking, the historical role of nationalism has not as yet been played out in the world. However, it is clear that, when looked at from the point of view of enlarging the future of mankind, narrow-minded and near-sighted nationalism does indeed hamper progress in the peaceful utilization of atomic energy. It certainly does not promote its progress. All peoples should be united in positive efforts to make peace a reality and to strengthen the foundations on which that peace rests so as to secure for all humanity progress and a better life. V. I feel extremely fortunate to have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize at this point in time, as a result of the decision of the distinguished members of the Peace Committee. I am deeply moved, because this means that my sustained efforts for peace over the years have received international recognition. However, when I look back on Japan's history, I am inclined to think that there were people in my country before me who worked for peace, whose achievements far exceeded my own, and who might have been worthier than I to receive the Peace Prize. I am thinking not only of contributions to peace in the narrow sense of the term. I am convinced that our people, by dint of their ability and efforts, are intrinsically capable of making a great contribution to world civilization. Had the Nobel Prize been established a thousand years ago, the first recipient of the Prize for Literature might well have been a Japanese woman. Also, had Japan taken part in the life of the international community several centuries earlier, Japanese recipients of the Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Economic Science Prizes might well have been numerous. At present, the Japanese recipients of Nobel Prizes, including myself, number only five4. To me, it seems, this offers food for thought. I say this because Japanese history and culture have followed very unique paths. It is a fact that, because of our long isolation from other nations, we suffer from social awkwardness and we as a people have been unable to contribute actively to world civilization in a measure commensurate with our potential. We should, I think, reflect deeply on the unfortunate inadequacy of our efforts to influence or, rather, to communicate with the peoples of the world. Especially in recent times, in our haste to absorb Western civilization and culture, we have been somewhat deficient, I fear, in our efforts to let foreign nations know about our own civilization and culture. Japan is basically a difficult nation to understand because the foundation of our culture differs so much from those of the West and of other Asian countries. Because this was so, we should have tried to make ourselves better understood. I cannot but admit that at a time when international understanding was required, our efforts to promote such understanding were inadequate. When I think of the geniuses and great men of our country who failed to obtain international recognition, I feel all the more fortunate to have been accorded this precious prize. At the same time, I feel deeply the need to increase our own efforts to promote better international understanding. I intend to make this award culturally meaningful. I, therefore, plan to use the prize I received to further the links between our country and the rest of the world. The intention of Alfred Nobel in instituting the Nobel Prizes in his will was undoubtedly to promote peaceful relations among nations. I should like to stress that for my part, following in Alfred Nobel's steps, I shall devote myself to increasing still more my people's capacity to contribute to the well-being of the international community, and to obtaining the world's understanding for such efforts.

Konoe Memorial

Feb 14, 1945; Your subject respectfully submits this memorial for your Imperial Majesty's consideration. He now believes that regretful as it may be, defeat in the war will become inevitable, and upon this premise he wishes to set forth his views: It is true that defeat will be a blemish on our national polity. However, defeat alone will not endanger our national polity because public opinion in England and the United States has not insisted on a change in our national polity. (Of course, there are some extremist views and the future is by no means certain.) From the point of view of preserving our national polity, what concerns your subject most is not the defeat itself, but the possibility of a communist revolution accompanied by the defeat. Both domestic and international situations are seemingly moving rapidly toward a communist revolution. In the international scene, there has been an outstanding advance in the position of the Soviet Union. Our people have never been able to grasp the true intent of the Soviet Union. Since the adoption in 1935 of the policy of a United Front—that is, the twostage revolution tactic—and the subsequent dissolution of the Comintern, many of our people have taken lightly the danger of bolshevization. This is a superficial and unrealistic view. The Soviet Union has never abandoned its policy of bolshevization of the world, and this is made abundantly clear by its recent overt maneuvering in European countries. The Soviet Union is attempting to establish Soviet regimes in European countries bordering it and proSoviet regimes in other European countries. Their work has been steady and it has been mostly successful. The Tito regime in Yugoslavia is a prime example. As to Poland, the Soviet Union first formed a government among the Polish refugees in the Soviet Union and then insisted that it could not deal with the Government in Exile in London. . . . While professing that it does not interfere in the domestic politics of other countries, in reality the Soviet Union has always interfered in the domestic politics of European countries, with a view to leading these countries to become proSoviet. The Soviet intent is equally applicable to East Asia. In Yenan, Okano [alias used by Nosaka Sanzo, leader of the Japan Communist Party] from Moscow to lead the Japan Liberation League, and made contact with the Korean Independence Alliance, Korean Volunteers' Corps, and Formosan Vanguard Corps. They are now appealing their causes to Japan proper. Thus there is every reason to believe in the danger of an eventual interference by the Soviet Union in Japan's domestic politics (e.g., legal recognition of the Communist party, Cabinet portfolios for Communist party members, . . . abolition of the Peace Preservation Law and of the AntiComintern Pact). Now looking at the domestic scene, your subject finds that conditions are ripe for the success of a communist revolution. They are poverty, greater voice exercised by labor, proportionate increase in the proSoviet sentiment accompanied by the rise of enmity against Great Britain and the United States, reformist movements among military officers, bureaucratic officials joining such movements, and the underground activities of the leftists who are behind those movements. Of these, what worries your subject most are the reformist movements of some segments of the military. A great majority of our younger officers seem to think that our national polity and communism are compatible, and their avid advocation of internal reform within the military stems from this belief. Most of our professional soldiers come from families of middle or lower classes, and many of them are thoroughly imbued with the ideal of our national polity through their military education. Therefore communist agitators attempt to appeal to them by suggesting the compatibility of our national polity and communism. It is now clear that the Manchurian Incident, followed by the outbreak of the China Incident, and their subsequent extension into the Greater East Asia War were a chain of events carefully planned by the military. During the Manchurian Incident, they publicly stated that the incident was aimed at internal reform in Japan. This is a wellknown fact. During the time of the China Incident also, the same conspirators in this group publicly averred that "it is better to prolong the incident. If it is solved then there will be no internal reform." This clique in the military that advocates internal reform may not be aiming at a communist revolution. However, those bureaucrats and civilians surrounding them—call them rightists or leftists, for the rightists are those communists under the garb of our national polity consciously attempt to bring about a communist revolution. It is fairly accurate to say that they are the ones who manipulate those unsophisticated, simpleminded soldiers. The above is the conclusion your subject recently reached after calm reflections incorporating his extensive experiences dealing with the military, bureaucracy, rightists, leftists, and others during the past ten years. When your subject looks back to the happenings of the past ten years from this vantage point, there were many events that would support this conclusion. Your subject received the mandate to form a Cabinet twice. During his terms of office, he adopted some of those reformist doctrines in order to avoid internal friction. His eagerness to maintain national unity led him to overlook the true intent hidden behind their doctrines. All of these came from your subject's ignorance of the matter. He deeply regrets this and begs the forgiveness of Your Majesty. Recently, as the fortunes of war turned for the worse, increasingly voices are raised exhorting that the 100 million suffer death rather than dishonor. Those who advocate such a cause are not the socalled rightists, but rather the communists who instigate from behind, hoping that through the resulting confusion, their aim of effecting a revolution may be realized. While on the one hand they advocate complete destruction of the United States and Great Britain, on the other hand they are fostering proSoviet sentiment. One segment of the military even avers that Japan should align with the Soviet Union regardless of the sacrifice involved. Another school thinks of collaboration with the Chinese communist forces in Yanan. This being the case, conditions for the success of a communist revolution are becoming better each day both internally and externally. Should the tide of war worsen even further, this situation might develop rapidly. If there should be a ray of hope in the war, it would be different. However, viewing from the premise that defeat is inevitable, we are fighting a hopeless war. Should we continue it any further, we would be playing into the hands of the communints. From the point of view of upholding our national polity, we must conclude the war as soon as possible. The greatest obstacle to the termination of war is the existence of the clique in the military who brought about the current crisis from the time of the Manchurian Incident. They have lost confidence in pursuing the war to a successful end, but insist on resisting the enemies in order to save face. In attempting to bring about an early end to the war, unless we make a clean sweep of this group, there may be great confusion caused by the collaboration of rightist and leftist civilian coconspirators with this group to attain their goals. To end the war we must first make a clean sweep of this group. Once we make a clean sweep of this group within the military, those opportunistic bureaucrats and rightist and leftist coconspirators are likely to cease functioning. This is so because they do not have power of their own and must manipulate the military to effect their sinister designs. As it is said, destroy the roots and the leaves will wilt of their own. Perhaps this is folly on your subject's part, but he wishes to speculate that once a clean sweep of this group is made and the military's complexion is changed, the attitudes of the United States, Great Britain, and Chongqing (KMT/GMD) might become more lenient toward us. Originally the United States, Great Britain and Chongqing proclaimed that their war aims were to destroy Japanese military cliques. If the character of the military should change and its policy were altered, would they [the Allied powers] not reconsider the desirability of continuing the war? Setting this aside the prerequisites to saving Japan from a communist revolution lie in th clean sweep of this group and rebuilding of the military. Your subject humbly begs of Your Majesty to take an unprecedented resolute step in this matter.

Income Doubling Plan documents

II. The Doubling National Income Plan The economic growth controversy of the late 1950s put economic theory in Japan to a severe test. Contrary to the early postwar predictions of stagnation, the economy had gone through an extraordinary decade of rapid growth. Osamu Shimomura, an official of the Japan Devel- opment Bank and confidant of Prime Minister Hayato Ikeda, had devel- oped an influential thesis that the country had a potential of doubling her national income in ten years2. While acadmic economists largely denounced such a growth plan as reckless, the government adopted the Doubling National Income Plan that incorporated within it the theory of high growth potential, for i960- 1970 with the official objective of maximum growth3. The plan envisaged the compromise growth rate of 9% for the first three years and 7.2% for the remainder. The theory of high growth potential was based on the high estimates of macroeconomic parameters relating to the country's saving-investment potential and export capacity. The estimates are presented in column 1 of Table 1. On the basis of observations for 1951- 1956, the theory esti- mated high values for the investment ratio (s) (the ratio of private plant and equipment investment expenditures to GNP at 17 to 12%) and the marginal productivity of capital (i/v) (the marginal output-capital ratio of 0.8 to 0.9). Together these gave the full capacity rate of economic growth of 11 to 9%. The theory was a departure from the earlier planners' practi- ces by placing the primary emphasis upon capital as the driving force of economic growth. The theory of high growth estimated the growth rate of the world economy to remain high (3 to 5%) and the income elasticity of demand for the country's exports to be also high (3 to 3.5%), while it estimated a 1 On the working of this type of model, see K. C. Kogiku, An Introduction to Macro- economic Models, New York, 1968, Ch. 7. a Cf. O. Shimomura, "Seichoseisaku no Kihon Mondai (Basic Problems of Economic Growth Policy)*', Riron Keizaigaku (Economic Studies Quarterly), March 1961, pp. isqq. In English, cf. idem, Basic Problems of Economic Growth Policy, Indian Statistical Institute, Translation Series, No. 37, Calcutta, 1961. 8 In English, cf. Japanese Government, Economic Planning Agency, Doubling National Income Plan, 1961 - 1970, Tokyo, Japan Times, 1961. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv Bds CXIII. 35 This content downloaded from 128.83.214.19 on Wed, 29 Apr 2020 03:54:03 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 536 Κ. C. Kogiku stable propensity to import, at 9%. The external rate of growth was thus estimated at 11 to 19%. Finally the theory estimated that the natural rate of growth η was very high, and thereby posed no constraint upon growth at either the full capacity or external rate. This was so on the basis of the observations on the postwar political and economic conditions, the available technology, and the quantity and quality of the labor force, regarding the large reservoir Table 1 - Planned and Actual Macro Parameters Shimomura { Actual Actual New Plan i960 - 70 ! i960 - 70 | 1965 - 75 1976 - 81 I : ! ! 143 (1975) Investment-output ratio "(real) .... 14 19 ! 17.9(65 - 74) : 16 (1980) Marginal capital-output- ratio e(real) . 1.17 1.37 ί 2.2 ; 2.4 (computed j by author) World trade, annual growth (real) (%) . 3 (world 5 (world 8.3 (65 - 74) 6 income) income) (1975 prices) (1975 prices) Demand elasticity Exports, annual growth (%) nominal) Propensity to import (%) ; Nominal Real (1970 prices) GNP, annual growth rate (real) (%) . . 10 10.7 8.3 (65 - 75) j 6.25 Wholesale price inflation (%) Consumer price inflation (%) Real wage index, manufacturing (%). . 6.18 9.07(70 - 73) j Openings-applicants ratio Unemployment rate (%) Productivity index, manufacturing (%). 10.48 12.76(70 - 73) Labor force, annual growth (%) .... 1 1 Employment (%) Terms of trade, annual change (%) . . ο - o.2 - 3.15(65 - 74) Current account balance ($ billion) ... 0.1 (75), 4 (80) Taxes/national income (%) 22.7 (73 - 75) I 25.7 (80) Transfer payments/national income (%) I 8.5 (75), 10 (80) Social insurance/national income (%) . . 5.6 (73 - 75) I 7 (80) Components of GNP*> (1970 prices) (%) , 1960-69 Personal consumption Private plant and equipment .... 15.8 17.9 15.5 16.00 Private residential investment . ... 5.5 6.5 7.1 7.50 Government capital formation .... 8.2 j 9.0 ' 9.8 10.25 Overseas surplus Government expenditures Components of national incomeb (%) I ! Compensation of employees Proprietors' income Property income Corporate income Corporate saving β The investment-output ratio and marginal output-capital ratio have been computed using private plant and equipment and GNP. - bThe composition of GNP and national income for i960 - 69 and 1965 - 74 is given in terms of the average of annual proportions. Source: Column 1 : Shimomura, op. cit. - Column 2 : Government of Japan, Statistical Yearbook, various issues. - Columns 3 and 4 : Government of Japan, Economic Planning Agency : Economic Plan for 1976 - 1980, Tokyo, adopted by the Cabinet, May 14, 1976; Propensity to imports: Annual Report on National Income Statistics, 1976, pp. 100, 102. - Labor statis- tics: Government of Japan, Statistical Yearbook, various issues. - Terms of trade: ibid. This content downloaded from 128.83.214.19 on Wed, 29 Apr 2020 03:54:03 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Japan's "Doubling National Income Plan*' 537 of labor in the primary industry sector as the ample source for economic expansion. Thus the capital formation and export growth were viewed as the keys to economic growth. The evaluation by academic economists was that the plan overesti- mated the growth potential. Strongly influenced by stagnation theses of foreign origins, the overwhelming majority of academic economists gave pessimistic estimates of the macroeconomic parameters: the investment ratios will fall because of the forthcoming dearth of investment opportun- ities as the economy recovers from the wartime devastation, and as a result of rises in labor costs; the marginal capital-output ratio ν will rise as the law of diminising returns sets in with the process of capital accumulation ; the propensity to import m will have to rise if the output rises ; the growth rate of the world economy y will fall as the latter com- pletes its recovery from World War II, while the elasticity of world demand for Japan's exports h was lower; and finally, the terms of trade ρ will turn against the growing economy1. The Shimomura model was predicted to produce inflation and balance of payments deficits, since the economy was merely on a recovery path, which must end soon

Kōdōha

Imperial Way Faction; included Araki Sadao and Mazaki Jinzaburō

Inukai Tsuyoshi

In 1932, [this Japanese prime minister] was assassinated. Japanese people who supported military are the ones who murdered him.; right wingists did it

Manchukuo

Japanese puppet state established in Manchuria in 1932

Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan; September 8, 1951

Introduction[edit] Japan has this day signed a Treaty of Peace with the Allied Powers. On the coming into force of that Treaty, Japan will not have the effective means to exercise its inherent right of self-defense because it has been disarmed. There is danger to Japan in this situation because irresponsible militarism has not yet been driven from the world. Therefore, Japan desires a Security Treaty with the United States of America to come into force simultaneously with the Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and Japan. The Treaty of Peace recognizes that Japan as a sovereign nation has the right to enter into collective security arrangements, and further, the Charter of the United Nations recognizes that all nations possess an inherent right of individual and collective self-defense. In exercise of these rights, Japan desires, as a provisional arrangement for its defense, that the United States of America should maintain armed forces of its own in and about Japan so as to deter armed attack upon Japan. The United States of America, in the interest of peace and security, is presently willing to maintain certain of its armed forces in and about Japan, in the expectation, however, that Japan will itself increasingly assume responsibility for its own defense against direct and indirect aggression, always avoiding any armament which could be an offensive threat or serve other than to promote peace and security in accordance with the purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter. Accordingly, the two countries have agreed as follows: Article I[edit] Japan grants, and the United States of America accepts, the right, upon the coming into force of the Treaty of Peace and of this Treaty, to dispose United States land, air and sea forces in and about Japan. Such forces may be utilized to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security in the Far East and to the security of Japan against armed attack from without, including assistance given at the express request of the Japanese Government to put down largescale internal riots and disturbances in Japan, caused through instigation or intervention by an outside power or powers. Article II[edit] During the exercise of the right referred to in Article I, Japan will not grant, without the prior consent of the United States of America, any bases or any rights, powers or authority whatsoever, in or relating to bases or the right of garrison or of maneuver, or transit of ground, air or naval forces to any third power. Article III[edit] The conditions which shall govern the disposition of armed forces of the United States of America in and about Japan shall be determined by administrative agreements between the two Governments. Article IV[edit] This Treaty shall expire whenever in the opinion of the Governments of the United States of America and Japan there shall have come into force such United Nations arrangements or such alternative individual or collective security dispositions as will satisfactorily provide for the maintenance by the United Nations or otherwise of international peace and security in the Japan Area. Article V[edit] This Treaty shall be ratified by the United States of America and Japan and will come into force when instruments of ratification thereof have been exchanged by them at Washington. Signatories[edit] IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned Plenipotentiaries have signed this Treaty. DONE in duplicate at the city of San Francisco, in the English and Japanese languages, this eighth day of September, 1951.

Treaty of Kanghwa (1876)

Japan forced Korea to sign this treaty to give Japan preferential treatment over Korea. This angered China, as it saw Korea as part of its protectorate.; The Governments of Japan and Chosen being desirous to resume the amicable relations that of yore existed between them, and to promote the friendly feelings of both nations to a still firmer basis have for this purpose appointed their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say: --the Government of Japan, Kuroda Kiyotaka, High Commissioner Extraordinary to Chosen, Lieutenant-General, and Member of the Privy Council, Minister of the Colonization Department, and Inouye Kaoru, Associate High Commissioner Extraordinary to Chosen, Member of the Genroin; and the Government of Chosen, Shin Ken, Han-Choo-Su-Fu-Ji, and In-Ji-Sho, To-So-FuFuku-So-Kwan, who according to the powers received from their respective Governments, have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles:-- ARTICLE I. Chosen being an independent state enjoys the same sovereign rights as does Japan. In order to prove the sincerity of the friendship existing between the nations, their intercourse shall henceforward be carried on in terms of equality and courtesy, each avoiding the giving of offence by arrogance or manifestations of suspicion. In the first instance all rules and precedents that are apt to obstruct friendly intercourse shall be totally abrogated and, in their stead, rules, liberal and in general usage fit to secure a firm and perpetual peace, shall be established. ARTICLE II. The Government of Japan, at any time after fifteen months from the date of the signature of this Treaty, shall have the right to send an Envoy to the Capital of Chosen, where he shall be admitted to confer with the Rei-So-Han-Sho, on matters of a diplomatic nature. He may either reside at the Capital or return to his country on the completion of his mission. The Government of Chosen in like manner shall have the right to send an Envoy to Tokio, Japan, where he shall be admitted to confer with the Minister for Foreign Affairs, on matters of a diplomatic nature. He may either reside at Tokio or return home on the completion of his mission. ARTICLE III. All official communications addressed by the Government of Japan to that of Chosen shall be written in the Japanese language, and for a period of ten years from the present date, they shall be accompanied by the Chinese translation. The Government of Chosen will use the Chinese language. ARTICLE IV. Sorio in Fusan, Chosen, where an official establishment of Japan is situated, is a place originally opened for commercial intercourse with Japan, and trade shall henceforward be carried on at that place in Treaty, whereby are abolished all former usages, such as the practice of Sai-ken-sen (junks annually sent to Chosen by the late Prince of Tsusima to exchange a certain quantity of articles between each other). In addition to the above place, the Government of Chosen agrees to open two ports, as mentioned in Article V. of this Treaty, for commercial intercourse with Japanese subjects. In the foregoing places Japanese subjects shall be free to lease land and to erect buildings thereon, and to rent buildings, the property of subjects of Chosen. ARTICLE V. On the coast of five provinces, viz: Keikin, Chiusei, Zenra, Keisho, and Kankio, two ports, suitable for commercial purposes, shall be selected, and the time for opening these two ports shall be in the twentieth month from the second month of the ninth year of Meiji, corresponding with the date of Chosen, the first moon of the year Heishi. ARTICLE VI. Whenever Japanese vessels either by stress of weather or by want of fuel and provisions cannot reach one or the other of the open ports in Chosen, they may enter any port or harbour either to take refuge therein, or to get supplies of wood, coal and other necessities or to make repairs; the expenses incurred thereby are to be defrayed by the ship's master. In such events, both the officers and the people of the locality shall display their sympathy by rendering full assistance and their liberality in supplying the necessities required. If any vessel of either country be at any time wrecked or stranded on the coasts of Japan or of Chosen, the people of the vicinity shall immediately use every exertion to rescue her crew, and shall inform the local authorities of the disaster who will either send the wrecked persons to their native country or hand them over to the officer of their country, residing at the nearest port. ARTICLE VII. The coast of Chosen having hitherto been left unsurveyed are very dangerous for vessels approaching them, and in order to prepare charts showing the positions of islands, rocks and reefs, as well as the depth of water, whereby all navigators may be enabled safely to pass between the two countries, any Japanese mariner may freely survey said coasts. ARTICLE VIII. There shall be appointed by the Government of Japan an officer to reside at each of the open ports in Chosen for the protection of Japanese merchants resorting there, provided that such arrangement be deemed necessary. Should any question interesting to both nations arise, the said officer shall confer with the local authorities of Chosen and settle it. ARTICLE IX. Friendly relations having been established between the two contracting parties, their respective subjects may freely carry on their business without any interference from the authorities of either Government, and neither restriction nor prohibition shall be made on trade. In case any fraud be committed or payment of debt be refused by any merchant of either country, the authorities of either one or of the other Government shall do their utmost to bring the delinquent to justice and to enforce recovery of the debt. Neither the Japanese nor the Chosen Government shall be held responsible for the payment of such debt. ARTICLE X. Should a Japanese subject residing at either of the open ports of Chosen commit any offence against a subject of Chosen, he shall be tried by the Japanese authorities. Should a subject of Chosen commit any offence against Japanese subject, he shall be tried by the authorities of Chosen. The offenders shall be punished according to the laws of their respective countries. Justice shall be equitably and impartially administered on both sides. ARTICLE XI. Friendly relations having been established between the two contracting parties, it is necessary to prescribe trade regulations for the benefit of the merchants of the respective countries. Such trade regulations, together with detailed provisions, to be added to the Articles of the present Treaty to develop its meaning and facilitate its observance, shall be agreed upon at the Capital of Chosen, or at Kokwa Fu in the country within six months from the present date by Special Commissioners appointed by the two countries. ARTICLE XII. The foregoing eleven Articles are binding from the date of the signing hereof and shall be observed by the two contracting parties, faithfully and invariably, whereby perpetual friendship shall be secured to the two countries. The present Treaty is executed in duplicate and copies will be exchanged between the contracting parties. In faith whereof, we the respective Plenipotentiaries of Japan and Chosen have affixed our seals hereunto this twenty-sixth day of the second month of the ninth year of Meiji, and the two thousand five hundred and thirty-sixth year since the accession of Jimmu Tenno; and in the era of Chosen, the second day of the second moon{sic}of the year Heishi, and of the founding of Chosen, the four hundred and eighty-fifth year.

Manchuria Incident (1931)

Kwantung army (Guandong army) preempts central control of Manchuria. Explosion destroyed a section of Jap RR track near the city that it was supposed to protect. Jap army blamed it on the Chinese, used it as a pretext to occupy all of Manchuria. This violated the 9-power treaty, the Kellog-Brian Pact, and Jap's pledge as a member of the LON. Troops moved in Korea w/o authorization. Weak resistance f KMT (Guomindang). China asked the LON and U.S. for help, neither would. US had non recognition doctrine. Created puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932

Koizumi Jun'ichirō

LDP resurgence; PM 2001-06; Postal Banking Reform Highway Construction Reform (break up of Japan Highway Public Corp.) Personality

MITI

Key MITI targets synthetic textiles (1953) plastics (1955) petrochemicals (1955) automobiles (1956) MITI strategies foreign currency and Development Bank loans were authorized by MITIaccording to 1949 law -- any foreign currency earned by a Japanese company through trade must be turned over to gov account accelerated depreciation allowances were granted it was provided with land for plant a low cost special tax breaks -- exemption of custom duties on imported materials pushes QC, promotes work W. Edwards Deming (1900-93) and other quality control proponentsJapan is early adopter of Deming-style TQM"Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for massive inspection by building quality into the product in the first place.""Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right to pride of workmanship""Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transformation is everybody's job""Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the work force." Was MITI the key? The example of Honda CHEAP AND TINY: Honda was primarily a motorcycle manufacturer, but beginning in 1962 it rushed to enter the car business in order to meet a MITI specified minimum threshold as a car maker. With little experience as a car maker, Honda produced tiny, motorcycle-like cars. The first Honda sold in the US, was the N600 was produced in March 1967. It was a front-wheel drive two-door sedan with a 78.7-inch wheelbase and approximately 122 inches long. It was technologically advanced for its time. It had a mere height of 52.2 inches and a curb weight of 1213 lbs powered by a type S2, SOHC, 599 cc (36.553 cu in) air cooled 2 cylinder engine able to reach a top speed of 81 mph. BREAKTHROUGH: Desperate to find a niche in a crowded market, Honda moved aggressively to development a low-pollution engine, the CVCC. Although conceived for the Japanese market, the OPEC embargo and environmental movement led to demands for federal fuel efficiency standards in the US. In this new climate, the Honda CVCC engine won plaudits as the first engine to pass 1975 emission standards in the US. This established a pattern still common in the industry: while US automakers complained that they could not meet pollution and fuel efficiency standards, Honda representatives bragged that they already had.AFFORDABLE LUXURY: In the 1980s, Japanese car makers began to produce more luxurious cars, anticipating competition from Korea and China. Basic models became bigger and plushed sophisticated: the 2009 Civic was more than twice as heavy (2600 lbs) and the engine is nearly three times as large (1799 cc) as the N600. Many Japanese car makers began luxury lines: Lexus (Toyota, announced 1983), Acura (Honda, announced 1984), and Infiniti (Nissan, announced 1989). The Rupture of the 1970s Arab Oil Embargo (energy prices soar) End of Bretton Woods (Japanese labor is no longer cheap)1970 $1 US = ¥3601975 $1 US = ¥2971980 $1 US = ¥2271985 $1 US = ¥2381990 $1 US = ¥1491995 $1 US = ¥942000 $1 US = ¥108 US recognizes PRC instead of TaiwanUS does NOT give Japan advance warningDoes the US have a new capitalist ally in East Asia? Trade frictionJapan's economy is too big for US to absorb exportsUS begins demanding "voluntary" limits on exports How does the Japanese economy survive?Old industries adaptJapanese car makers move "upscale" with higher profit marginse.g. Honda develops Acura, Toyota develops LexusNew industries and products"Walkman" personal stereoVCR playersGame consoles The Ruptures of the 1990s Economic collapsePlaza Accords (1985) -- intervention to depreciate US$ to relieve trade deficit1987 -- Black Monday in NYSE1989 -- Japanese real estate bubble bursts -- prices had increased over 40% in 1985 to US$25,000/sq.m --Banking system lend based on real estate valuesLiquidity trap and "zombie banks" Death of Shōwa emperor Tiananmen Seoul 1988 Olympics -- emblematic of rise of Korean competition; not part of Maekawa Commission

MoF

Ministry of Finance; not part of Maekawa Commission

Tanizaki, Naomi, including character names

Naomi-girl, a modern girl called a moga Joji- narrator Hamada- pimply dude who helps out Joji and gets tricked by Naomi too Kumagai- pimp dude who shares Naomi w other dudes

Kishi Nobusuke

Prewar (1930s) - promotion of domestic automobile industry within Ministry of Commerce and Industry From 1936 — head of industrial development of Manchukuo 1941-1944 — Minister of Commerce and Industry (or National Affairs) in Tōjō cabinet 1945-1948 — Imprisoned as Class A war criminal 1957-1960 — Prime Minister of Japan; More under Security Treaty Crisis

Potsdam Declaration

Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender Issued, at Potsdam, July 26, 1945 We-the President of the United States, the President of the National Government of the Republic of China, and the Prime Minister of Great Britain, representing the hundreds of millions of our countrymen, have conferred and agree that Japan shall be given an opportunity to end this war. The prodigious land, sea and air forces of the United States, the British Empire and of China, many times reinforced by their armies and air fleets from the west, are poised to strike the final blows upon Japan. This military power is sustained and inspired by the determination of all the Allied Nations to prosecute the war against Japan until she ceases to resist. The result of the futile and senseless German resistance to the might of the aroused free peoples of the world stands forth in awful clarity as an example to the people of Japan. The might that now converges on Japan is immeasurably greater than that which, when applied to the resisting Nazis, necessarily laid waste to the lands, the industry and the method of life of the whole German people. The full application of our military power, backed by our resolve, will mean the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland. The time has come for Japan to decide whether she will continue to be controlled by those self-willed militaristic advisers whose unintelligent calculations have brought the Empire of Japan to the threshold of annihilation, or whether she will follow the path of reason. Following are our terms. We will not deviate from them. There are no alternatives. We shall brook no delay. There must be eliminated for all time the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest, for we insist that a new order of peace, security and justice will be impossible until irresponsible militarism is driven from the world. Until such a new order is established and until there is convincing proof that Japan's war-making power is destroyed, points in Japanese territory to be designated by the Allies shall be occupied to secure the achievement of the basic objectives we are here setting forth. The terms of the Cairo Declaration shall be carried out and Japanese sovereignty shall be limited to the islands of Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku and such minor islands as we determine. The Japanese military forces, after being completely disarmed, shall be permitted to return to their homes with the opportunity to lead peaceful and productive lives. We do not intend that the Japanese shall be enslaved as a race or destroyed as a nation, but stern justice shall be meted out to all war criminals, including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners. The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies among the Japanese people. Freedom of speech, of religion, and of thought, as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established. Japan shall be permitted to maintain such industries as will sustain her economy and permit the exaction of just reparations in kind, but not those which would enable her to re-arm for war. To this end, access to, as distinguished from control of, raw materials shall be permitted. Eventual Japanese participation in world trade relations shall be permitted. The occupying forces of the Allies shall be withdrawn from Japan as soon as these objectives have been accomplished and there has been established in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people a peacefully inclined and responsible government. We call upon the government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional surrender of all Japanese armed forces, and to provide proper and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action. The alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction.

Kokutai no hongi (The Fundamentals of our National Polity)

Selections from the Kokutai no hongi (Fundamentals of our National Polity), 1937 Introduction The various ideological and social evils of present‑day Japan are the result of ignoring the fundamental and running after the trivial, of the lack of judgment and the failure to digest things thoroughly. This is because since the days of Meiji, so many aspects of European and American culture, systems, and learning have been imported and too rapidly. As a matter of fact, the foreign ideologies imported into our country are mainly ideologies of the Enlightenment that have come down from the eighteenth century, or extensions of them. The views of the world and of life that form the basis of these ideologies are rationalism and positivism, lacking in historical views, which, on the one had, place the highest value on, and assert the liberty and equality of, individuals and, on the other hand, place value on a world by nature abstract, transcending nations and races. Consequently, importance is given to human beings and their groupings, who have become isolated from historical entireties, abstract and independent of one another. ... Paradoxical and extreme conceptions, such as socialism, anarchism, and communism, all are based, in the final analysis, on individualism, which is the root of modern Occidental ideologies and of which they are no more than varied manifestations. Yet even in the Occident, where individualism has formed the basis of their ideas, when it has come to Communism, they have found it unacceptable; so that now they are about to do away with their traditional individualism, and this has led to the rise of totalitarianism and nationalism and to the appearance of Fascism and Nazism. That is, it can be said that in both the Occident and our country, the deadlock of individualism has led alike to a season of ideological and social confusion and crisis.... This means that the present conflict in our people's ideas, the unrest of their modes of life, the confused state of their civilization, can be put right only by a thorough investigation by us of the intrinsic nature of Occidental ideologies and by an understanding of the true meaning of our national polity. Then, too, this should be done for the sake not only of our nation but also of the entire human race, which is struggling to find a way out of the deadlock with which individualism is faced. Loyalty and Patriotism Our country is established with the emperor, who is a descendant of Amaterasu Ōmikami, as its center, as our ancestors as well as we ourselves constantly have beheld in the emperor the fountainhead of her life and activities. For this reason, to serve the emperor and to receive the emperor's great august will as our own is the rationale of making our historical "life" live in the present; and on this is based the morality of the people Loyalty means to revere the emperor as [our] pivot and to follow him implicitly. By implicit obedience is meant casting ourselves aside and serving the emperor intently. To walk this Way of loyalty is the sole Way in which we subjects may "live" and the fountainhead of all energy. Hence, offering our lives for the sake of the emperor does not mean so‑called self‑ sacrifice but the casting aside of our little selves to live under his august grace and the enhancing of the genuine life of the people of a state. ... ... Harmony When we trace the marks of the facts of the founding of our country and the progress of our history, what we always find there is the spirit of harmony. Harmony is a product of the great achievements of the founding of the nation and is the power behind our historical growth. It also is a humanitarian Way inseparable from our daily lives. The spirit of harmony is built on the concord of all things. When people determinedly county themselves as masters and assert their egos, there is nothing but contradiction and the setting of one against the other; and harmony is not created. In individualism it is possible to have cooperation, sacrifice, and the like, so as to regulate and mitigate this contradiction and the setting of one against the other; but in the end there is no true harmony. That is, a society of individualism is one of clashes between [masses of] people...and all history may be regarded as one of class wars. Social structure and political systems in such a society, and the theories of sociology, political science, statecraft, and so on, which are their logical manifestations, are essentially different from those of our country, which makes harmony its fundamental Way. ... ... Conclusion Every type of foreign ideology that has been imported into our country may have been quite natural in China, India, Europe, or America, in that it sprang from their racial or historical characteristics; but in our country, which has a unique national polity, it is necessary as a preliminary step to expose these types to rigid judgment and scrutiny so as to see whether they are suitable to our national traits. ... To put it in a nutshell, while the strong points of Occidental learning and concepts are their analytical and intellectual qualities, the characteristics of Oriental learning and concepts are their intuitive and aesthetic qualities. These are natural tendencies that arise through racial and historical differences; and when we compare them with our national spirit, concepts, or mode of living, we cannot help recognizing further great and fundamental differences. Our nation has in the past imported, assimilated, and sublimated Chinese and Indian ideologies and has thereby supported the imperial way, making possible the establishment of an original culture based on its national polity. ... ... The beginnings of modern Western free economy are seen in the expectation of bringing about national prosperity as a result of free, individual, lucrative activities. In introducing into our country modern industrial organizations that had developed in the West, as long as the spirit of striving for national profit and the people's welfare governed the people's minds, the lively and free individual activities went very far toward contributing to the nation's wealth. But later, with the dissemination of individualistic and liberal ideas, there gradually arose a tendency openly to justify egoism in economic management and operations. This tendency created a chasm between rich and poor and finally gave rise to ideas of class warfare. Later, the introduction of Communism brought about the erroneous idea that economics was being the basis of politics, morality, and all other cultures and considered that by means of class warfare alone an ideal society could be realized. The fact that egoism and class warfare are opposed to our national polity needs no explanation. Only where people one and all put heart and soul into their respective occupations, and there is coherence or order in each of their activities, with their minds set on guarding and maintaining the prosperity of the imperial throne, is it possible to see a healthy development in the people's economic life. Our Mission Our present mission as a people is to construct a new Japanese culture by adopting and sublimating Western cultures with our national polity as the basis and to contribute spontaneously to the advancement of world culture. Our nation early saw the introduction of Chinese and Indian cultures and even succeeded in evolving original creations and developments. This was made possible, indeed, by the profound and boundless nature of our national polity, so that the mission of the people to whom it is bequeathed is truly great in its historical significance.

1946 Constitution

We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all constitutions, laws, ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith. We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship, and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want. We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations. We, the Japanese people, pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources. CHAPTER I. THE EMPEROR Article 1. The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power. Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial House law passed by the Diet. Article 3. The advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, and the Cabinet shall be responsible therefor. Article 4. The Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in this Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government (2) The Emperor may delegate the performance of his acts in matters of state as may be provided by law. Article 5. When, in accordance with the Imperial House law, a Regency is established, the Regent shall perform his acts in matter of state in the Emperor's name. In this case, paragraph one of the article will be applicable. Article 6. The Emperor shall appoint the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet. (2) The Emperor shall appoint the Chief Judge of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. Article 7. The Emperor, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, shall perform the following acts in makers of state on behalf of the people: (i) Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties; (ii) Convocation of the Diet; (iii)Dissolution of the House of Representatives; (iv) Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet; (v) Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers; (vi) Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights; (vii) Awarding of honors; (viii) Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law; (ix) Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers; (x) Performance of ceremonial functions. Article 8. No property can be given to, or received by, the Imperial House, nor can any gifts be made therefrom, without the authorization of the Diet. CHAPTER II. RENUNCIATION OF WAR Article 9. Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a mean of settling international disputes. (2) In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized. CHAPTER III. RIGHTS ANO DUTIES OF THE PEOPLE Article 10. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese national shall be determined by law. Article 11. The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights. Article 12. The freedoms and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare. Article 13. All of the people shall be respected as individuals. Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs. Article 14. All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin. (2) Peers and peerage shall not be recognized. (3) No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction, nor shall any such award be valid beyond the lifetime of the individual who now holds or hereafter may receive it. Article 15. The people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them. (2) All public officials are servants of the whole community and not of any group thereof. (3) Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the election of public officials. (4) In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated. A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for the choice he has made. Article 16. Every person shall have the right of peaceful petition for the redress of damage, for the removal of public officials, for the enactment, repeal or amendment of law, ordinances or regulations and for other matters, nor shall any person be in any way discriminated against sponsoring such a petition. Article 17. Every person may sue for redress as provided by law from the State or a public entity, in case he has suffered damage through illegal act of any public official. Article 18. No person shall be held in bondage of any kind. Involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, is prohibited Article 19. Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated. Article 20. Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State nor exercise any political authority. (2) No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious acts, celebration, rite or practice. (3) The state and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any other religious activity. Article 21. Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed. (2) No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated. Article 22. Every person shall have freedom to choose and change his residence and to choose his occupation to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare. (2) Freedom of all persons to move to a foreign country andto divest themselves of their nationality shall be inviolate. Article 23. Academic freedom is guaranteed. Article 24. Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. (2) With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes. Article 25. All people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living. (2) In all spheres of life, the State shall use its endeavors for the promotion and extension of social welfare and security, and of public health. Article 26. All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their ability, as provided by law. (2) All people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary educations as providedfor by law. Such compulsory education shall be free. Article 27. All people shall have the right and the obligation to work. (2) Standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law. (3) Children shall not be exploited. Article 28. The right of workers to organize and to bargain and act collectively is guaranteed. Article 29. The right to own or to hold property is inviolable. (2) Property rights shall be defined by law, in conformity with the public welfare. (3) Private property may be taken for public use upon just compensation therefor. Article 30. The people shall be liable to taxations as provided by law. Article 31. No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any other criminal penalty be imposed, except according to procedure established by law. Article 32. No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts. Article 33. No person shall be apprehended except uponwarrant issued by a competent judicial officer which specifies the offense with which the person is charged, unless he is apprehended, the offense being committed. Article 34. No person shall be arrested or detained without being at once informed of the charges against him or without the immediate privilege of counsel; nor shall he be detained without adequate cause; and upon demand of any person such cause must be immediately shown in open court in his presence and the presence of his counsel. Article 35. The right of all persons to be secure in their homes, papers and effects against entries, searches and seizures shall not be impaired except upon warrant issued for adequate cause and particularly describing the place to be searched and things to be seized, or except as provided by Article 33. (2) Each search or seizure shall be made upon separatewarrant Issued by a competent judicial officer. Article 36. The infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel punishments are absolutely forbidden. Article 39. In all criminal cases the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial tribunal. (2) He shall be permitted full opportunity to examine all witnesses, and he shall have the right of compulsory process for obtaining witnesses on his behalf at public expense. (3) At all times the accused shall have the assistance of competent counsel who shall, if the accused is unable to secure the same by his own efforts, be assigned to his use by the State. Article 38. No person shall be compelled to testify against himself. (2) Confession made under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged arrest or detention shall not be admitted inevidence (3) No person shall be convicted or punished in cases where the only proof against him is his own confession Article 39. No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he has been acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy. Article 40. Any person, in case he is acquitted after he has been arrested or detained, may sue the State for redress asprovided by law. CHAPTER IV. THE DIET Article 41. The Diet shall be the highest organ of statepower, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State. Article 42. The Diet shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. Article 43. Both Houses shall consist of elected members, representative of all the people. (2) The number of the members of each House shall be fixed by law. Article 44. The qualifications of members of both Houses and their electors shall be fixed by law. However, there shall be no discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income. Article 45. The term of office of members of the House of Representatives shall be four years. However, the term shall be terminated before the full term is up in case the House ofRepresentatives is dissolved. Article 46. The term of office of members of the House of Councillors shall be six years, and election for half the members shall take place every three years. Article 47. Electoral districts, method of voting and other matters pertaining to the method of election of members of both Houses shall be fixed by law. Article 48. No person shall be permitted to be a member of both Houses simultaneously. Article 49. Members of both Houses shall receive appropriate annual payment from the national treasury in accordance with law. Article 50. Except in cases provided by law, members of both Houses shall be exempt from apprehension while the Diet is insession, and any members apprehended before the opening of the session shall be freed during the term of the session upon demand of the House. Article 51. Members of both Houses shall not be held liable outside the House for speeches, debates or votes cast inside the House. Article 52. An ordinary session of the Diet shall beconvoked once per year. Article 53. The Cabinet may determine to convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet. When a quarter or more of the total members of either house makes the demand, the Cabinet must determine on such convocation. Article 54. When the House of Representatives is dissolved, there must be a general election of members of the House of Representatives within forty (40) days from the date of dissolution, and the Diet must be convoked within thirty (30) days from the date of the election. (2) When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the House of Councillors is closed at the same time. However, the Cabinet may in time of national emergency convoke the House of Councillors in emergency session. (3) Measures taken at such session as mentioned in the proviso of the preceding paragraph shall be provisional and shall become null and void unless agreed to by the House of Representatives within a period of ten (10) days after the opening of the next session of the Diet. Article 55. Each House shall judge disputes related to qualifications of its members. However, in order to deny a seat to any member, it is necessary to pass a resolution by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present. Article 56. Business cannot be transacted in either House unless one third or more of total membership is present. (2) All matters shall be decided, in each House, by a majority of those present, except as elsewhere provided in the Constitution, and in case of a tie, the presiding officer shall decide the issue. Article 57. Deliberation in each House shall be public. However, a secret meeting may be held where a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor. (2) Each House shall keep a record of proceedings. This record shall be published and given general circulation, excepting such parts of proceedings of secret session as may be deemed to require secrecy. (3) Upon demand of one-fifth or more of the members present, votes of the members on any matter shall be recorded in the minutes. Article 58. Each house shall select its own president and other officials. (2) Each House shall establish its rules pertaining to meetings, proceedings and internal discipline, and may punish members for disorderly conduct. However, in order to expel a member, a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present must pass a resolution thereon. Article 59. A bill becomes a law on passage by both Houses, except as otherwise provided by the Constitution. (2) A bill which is passed by the House of Representatives, and upon which the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, becomes a law when passed a second time by the House of Representatives by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present. (3) The provision of the preceding paragraph does not preclude the House of Representatives from calling for the meeting of a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law. (4) Failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within sixty (60) days after receipt of a bill passed by the House of Representatives, time in recess excepted, may be determined by the House of Representatives to constitute a rejection of the said bill by the House of Councillors. Article 60. The Budget must first be submitted to the House of Representatives. (2) Upon consideration of the budget, when the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, and when no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or in the case of failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within thirty (30) days, the period of recess excluded, after the receipt of the budget passed by the House of Representatives, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet. Article 61. The second paragraph of the preceding article applies also to the Diet approval required for the conclusion of treaties. Article 62. Each House may conduct investigations in relation to government, and may demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records. Article 63. The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State may, at any time, appear in either House for the purpose of speaking on bills, regardless of whether they are members of the House or not. They must appear when their presence is required in order to give answers or explanations. Article 64. The Diet shall set up an impeachment court from among the members of both Houses for the purpose of trying judges against whom removal proceedings have been instituted. (2) Matters relating to impeachment shall be provided by law. CHAPTER V. THE CABINET Article 65. Executive power shall be vested in the Cabinet. Article 66. The Cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister, who shall be its head, and other Ministers of State, as provided for by law. (2) The Prime Minister and other Minister of State must be civilians. (3) The Cabinet, in the exercise of executive power, shall be collectively responsible to the Diet. Article 67. The Prime Minister shall be designated from among the members of the Diet by a resolution of the Diet. This designation shall precede all other business. (2) If the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors disagrees and if no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or the House of Councillors fails to make designation within ten (10) days, exclusive of the period of recess, after the House of Representatives has made designation, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet. Article 68. The Prime Minister shall appoint the Ministers of State. However, a majority of their number must be chosen from among the members of the Diet. (2) The Prime Minister may remove the Ministers of State as he chooses. Article 69. If the House of Representatives passes a non-confidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall resign en masse, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved with ten (10) days. Article 70. When there is a vacancy in the post of Prime Minister, or upon the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of members of the House of Representatives, the Cabinet shall resign en masse. Article 71. In the cases mentioned in the two preceding articles, the Cabinet shall continue its functions until the time when a new Prime Minister is appointed. Article 72. The Prime Minister, representing the Cabinet, submits bills, reports on general national affairs and foreign relations to the Diet and exercises control and supervision over various administrative branches. Article 73. The Cabinet, in addition to other general administrative functions, shall perform the following functions: (i) Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state; (ii) Manage foreign affairs; (iii)Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or, depending on circumstances, subsequent approval of the Diet; (iv) Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law; (v) Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet; (vi) Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law. (vii) Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, andrestoration of rights. Article 74. All laws and cabinet orders shall be signed by the competent Minister of state and countersigned by the Prime Minister. Article 75. The Ministers of state, during their tenure of office, shall not be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister. However, the right to take that action is not impaired hereby. CHAPTER VI. JUDICIARY Article 76. The whole judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as are established by law. (2) No extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power. (3) All judges shall be independent in the exercise of their conscience and shall be bound only by this Constitution and the laws. Article 77. The Supreme Court is vested with the rule-making power under which it determines the rules of procedure and of practice, and of matters relating to attorneys, the internal discipline of the courts and the administration of judicial affairs. (2) Public procurators shall be subject to the rule-making power of the Supreme Court. (3) The Supreme Court may delegate the power to make rules for inferior courts to such courts. Article 78. Judges shall not be removed except by public impeachment unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform official duties. No disciplinary action against judges shall be administered by any executive organ or agency. Article 79. The Supreme Court shall consist of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be determined by law; all such judges excepting the Chief Judge shall be appointed by the Cabinet. (2) The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall be reviewed by the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their appointment, and shall be reviewed again at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives after a lapse of ten (10) years, and in the same manner thereafter. (3) In cases mentioned in the foregoing paragraph, when the majority of the voters favors the dismissal of a judge, he shall be dismissed. (4) Matters pertaining to review shall be prescribed by law. (5) The judges of the Supreme Court shall of retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law. (6) All such judges shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office. Article 80. The judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court. All such judges shall hold office for a term of ten (10) years with privilege of reappointment, provided that they shall be retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law. (2) The judges of the inferior courts shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office. Article 81. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act. Article 82. Trials shall be conducted and judgment declared publicly. (2) Where a court unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals, a trial may be conducted privately, but trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press or cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed in Chapter III of this Constitution are in question shall always be conducted publicly. CHAPTER VII. FINANCE Article 83. The power to administer national finances shall be exercised as the Diet shall determine. Article 84. No new taxes shall be imposed or existing ones modified except by law or under such conditions as law may prescribe. Article 85. No money shall be expended, nor shall the State obligate itself, except as authorized by the Diet. Article 86. Cabinet shall prepare and submit to the Diet for its consideration and decision a budget for each fiscal year. Article 87. In order to provide for unforeseen deficiencies in the budget, a reserve fund may be authorized by the Diet to be expended upon the responsibility of the Cabinet. (2) The Cabinet must get subsequent approval of the Diet for all payments from the reserve fund. Article 88. All property of the Imperial Household shall belong to the State. All expenses of the Imperial Household shall be appropriated by the Diet in the budget. Article 89. No public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for the use, benefit or maintenance of any religious institution or association or for any charitable, educational benevolent enterprises not under the control of public authority. Article 90. Final accounts of the expenditures and revenues of State shall be audited annually by a Board of Audit and submitted by the Cabinet to the Diet, together with the statement of audit, during the fiscal year immediately following the period covered. (2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall determined by law. Article 91. At regular intervals and at least annually the Cabinet shall report to the Diet and the people on the state of national finances. CHAPTER VIII. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT Article 92. Regulations concerning organization and operations of local public entities shall be fixed by law in accordance with the principle of local autonomy. Article 93. The local public entities shall establish assemblies as their deliberative organs, in accordance with law. (2) The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the members of their assemblies, and such other local officials as may be determined by law shall be elected by direct popular vote within their several communities Article 94. Local entities shall have the right to manage their property, affairs and administration and to enact their own regulations within law. Article 95. A special law, applicable to one local public entity, cannot be enacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of the voters of the local public entity concerned, obtained in accordance with law. CHAPTER IX. AMENDMENTS Article 96. Amendment to this Constitution shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify. (2) Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an integral part of this Constitution. CHAPTER X. SUPREME LAW Article 97. The fundamental human rights by this Constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate. Article 98. This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the nation and no law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government, or part thereof, contrary to the provisions hereof, shall have legal force or validity. (2) The treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed. Article 99. The Emperor or the Regent as well as Ministers of State, members of the Diet, judges, and all other public officials have the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution. CHAPTER XI. SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS Article 100. This Constitution shall be enforced as from the day when the period of six months will have elapsed counting from the day of its promulgation. (2) The enactment of laws necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution the election of members of the House of Councillors and the procedure for the convocation of the Diet and other preparatory procedures for the enforcement of this Constitution may be executed before the day prescribed in the preceding paragraph. Article 101. If the House of Councilors is not constituted before the effective date of this Constitution, the House of Representatives shall function as the Diet until such time as the House of Councilors shall be constituted. Article 102. The term of office for half the members of the House of Councillors serving in the first term under this Constitution shall be three years. Members falling under this category shall be determined in accordance with law. Article 103. The Ministers of State, members of the House of Representatives, and judges in office on the effective date of this Constitution, and all other public officials, who occupy positions corresponding to such positions as are recognized by this Constitution shall not forfeit their positions automatically on account of the enforcement of this Constitution unless otherwise specified by law. When, however, successors are elected or appointed under the provisions of this Constitution, they shall forfeit their positions as a matter of course.

1889 Constitution

We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government. In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws formulated into express provisions of law, so that, on the one hand, Our Imperial posterity may possess an express guide for the course they are to follow, and that, on the other, Our subjects shall thereby be enabled to enjoy a wider range of action in giving Us their support, and that the observance of Our laws shall continue to the remotest ages of time. We will thereby to give greater firmness to the stability of Our country and to promote the welfare of all the people within the boundaries of Our dominions; and We now establish the Imperial House Law and the Constitution. These Laws come to only an exposition of grand precepts for the conduct of the government, bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors. That we have been so fortunate in Our reign, in keeping with the tendency of the times, as to accomplish this work, We owe to the glorious Spirits of the Imperial Founder of Our House and of Our other Imperial Ancestors. We now reverently make Our prayer to Them and to Our Illustrious Father, and implore the help of Their Sacred Spirits, and make to Them solemn oath never at this time nor in the future to fail to be an example to our subjects in the observance of the Laws hereby established. May the heavenly Spirits witness this Our solemn Oath. Imperial Rescript on the Promulgation of the Constitution Whereas We make it the joy and glory of Our heart to behold the prosperity of Our country, and the welfare of Our subjects, We do hereby, in virtue of the Supreme power We inherit from Our Imperial Ancestors, promulgate the present immutable fundamental law, for the sake of Our present subjects and their descendants. The Imperial Founder of Our House and Our other Imperial ancestors, by the help and support of the forefathers of Our subjects, laid the foundation of Our Empire upon a basis, which is to last forever. That this brilliant achievement embellishes the annals of Our country, is due to the glorious virtues of Our Sacred Imperial ancestors, and to the loyalty and bravery of Our subjects, their love of their country and their public spirit. Considering that Our subjects are the descendants of the loyal and good subjects of Our Imperial Ancestors, We doubt not but that Our subjects will be guided by Our views, and will sympathize with all Our endeavors, and that, harmoniously cooperating together, they will share with Us Our hope of making manifest the glory of Our country, both at home and abroad, and of securing forever the stability of the work bequeathed to Us by Our Imperial Ancestors. Preamble [or Edict] (Joyu) Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ancestors, ascended the throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal; desiring to promote the welfare of, and to give development to the moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved subjects, the very same that have been favored with the benevolent care and affectionate vigilance of Our Ancestors; and hoping to maintain the prosperity of the State, in concert with Our people and with their support, We hereby promulgate, in pursuance of Our Imperial Rescript of the 12th day of the 10th month of the 14th year of Meiji, a fundamental law of the State, to exhibit the principles, by which We are guided in Our conduct, and to point out to what Our descendants and Our subjects and their descendants are forever to conform. The right of sovereignty of the State, We have inherited from Our Ancestors, and We shall bequeath them to Our descendants. Neither We nor they shall in the future fail to wield them, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution hereby granted. We now declare to respect and protect the security of the rights and of the property of Our people, and to secure to them the complete enjoyment of the same, within the extent of the provisions of the present Constitution and of the law. The Imperial Diet shall first be convoked for the 23rd year of Meiji and the time of its opening shall be the date, when the present Constitution comes into force. When in the future it may become necessary to amend any of the provisions of the present Constitution, We or Our successors shall assume the initiative right, and submit a project for the same to the Imperial Diet. The Imperial Diet shall pass its vote upon it, according to the conditions imposed by the present Constitution, and in no otherwise shall Our descendants or Our subjects be permitted to attempt any alteration thereof. Our Ministers of State, on Our behalf, shall be held responsible for the carrying out of the present Constitution, and Our present and future subjects shall forever assume the duty of allegiance to the present Constitution. CHAPTER I. THE EMPEROR Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal. Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law. Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable. Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution. Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed. Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives. Article 8. The Emperor, in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities, issues, when the Imperial Diet is not sitting, Imperial ordinances in the place of law. (2) Such Imperial Ordinances are to be laid before the Imperial Diet at its next session, and when the Diet does not approve the said Ordinances, the Government shall declare them to be invalid for the future. Article 9. The Emperor issues or causes to be issued, the Ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance of the public peace and order, and for the promotion of the welfare of the subjects. But no Ordinance shall in any way alter any of the existing laws. Article 10. The Emperor determines the organization of the different branches of the administration, and salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and dismisses the same. Exceptions especially provided for in the present Constitution or in other laws, shall be in accordance with the respective provisions (bearing thereon). Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy. Article 12. The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy. Article 13. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties. Article 14. The Emperor declares a state of siege. (2) The conditions and effects of a state of siege shall be determined by law. Article 15. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor. Article 16. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and rehabilitation. Article 17. A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law. (2) The Regent shall exercise the powers appertaining to the Emperor in His name. CHAPTER II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF SUBJECTS Article 18. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese subject shall be determined by law. Article 19. Japanese subjects may, according to qualifications determined in laws or ordinances, be appointed to civil or military or any other public offices equally. Article 20. Japanese subjects are amenable to service in the Army or Navy, according to the provisions of law. Article 21. Japanese subjects are amenable to the duty of paying taxes, according to the provisions of law. Article 22. Japanese subjects shall have the liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits of the law. Article 23. No Japanese subject shall be arrested, detained, tried or punished, unless according to law. Article 24. No Japanese subject shall be deprived of his right of being tried by the judges determined by law. Article 25. Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent. Article 26. Except in the cases mentioned in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. Article 27. The right of property of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. (2) Measures necessary to be taken for the public benefit shall be any provided for by law. Article 28. Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief. Article 29. Japanese subjects shall, within the limits of law, enjoy the liberty of speech, writing, publication, public meetings and associations. Article 30. Japanese subjects may present petitions, by observing the proper forms of respect, and by complying with the rules specially provided for the same. Article 31. The provisions contained in the present Chapter shall not affect the exercises of the powers appertaining to the Emperor, in times of war or in cases of a national emergency. Article 32. Each and every one of the provisions contained in the preceding Articles of the present Chapter, that are not in conflict with the laws or the rules and discipline of the Army and Navy, shall apply to the officers and men of the Army and of the Navy. CHAPTER III. THE IMPERIAL DIET Article 33. The Imperial Diet shall consist of two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives. Article 34. The House of Peers shall, in accordance with the ordinance concerning the House of Peers, be composed of the members of the Imperial Family, of the orders of nobility, and of those who have been nominated thereto by the Emperor. Article 35. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members elected by the people, according to the provisions of the law of Election. Article 36. No one can at one and the same time be a Member of both Houses. Article 37. Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article 38. Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law submitted to it by the Government, and may respectively initiate projects of law. Article 39. A Bill, which has been rejected by either the one or the other of the two Houses, shall not be brought in again during the same session. Article 40. Both Houses can make representations to the Government, as to laws or upon any other subject. When, however, such representations are not accepted, they cannot be made a second time during the same session. Article 41. The Imperial Diet shall be convoked every year. Article 42. A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three months. In case of necessity, the duration of a session may be prolonged by the Imperial Order. Article 43. When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary session may be convoked in addition to the ordinary one. (2) The duration of an extraordinary session shall be determined by Imperial Order. Article 44. The opening, closing, prolongation of session and prorogation of the Imperial Diet, shall be effected simultaneously for both Houses. (2) In case the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, the House of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued. Article 45. When the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, Members shall be caused by Imperial Order to be newly elected, and the new House shall be convoked within five months from the day of dissolution. Article 46. No debate can be opened and no vote can be taken in either House of the Imperial Diet, unless not less than one-third of the whole number of Members thereof is present. Article 47. Votes shall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a tie vote, the President shall have the casting vote. Article 48. The deliberations of both Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations may, however, upon demand of the Government or by resolution of the House, be held in secret sitting. Article 49. Both Houses of the Imperial Diet may respectively present addresses to the Emperor. Article 50. Both Houses may receive petitions presented by subjects. Article 51. Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present Constitution and in the Law of the Houses, rules necessary for the management of their internal affairs. Article 52. No Member of either House shall be held responsible outside the respective Houses, for any opinion uttered or for any vote given in the House. When, however, a Member himself has given publicity to his opinions by public speech, by documents in print or in writing, or by any other similar means, he shall, in the matter, be amenable to the general law. Article 53. The Members of both Houses shall, during the session, be free from arrest, unless with the consent of the House, except in cases of flagrant delicts, or of offenses connected with a state of internal commotion or with a foreign trouble. Article 54. The Ministers of State and the Delegates of the Government may, at any time, take seats and speak in either House. CHAPTER IV. THE MINISTERS OF STATE AND THE PRIVY COUNCIL Article 55. The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to the Emperor, and be responsible for it. (2) All Laws, Imperial Ordinances, and Imperial Rescripts of whatever kind, that relate to the affairs of the state, require the countersignature of a Minister of State. Article 56. The Privy Councillors shall, in accordance with the provisions for the organization of the Privy Council, deliberate upon important matters of State when they have been consulted by the Emperor. CHAPTER V. THE JUDICATURE Article 57. The Judicature shall be exercised by the Courts of Law according to law, in the name of the Emperor. (2) The organization of the Courts of Law shall be determined by law. Article 58. The judges shall be appointed from among those, who possess proper qualifications according to law. (2) No judge shall be deprived of his position, unless by way of criminal sentence or disciplinary punishment. (3) Rules for disciplinary punishment shall be determined by law. Article 59. Trials and judgments of a Court shall be conducted publicly. When, however, there exists any fear, that such publicity may be prejudicial to peace and order, or to the maintenance of public morality, the public trial may be suspended by provisions of law or by the decision of the Court of Law. Article 60. All matters that fall within the competency of a special Court, shall be specially provided for by law. Article 61. No suit at law, which relates to rights alleged to have been infringed by the illegal measures of the administrative authorities, and which shall come within the competency of the Court of Administrative Litigation specially established by law, shall be taken cognizance of by Court of Law. CHAPTER VI. FINANCE Article 62. The imposition of a new tax or the modification of the rates (of an existing one) shall be determined by law. (2) However, all such administrative fees or other revenue having the nature of compensation shall not fall within the category of the above clause. (3) The raising of national loans and the contracting of other liabilities to the charge of the National Treasury, except those that are provided in the Budget, shall require the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article 63. The taxes levied at present shall, in so far as they are not remodelled by a new law, be collected according to the old system. Article 64. The expenditure and revenue of the State require the consent of the Imperial Diet by means of an annual Budget. (2) Any and all expenditures overpassing the appropriations set forth in the Titles and Paragraphs of the Budget, or that are not provided for in the Budget, shall subsequently require the approbation of the Imperial Diet. Article 65. The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Representatives. Article 66. The expenditures of the Imperial House shall be defrayed every year out of the National Treasury, according to the present fixed amount for the same, and shall not require the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except in case an increase thereof is found necessary. Article 67. Those already fixed expenditures based by the Constitution upon the powers appertaining to the Emperor, and such expenditures as may have arisen by the effect of law, or that appertain to the legal obligations of the Government, shall be neither rejected nor reduced by the Imperial Diet, without the concurrence of the Government. Article 68. In order to meet special requirements, the Government may ask the consent of the Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a Continuing Expenditure Fund, for a previously fixed number of years. Article 69. In order to supply deficiencies, which are unavoidable, in the Budget, and to meet requirements unprovided for in the same, a Reserve Fund shall be provided in the Budget. Article 70. When the Imperial Diet cannot be convoked, owing to the external or internal condition of the country, in case of urgent need for the maintenance of public safety, the Government may take all necessary financial measures, by means of an Imperial Ordinance. (2) In the case mentioned in the preceding clause, the matter shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet at its next session, and its approbation shall be obtained thereto. Article 71. When the Imperial Diet has not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget has not been brought into actual existence, the Government shall carry out the Budget of the preceding year. Article 72. The final account of the expenditures and revenues of the State shall be verified and confirmed by the Board of Audit, and it shall be submitted by the Government to the Imperial Diet, together with the report of verification of the said board. (2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall of determined by law separately. CHAPTER VII. SUPPLEMENTARY RULES Article 73. When it has become necessary in future to amend the provisions of the present Constitution, a project to the effect shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet by Imperial Order. (2) In the above case, neither House can open the debate, unless not less than two-thirds of the whole number of Members are present, and no amendment can be passed, unless a majority of not less than two-thirds of the Members present is obtained. Article 74. No modification of the Imperial House Law shall be required to be submitted to the deliberation of the Imperial Diet. (2) No provision of the present Constitution can be modified by the Imperial House Law. Article 75. No modification can be introduced into the Constitution, or into the Imperial House Law, during the time of a Regency. Article 76. Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations, Ordinances, or by whatever names they may be called, shall, so far as they do not conflict with the present Constitution, continue in force. (2) All existing contracts or orders, that entail obligations upon the Government, and that are connected with expenditure, shall come within the scope of Article 67.

Reverse Course

a shift in the emphasis of US occupation policies in Japan after the onset of the Cold War, from demilitarization and democratization to limited rearming and economic recovery

Reversion of Okinawa (1969, 1972)

above

Zhang Zuolin (1875-1928)

assassinated in 1928 by Kwantung Army in China

Tōseiha (Control Faction)

included Tōjo Hideki

Treaty of Versailles

the treaty imposed on Germany by the Allied powers in 1920 after the end of World War I which demanded exorbitant reparations from the Germans

Tanizaki Jun'ichirō (1886-1965)

wrote Naomi; contributed to cosmopolitan cult

Imperial Renunciation of Divinity

ww2dbaseOfficial DeclarationShowa 21, Month 1, Day 1In greeting the new year we recall to mind that the Emperor Meiji proclaimed as the basis of our national policy the five clauses of the charter at the beginning of the Meiji era. The charter oath signified:1. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures of government decided in accordance with public opinion.2. All classes high and low shall unite in vigorously carrying on the affair of the State.3. All common people, no less than the civil and military officials, shall be allowed to fulfill their just desires so that there may not be any discontent among them.4. All the absurd usages of old shall be broken through and equity and justice to be found in the workings of nature shall serve as the basis of action.5. Wisdom and knowledge shall be south throughout the world for the purpose of promoting the welfare of the Empire.The proclamation is evident in its significance and high in its ideals. We wish to make this oath anew and restore the country to stand on its own feet again. We have to reaffirm the principles embodied in the charter and proceed unflinchingly toward elimination of misguided practices of the past. And, keeping in close touch with the desires of the people, we will construct a new Japan through pacifism, officials and people together developing rich culture and advancing the standards of living.The devastation of war inflicted on our cities, the miseries of the destitute, the stagnation of trade, the shortage of food, and the increasing unemployment are indeed sources of heartache, but if the nation is firmly united in its resolve to face the present ordeal and to see civilization consistently in peace, a bright future will undoubtedly be ours, not only for our country but for all mankind. Love of family and love of country are especially strong in this country. With more of such devotion we will contribute to all mankind.We feel deeply concerned about the restlessness and despondence upon the defeat of the protracted war. Radical tendencies in excess are gradually spreading and the sense of morality tends to lose its hold on the people with the result that there are signs of confusion of thoughts.We stand by the people and we wish always to share with them in their moment of joy and sorrow. The ties between us and our people have always stood upon mutual trust and affection. They do not depend upon mere legends and myths. They are not predicated on the false conception that the Emperor is divine and that the Japanese people are superior to other races and fated to rule the world.The Imperial government should make every effort to alleviate the trials and tribulations. At the same time, we trust that the people will rise to the occasion and will strive courageously for the solution of their outstanding difficulties and for the development of industry and culture. Acting upon a consciousness of solidarity and of mutual aid and broad tolerance in their civic life, they will prove themselves worthy of their greatest tradition. By their supreme endeavors in that direction they will be able to render their substantial contribution to the welfare and advancement of mankind.The resolution for the year should be made at the beginning of the year. We expect our Imperial citizens to join us in all exertion looking to accomplishment of this great undertaking with an indomitable spirit.In the Emperor's Name,Prime Minister Baron Kijuro Shidehara Justice Minister Chuzo Iwata Agriculture and Forestry Minister Kenzo Matsumura Education Minister Tamon Maeda Foreign Minister Shigeru Yoshida Interior Minister Zenjiro Horikiri Minister Joji Matsumoto Welfare Minister Hitoshi Ashida Minister Daizaburo Tsugita Finance Minister Viscount Keizo Shibusawa Transportion Minister Takeo Tanaka Commerce and Industry Minister Sankuro Ogasawara Minister Ichizo Kobayashi

2/26 Incident (1936)

young officers stage attempted coup Takeover downtown Tokyo for 3 days Assassinate PM Okada's brother in law (mistaken ID), Takahashi Korekiyo, Adm. Saitō Makoto, and Watanabe Jōtarō

Maekawa Report

"It is necessary to view a continuation of Japan's large imbalance in the current trade account as a crisis condition not only in managing our own economy but also in the cooperative development of the world economy. Today, Japan has entered a period in which historic changes must be made in its economic policies as well as in the lives of the people. Without such changes, there can be no progress for Japan." "In order to create an internationally cooperative economy and for Japan to become a truly international state, it is essential that Japan endeavor to achieve economic growth, led primarily by domestic demand, as well as to promote fundamental changes in its trading patterns and industrial structure . . . To achieve these goals, the roles of government finance, including the tax system and monetary policy, are important. Thus, there is a special need to make a fundamental reexamination of the tax policies promoting saving."

Security Treaty Crisis

btwn US and Jap: Sep 8, 1951; Signed on Sept. 8th 1951 — during the occupation Clearly a treaty imposed by an occupying nation on the occupiedProvided for the stationing of US troops in Japan "to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security in the Far East and to the security of Japan against armed attack from without, including assistance given at the express request of the Japanese Government to put down large-scale internal riots and disturbances in Japan, caused through instigation or intervention buy an outside power or powers."NO MENTION IS MADE OF THE NEED FOR JAPANESE APPROVAL FOR THE USE OF US TROOPS ABROADJapanese bases can be used for any reason the US desiresTreaty also mandated than Japan not grant bases to any third party without US consent — violation of Japanese sovereignty BUT the security treaty was part of a package dealOn the same day the US and 48 other countries signed a peace treaty with JapanThis treaty included the ending of the occupation the following year Treaty as part of the Yoshida doctrine: 1) Japan's economic rehabilitation is the primary goal 2) Japan should remained lightly armed and avoid international disputesthis would help avoid the diversion of economic energiesYoshida resists calls for a large army by US: by end of occupation US wanted an SDF of 350,000 — Japan raised from 75,000 to 110,000 3) to maintain security w/o a large army, Japan would provide for US bases Miyazawa Kiichi (PM 1991-93) recalled Yoshida as saying "the day for rearmament will come naturally when our livelihood recovers. It may sound devious, but let the Americans handle our security until then. It is indeed our Heaven-bestowed good fortune that the Constitution bans arms. If the Americans complain, the constitution gives us the perfect justification." Public opinion on the treaty 80% favored the pactBUT on US bases in Japan19% thought bases were a good idea29% opposed bases34% thought bases were unavoidable Opposition to the bases left and right wing Socialist and JCP are united on this issue -- although for different reasonsCommunistspro-Soviet sentiment"Riots" clause of the treaty meant the US army could be called out against JCPSocialistsTreaty was demeaning to Japan"Countries like Egypt will now say that we are subordinate to US."Treaty violates the Constitution"Japan will itself increasingly assume responsibility for its own defense"Appeal of neutrality UN over US or USSR Treaty renegotiation become huge problem — WHY? Resurgence of national pride based on economy1952-1958 — annual GNP growth of 7%1959-1961 — annual GNP growth of 13%1956 Japan surpassed UK as worlds leading shipbuilder Disatisfaction with basesJapanese now resentful of American superiority complexCrimes by GI are given sensational coverage in press Heat in the cold warDecember 1957 the Soviets launched SputnikTaiwan Straits CrisisNixon vs Kennedy in debatesKishi has declared that SDF can posses defensive n-weaponsMay 1960 U2 incident Sunakawa caseTokyo District Court decision in 1959 that the treaty was unconstitutionalSunakawa was a small village near TachikawaImportant air base for the US forces (far Tokyo suburbs)1955 the US and Japan agree to length the Tachikawa runway to accomadate newer jetsLeft began to mobilize against the expansion and the seizure of farm land to expand the runwayProtestors claimed that the expansion of the airbase was tied to US plans for nuclear aggression in China and USSRMarch 1959 Judge Date AkioDismisses charges against protestorsLaw under which the protestors were being tried violated "due process" -- Article XXXI of the ConstitutionThis means Security Treaty unconsitutionalJapanese gov wins on appeal to Supreme Court in December 1959Article IX does not prohibit Japan from preserving it's existence -- only from waging wars of aggression Conservatives are not unitedquestion of reversion Okinawa and the Ryukyus Japanese public opinion backing of the treaty becomes very tentative July 1959 poll 44.5% — the new treaty would be likely to involve Japan in a war 34% — don't know 21.5% — thought it would improve security What general course should Japan follow 45% — ally with free world 36% — adopt India-style neutrality 1.6% — join Communist bloc 15% — don't know September 1959 poll generated 26% — ally with US 50% — remain neutral 1% — ally with Communist bloc 23% — don't know; Kishi formally presents treat to the Diet in November 1959 Kishi had secured the removal of two important clauses The need for US approval of 3rd party bases The article on the use of US forces for domestic riots But opposition in the Diet began attacking the specific of the treaty - especially Article VI Kishi mentions Japan's veto power -- but the treaty specified no such power -- merely prior consultation Opposition begins to win public support May 14, 1960: Students delivery anti-treaty petitions with over one million signatures The Crisis Kishi is under time pressure - Eisenhower was scheduled to visit Japan in June 19, 1960 May 1960 Kishi demanded an extension of the Diet session, so that the treaty could be approved before the presidents visit Opposition cannot muster a majority Tries to defeat the extension through obstruction LDP calls in security Treaty will no become law unless the upper house acts within 30 days to stop it BUT this plays into the hands of the leftKishi is now portrayed as a fascist who uses the police to get his militaristic legislation through the Dietvirtually all intellectual are now opposed to the treaty because they are opposed to Kishi Maruyama Masao in May 1960: "If we sanction the events of the night of May 19th, it is tantamount to admitting that the authorities can use any forceful methods they wish. If you admit that the authorities are omnipotent, you cannot at the same time accept democracy. To affirm one is to deny the other. This is the choice that has been placed before us. . . . At this moment in history let us transcend our differences and join hands so that the security of our nation may be ensured, not against any foreign country, but first of all against the authorities." Student radicals and leftist unions mobilize distrust of Kishi Disaster of Hagerty visit Opposition grows more determined and violent Protest gain support from apolitical citizens Kishi cuts a deal LDP will pass treaty — 1960 Final Treaty Kishi will resign Process June 18 — treaty automatically became law June 20th — upper house approved revisions in 32 domestic laws to bring them into accord with the treaty June 23 — ratified treaty documents were exchanged June 23 — Kishi announced his resignation July 19 — Ikeda Hayato becomes PM -- the rallies disappear, the protest disappear, politics returns to normal

Tōjō Hideki (1884-1948)

member of Tōseiha

Abe, "Friends"

play; you read it

Fall of Berlin Wall

1989 - Beginning of the fall of communism and the Soviet Union - symbolized the failure of communism and massive socialism Actual fall 1991

Sputnik

October, 1957 - The first artificial satellite sent into space, launched by the Soviets.

Yamagata Aritomo (1838-1922)

One of the leaders of the Meiji Restoration; conservative; Supporter of assembly as means of bringing people closer to government; wants to suspend Diet entirely b/c they're anti govt; after a mishap w 25 dead and 300 injured it's clear that parties can't be suppressed; part of the genro(-); protege for Katsura Taro(-)

Ōkuma Shigenobu (1838-1922)

supporter of natl assembly as cornerstone of natl power; leaves govt and wants Br parliamentary practices- executive responsible to assembly; urban mvmt; 1881 founds progressive party Kaishinto(-)

Yoshida Shigeru (1878-1967)

Yohansen member; future PM 46-47, 47-54 doesn't like that Jap was aggressive w Br; imperialist and anglophile; LDP center; conservative but anti-war

Yohansen

Yoshida Hansen Members Yoshida Shigeru -- future PM 1946-47, 1947-1954 General Mazaki Jinsaburō: associated with the Kōdōha coup of 1936, had been forced into retirement Ikeda Seishin: former director of Mitsui bank, singled out during the 1920s and 1930s by right wing radicals as a symbol of bourgeois decadence, earmarked for assassination in 1932 Konoe Fumimaro 近衞文麿 (1891-1945), PM 1937-39, 1940-41 Konoe memorial

Takahashi Korekiyo (1854-1936)

affiliated w Seiyu(-)kai pol party, served as fin minister 1927-29, 31-36 Promoted aggresive Keynesian fiscal stimulus, which took Jap off gold standard Assassinated in 1936 by militarists Also didn't think Jap should meddle in N China after Manchuria Incident

Kita Ikki, Plan for the Reorganization of Japan

best thinker whose writings inspired in 1936 attempted coup by radical army officers (2/26 Incident); Most large indu should be in state control for outline for reconstruction of Jap

Murayama Tomiichi

Creation of coalition govt; June 1994-Jan 96; These are fairly weak sprawling coalitions Hosokawa cannot get coherent economic policy (confusion over consumption tax) Socialists want to reform/eliminate SDF but don't have power Aum Shinrikyō オウム真理教 (1995) Kobe Earthquake 阪神・淡路大震災January 19956.8 centered on Kobe problems of government response After 48 years from then, our nation has become one of nations that enjoy prosperity and peace. We must not forget that it is founded on the ultimate sacrifices in the last war, and a product of the achievements of the people of the previous generations. We would like to take this opportunity to clearly express our remorse for the past and a new determination to the world. Firstly at this occasion, we would like to express our deep remorse and apology for the fact that invasion and colonial rule by our nation in the past brought to bear great sufferings and sorrow upon many people

International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal)

Major charges: "As leaders, organisers, instigators, or accomplices in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to wage wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law" and "Waging aggressive war against the United States" BUT missing emperor Maj. Gen. Charles Willoughby and Col. Tsuji Masanobu Problems with Chinese trials, Tani Hisao Recent libel cases-Azuma Shiro-barred from US, Japan Times, China Daily Xia Shuqin (author loses libel appeal)

Lytton Commission

When Japan took over Manchuria in 1931, China protested to the League of Nations. This is the name of the Commission the League set up to look into the matter. It finally reported in 1933 and recommended that Japan be obliged to give up Manchuria. Japan responded by walking out of the League of Nations. The League took no further action. Recommended non-recognition of Manchukuo, causing Jap to walk out.

SCAP

Supreme Command for the Allied Powers; Part of Post WW2 policy- labor unions had SCAP block 1947 general strike; against labor unions

U2 Incident

The incident when an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. The U.S. denied the true purpose of the plane at first, but was forced to when the U.S.S.R. produced the living pilot and the largely intact plane to validate their claim of being spied on aerially. The incident worsened East-West relations during the Cold War and was a great embarrassment for the United States.

"Woman in the Dunes"

film; Abe Kobo; you saw it; surreal paranoia

Maj. Gen. Charles Willoughby

intelligence chief during Korean War; bad reputation; part of International Military Tribunal for the Far East

Yamakawa Kikue

linked feminism w socialism; argued that working class women suffered dual oppressions of gender and class so org against both patriarchal authority and exploitation of employers to bring about rev in econ system that brought about women's probs

Twenty-One Demands

list of demands given to China by Japan in 1915 that would have made China a protectorate of Japan

Katō Takaaki (1860-1926) (PM 1924-26)

part of rise of power of Diet

Mitsui

origins in a Tokugawa merchant house, added overseas trading in 1876, then coal mining, textiles, paper manufacture, sugar refining and shipping gets exclusive government contracts for sale of coal from Miike mine A major zaibatsu

Hara Takashi (1856-1921) (PM 1918-21)

part of the rise of power of Diet

Dodge Line

The Dodge Line was a financial and monetary contraction policy drafted by Joseph Dodge for Japan to gain economic independence after World War II. It was announced on March 7, 1949. It recommended: Balancing the national budget to reduce inflation More efficient tax collection Dissolving the Reconstruction Finance Bank because of its uneconomical loans Decreasing the scope of government intervention Fixing the exchange rate to 360 yen to one US dollar to keep Japanese export prices low Dodge had the Reconstruction finance bank, which was a major conductor of inflation-financed subsidies, shut down. He took important steps to restore Japan's foreign trade to private hands. The terms of all transactions were determined at the unchanging official exchange rate of $1 = 360 yen.; reduce inflation- was over 50% in late 40s; reduce govt subsidies & budget deficit

Four Power Pact

pact between US, britain, france and japan in which any disagreement between 2 countries regarding territorial possessions in the pacific would be discussed by all 4 countries before any action was to be taken

Tanaka Gi'ichi (1864-1929) (PM 1927-29)

part of rise of power of Diet; foreign policy contrast btwn him and Shidehara; had Northern Expedition and Nanking Incident

Shidehara Kijūrō (1872-1951)

part of rise of power of Diet; foreign policy contrast btwn him and Tanaka; had Northern Expedition and Nanking Incident

EPA

Economic Planning Agency; not part of Maekawa Commission

Yoshida doctrine

Economic growth should be Japan's prime national goal. Political and economic cooperation with the US is necessary to achieve this goal Japan should remain lightly armed and avoid involvement in international disputes. In doing so, Japan would avoid the diversion of energy and resources from its primary goal -- economic growth In order to secure American cooperation and ensure its own security, Japan would along for US troops to be stationed Japan Central to this doctrine is that Japan is not a major player in world politics

Imperial Rescription on Education

Know ye, Our subjects:Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting and have deeply and firmly implanted virtue; Our subjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the source of Our education.Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true; bear yourselves in modesty and moderation; extend your benevolence to all; pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore advance public good and promote common interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws; should emergency arise, offer yourselves courageously to the State; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth.So shall ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious the best traditions of your forefathers. The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial Ancestors, to be observed alike by Their Descendants and the subjects, infallible for all ages and true in all places.It is Our wish to lay it to heart in all reverence, in common with you, Our subjects, that we may thus attain to the same virtue.The 30th day of the 10th month of the 23rd year of Meiji. (1889)(Imperial Sign Manual. Imperial Seal.)

Satō Eisaku (1901-1972) (PM 1964-1972)

prime minister from 1964-1972, the longest term in Japanese history Kishi Nobusuke's brother (Kishi was adopted-out of Satō family) Continues US Japan Security Treat (Anpo 安保 - 日米安保条約) BUT in 1967 modifies it to assuage popular concernsJapan's Three Non-Nuclear Principles 1) Japan will not produce nuclear weapons2) Japan will not possess nuclear weapons3) Japan will not permit the introduction of nuclear weapons on its territory Three Principles of Arms Export 1) not allow the export of weapons to the Communist Bloc2) not allow the export of weapons to countries covered by UN arms embargoes3) not allow the export of weapons to countries likely to be involved in armed conflicts Informal policies SDF spending should not exceed 1% of GNP SDF is constitutional, but Constitution enjoins them from being dispatched, even as part of UN peace-keeping missions Satō is awarded 1974 Nobel prize for Nuclear Non-Proliferaton His acceptance speech emphasized Reversion of Okinawa Asian Development Bank Normalization of Relations with Republic of Korea

Etō Shinpei (1834-1874)

quit govt in 1874 over Korea issue; issue manifesto calling for elected assembly; dies so Itagaki becomes leader of mvmt

Motoshima Hitoshi

Nagasaki mayor, Motoshima Hitoshi at press conference in December 1988 Forty-three years have passed since the end of the war, and I think we have had enough chance to reflect on the nature of the war ... I do believe that the emperor bore responsibility for the war."It is clear from the historical record, that had the emperor pressed his senior staff to end the war sooner, the Battle of Okinawa and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki could have been avoided." Rightwing reaction LDP expels Motoshima Right-wing radicals call for his death January 18, 1990 Kawashima Kazumi shoots Motoshima, who almost dies Motoshima recovers, runs for re-election in 1991 LDP opposes him All other parties support Motoshima (Communists do not run candidate) Motoshima wins 4th term Loses campaign in 1995, but become internationally famous

Mitsubishi

started when Tosa, after the Restoration (1871) sold-off the foreign ships it had bought to Iwasaki Yatarō Iwasaki later bought a small private line and some surplus gov ships he gov. steered contracts his way and guaranteed private investors an 8% divide A major zaibatsu

Itō Hirobumi (1841-1909)

Supporter of national assembly as part of broad program of national reform; wrote constitution for emperor in late 1880s; Jiyu(-)to(-) supports his cabinet, which increased mil expenses after Triple intervention; 1900 tries to dev smoother govt system and accepts prez for Seiyu(-)kai (new name for Jiyuto); rather than negotiate w pol party, he'll have his own; wants party to be his standing army; party becomes too much and he quits his own party in 1903; PM determined by genro(-) and he's a member; Saionji becomes good ally and successor to him

Kōno statement

The Government of Japan has been conducting a study on the issue of wartime "comfort women" since December 1991. I wish to announce the findings as a result of that study. As a result of the study which indicates that comfort stations were operated in extensive areas for long periods, it is apparent that there existed a great number of comfort women. Comfort stations were operated in response to the request of the military authorities of the day. The then Japanese military was, directly or indirectly, involved in the establishment and management of the comfort stations and the transfer of comfort women. The recruitment of the comfort women was conducted mainly by private recruiters who acted in response to the request of the military. The Government study has revealed that in many cases they were recruited against their own will, through coaxing, coercion, etc., and that, at times, administrative/military personnel directly took part in the recruitments. They lived in misery at comfort stations under a coercive atmosphere. As to the origin of those comfort women who were transferred to the war areas, excluding those from Japan, those from the Korean Peninsula accounted for a large part. The Korean Peninsula was under Japanese rule in those days, and their recruitment, transfer, control, etc., were conducted generally against their will, through coaxing, coercion, etc. Undeniably, this was an act, with the involvement of the military authorities of the day, that severely injured the honor and dignity of many women. The Government of Japan would like to take this opportunity once again to extend its sincere apologies and remorse to all those, irrespective of place of origin, who suffered immeasurable pain and incurable physical and psychological wounds as comfort women. It is incumbent upon us, the Government of Japan, to continue to consider seriously, while listening to the views of learned circles, how best we can express this sentiment. We shall face squarely the historical facts as described above instead of evading them, and take them to heart as lessons of history. We hereby reiterate our firm determination never to repeat the same mistake by forever engraving such issues in our memories through the study and teaching of history. As actions have been brought to court in Japan and interests have been shown in this issue outside Japan, the Government of Japan shall continue to pay full attention to this matter, including private researched related thereto.

Murayama "Resolution to Renew the Determination for Peace on the Basis of Lessons Learned from History"

The House of Representatives resolves as follows: On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II, this House offers its sincere condolences to those who fell in action and victims of wars and similar actions all over the world. Solemnly reflecting upon many instances of colonial rule and acts of aggression in the modern history of the world, and recognizing that Japan carried out those acts in the past, inflicting pain and suffering upon the peoples of other countries, especially in Asia, the Members of this House express a sense of deep remorse. We must transcend the differences over historical views of the past war and learn humbly the lessons of history so as to build a peaceful international society. This House expresses its resolve, under the banner of eternal peace enshrined in the Constitution of Japan, to join hands with other nations of the world and to pave the way to a future that allows all human beings to live together.

Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan, 1960

The earlier Security Treaty of 1951 provided the initial basis for the Japan's security relations with the United States. It was signed after Japan regained full sovereignty at the end of the allied occupation. Bilateral talks on revising the 1951 security pact began in 1959, and the new Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security was signed in Washington on 19 January 1960. When the pact was submitted to the Diet for ratification on February 5, it became the subject of bitter debate over the Japan-United States relationship and the occasion for violence in an all-out effort by the leftist opposition to prevent its passage. It was finally approved by the House of Representatives on 20 May. Japan Socialist Party deputies boycotted the lower house session and tried to prevent the Liberal Democratic Party deputies from entering the chamber; they were forcibly removed by the police. Massive demonstrations and rioting by students and trade unions followed. These outbursts prevented a scheduled visit to Japan by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and precipitated the resignation of Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi, but not before the treaty was passed by default on June 19, when the House of Councillors failed to vote on the issue within the required thirty days after lower house approval. The negativity toward the treaty was largely based on the argument that article 6 of the treaty threatens the sovereign power of Japan. Article 6, as further explained below, contains a Status of Forces Agreement allowing the US to use military forces and facilities deployed in Japan for combat purposes other than the defense of Japan. Beginning with Article 1, the treaty established that each country would seek to resolve any international disputes peacefully. The treaty also gave prominence to the United Nations in dealing with aggression. Article 5, which dealt with armed attacks by a third party, required that the United Nations Security Council be involved and that any measures taken by the US and Japan be ceased "when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security." Further, Article 10 allowed for the abrogation of the treaty if both parties agreed that the United Nations has made satisfactory arrangements to provide for the stability of peace and security in the Japan area, i.e. if and when the United Nations System of Collective Security is in effect. Under the treaty, both parties assumed an obligation to maintain and develop their capacities to resist armed attack in common and to assist each other in case of armed attack on territories under Japanese administration. It was understood, however, that Japan could not come to the defense of the United States because it was constitutionally forbidden to send armed forces overseas (Article 9). In particular, the constitution forbids the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces." It also expresses the Japanese people's renunciation of "the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes". The scope of the new treaty did not extend to the Ryukyu Islands, but an appended minute made clear that in case of an armed attack on the islands, both governments would consult and take appropriate action. Unlike the 1951 security pact, the new treaty provided for a ten-year term, after which it could be revoked upon one year's notice by either party. Article 6 of the treaty contains a Status of Forces Agreement on the stationing of United States forces in Japan, with specifics on the provision of facilities and areas for their use and on the administration of Japanese citizens employed in the facilities. The Agreed Minutes to the treaty specified that the Japanese government would be consulted prior to major changes in United States force deployment in Japan or to the use of Japanese bases for combat operations other than in defense of Japan itself. Also covered are the limits of the two countries' jurisdictions over crimes committed in Japan by United States military personnel. The Mutual Security Assistance Pact of 1954 initially involved a military aid program that provided for Japan's acquisition of funds, materiel, and services for the nation's essential defense. Although Japan no longer received any aid from the United States by the 1960s, the agreement continued to serve as the basis for purchase and licensing agreements ensuring interoperability of the two nations' weapons and for the release of classified data to Japan, including both international intelligence reports and classified technical information. There were more widescale protests in Japan when the pact was renewed in 1970, but they died down thereafter. Further, there was a shift in Japanese domestic politics. Nobusuke Kishi had to resign his post as the prime minister, succumbing to widespread demonstrations against the treaty and further the US. Kishi was succeeded by Hayato Ikeda.

Beate Sirota Gordon

long unsung heroine of jap women's rights; wrote women's rights into Constitution of modern Jap

Mazaki Jinzaburō (1876-1956)

member of Kōdōha; afraid of SU taking over and wants Jap to surrender to US

Araki Sadao (1877-1966)

member of Kōdōha; hates commys; tried to encourage rebels while sounding neutral Said purpose of action has been reported to His Majesty We recognize that your motives are based on a sincere desire to clarify natl polity Current state of natl polity is matter of great regret to us All Supreme War Councilors have agreed to unite and move forward in accordance w principles stated above Beyond this everything depends on Majesty's will

zaibatsu

these are large, vertically integrated companies or families of companies the major ones were Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo and Yasuda, sometimes Dai-Ichi these existed independently for over 100 years -- consolidated only after 1990s financial crisis 2002 - Mizuho Bank is created in merger of Dai-Ichi and Yasuda 2002 - Sumitomo-Mitsui financial group

Yoshino Sakuzō (1878-1933)

wrote articles in 1913 about and analyzes probs of democratic govt; democracy is fully compatible w emperor's sovereignty. Wrote of pol corruption, non party cabinets, rise of plutocracy, universal suffrage, and need for pop edu in ways of democracy