Kaplan Behavioral Science Comprehensive
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin containing mushrooms
Common types of hallucinogens
Irving Janis
Conducted the first research on the theory of groupthink in the 1970s. Studied the effect of extreme stress on group cohesiveness and its resulting effect on groupthink Investigated the decision making of groups that had led to disastrous foreign policy decisions, including the Bay of Pigs invasion. Specifically examined eight factors taht are indicative of groupthink
Ventral Prefrontal Cortex
Connects regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion
Eight factors indicative of groupthink
1. illusion of invulnerability 2. collective rationalization 3. illusion of morality 4. excessive stereotyping 5. pressure for conformity 6. self-censorship 7. illusion of unanimity 8. mindguards
peak experiences
According to Maslow, profound and deeply moving experiences in a person's life that have important and lasting effects on the individual
Ought Self
According to self-descrepancy theory, our representation of the way others think we should be
Ideal Self
According to self-descrepancy theory, the person we would like to be
neuroleptic
Another word for antipsychotic
5
At what age is language for the most part substantially mastered?
Conflict Theory
Based on works of Karl Marx focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order Further, power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other group for economic, political, and social resources
Characteristic Institution
Basic organization of society Has changed throughout history Ex: In prehistoric times, the characteristic institution was primarily the kin, clan, or sib. In modern times, as we have transformed our cities into urban centers of trade and commerce, we have moved to bureaucracy as the characteristic institution
Stanley Milgram
Conducted the most notable obedience experiment
Rudolph Virchow
Demonstrated that diseased cells could arise from normal cells in normal tissues
stage 2 sleep
EEG begins demonstrating sleep spindles and K complexes in this stage, deeper sleep than stage 1
preconscious thoughts
Freudian theory of personality, thoughts that we aren't currently aware of
Secondary traits
Gordon Allport Other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one's personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations
Envious Stereotype
High Status, Competitive (Asians, Jews, Rich People, Feminists) High Competence, Low Warmth Those stereotypes in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust
Hippocampus in the Medial Temporal Lobe
Located in the temporal lobe Primarily involved in creating long term memories Along with the functions of the amygdala and hypothalamus, the storage and retrieval of emotional memories is key in producing and emotional response Aids in creating contest for stimuli to lead to an emotional response
Contemptuous Stereotype
Low Status, Competitive (welfare recipients, poor people) Low Warmth, Low Competence Those stereotypes in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger
Marxist Theory
Proposes that "have nots", called the proletariat, could overthrow the "haves", called the bourgeoisie, as well as the entire capitalist economy by developing class consciousness *Class Consciousness* - refers to the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action By working together as one unit, the proletariat could revolt and take control of the political and economic system, laying the groundwork for a socialist state
Pressure Control Predictability Frustration Conflict
What are five examples of psychological stressors?
majority influence
another word for conformity
birth rate
children per 1000 people per year
genes
coding regions of DNA
Primary Appraisal
component of cognitive appraisal the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat
eukaryotic cells
contain a true nucleus enclosed in a membrane can be unicellular or multicellular
cuboidal cells
cube shaped
squamous cells
flat and scalelike
Type B
generally laid back and relaxed
Bipolar II disorder
has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode
Distant Networks
looser and contain weaker ties May include acquaintances
Stanford-Binet IQ test
method to measure IQ (intelligence quotient)
method of loci
mnemonic technique involving associating each item in a list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
2 - 7 years old
preoperational stage duration
priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Depressants
reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety
reactive social movements
social movements that resist social change Ex: white supremacist movement, counterculture movement, antiglobalization movement, and anti-immigration movement
"I"
the creative expression of the individual Ex: Deciding that studying may not be the only path toward a goal and choosing to find alternative approaches would be part of "I"
identification
the outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas
mental set
the tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
behaviorism
the theory that all behaviors are conditioned
centration
(preoperational stage) the tendency to focus on the only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation
conservation
(preoperational stage) ex: A child can be presented with two identical quantities of pizza: on one plate is a single large slice, while the other plate has the exact same quantity in two slices. A child in this stage will be unable to tell that the quantities are equal and will focus mainly on the number of slices on the plate rather than the actual quantity
cell theory
1. All Living Things are Composed of Cells 2. The Cell is the Basic Functional Unit of Life 3. Cells Arise only From Preexisting Cells 4. Cells Carry Genetic Information in the Form of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). This genetic material is passed on from parent to daughter cell.
Golden ratio
1.618:1 (we're attracted to this)
implicit / non-declarative / procedural memory and explicit / declarative memory
2 types of long term memory
Dysthymia
A depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode
cognition emotions interpersonal functioning impulse control
A personality disorder is a pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: ____________________
Blunting
Affective symptom in which there is a severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression
Delusions of Grandeur
Also common in bipolar I disorder involve the belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon
Most common psychiatric disorder for women? Men?
Anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders
no, because very long term memories are moved back to the cerebral cortex
Are long term memories affected by damage to the hippocampus?
No, sex is biologically determined; an XY genotype corresponds to male sex, and an XX genotype corresponds to female sex. Gender relates to a set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits. In most cultures, there are two genders: male and female. However, some cultures consider more than two genders, and some individuals' gender identities do no match their biological sex
Are sex and gender synonymous terms?
Dorsal Prefrontal Cortex
Associated with attention and cognition
conduction aphasia
Because Broca' and Wernicke's areas are unaffected in this condition, speech production and comprehension are intact. However, the patient is unable to repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost. Very rare form of aphasia
Discrimination
Behavioral, refers to differences in actions toward different groups
Hierarchy of Salience
Believed that our identities are organized according to this, such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment Ex: Male and female college students in same-sex groups are less likely to list gender in their self-descriptions than students in mixed-gender groups The more salient (prominent or noticeable) the identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities
Whereas Freud's major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts and Jung's principal axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes, Adler assumes that people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.
Briefly describe the differences between Freud, Jung, and Adler's theories of personality.
Unconditional positive regard
Carl Rogers A therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment
Psychological Disorders
Characteristic sets of thoughts, feelings, or actions that cause noticeable distress to the sufferer, cause maladaptive functioning in society, or are considered deviant by the individual's culture
Disorganized Attachment
Children show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregivers' absence or presence, but instead can show a mix of different behaviors Mixed behaviors can include avoidance or resistance; seeming dazed, frozen, or confused; or repetitive behaviors like rocking Disorganized attachment is often associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver May also be a red flag for abuse
Medicare
Covers patients: 1. Over the age of 65 2. With end-stage renal disease 3. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Role Strain
Difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role, notice difference between role conflict (difficultly balancing multiple roles)
Yes, it is noteworthy, however, that facial expressions appear to be more highly conserved between species than body language Ex: Baring teeth and lunging forward are perceived almost universally as signs of aggression and readiness to attack
Do animals use facial expression for to communicate?
No, but they are much more critical of themselves
Do people with low self-esteem necessarily see themselves as worthless?
Primary Drives
Drives that included the need for food, water, and warmth; motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis
Sadness
Emotion corresponding with frown, inner eyebrows pulled up and together
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (Theory)
Ferdinand Tonnies Distinguished two major types of groups, community and society Gemeinschaft (community) - refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography Ex: Families and neighborhoods Gesellschaft (society) - refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together towards the same goal Ex: Companies and countries
Social Cognition
Focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100 Using this equation, a four year old with intelligence abilities at the level of the average six year old would have an IQ of 150
Formula for IQ
1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification) 4. Problem solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
Four components of the information process model.
Beneficience, Nonmaleficience, Respect for patient autonomy, Justice
Four key tenets of medical ethics
reality principle
Freudian theory of personality, Taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle Aim is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained
instinct
Freudian theory of personality, an innate psychological representation of a biological need
wish fulfillment
Freudian theory of personality, mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills this need for satisfaction
pleasure principle
Freudian theory of personality, the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent up tension, id functions according to this
thalamus
Functions as a preliminary sensory processing station and routes information to the cortex and other appropriate areas of the brain
When giving a square of letters, a person can provide a partial report by listing any row or column, but cannot recall the whole report because iconic memory fades before recalling the entire square
Give an example of iconic memory
Cardinal traits
Gordon Allport Traits around which a person organizes his or her life Ex: Mother Tersea's cardinal trait may be self-sacrifice. Not everyone develops these, but everybody does have central and secondary traits.
Basic Hostility
Horney Caused by neglect and rejection of child by parents
whole report
If a participant was given a group of letters, this report is when you ask him or her to list all of the letters in the group of letters
1 to 3 years
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, age range of anal stage
word salad
Incoherent mixture of words, phrases, and sentences, part of the symptom of disorganized thought exhibited in schizophrenia
No, hypnosis has been used successfully for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation.
Is hypnosis the same as how it is sensationalized in the media?
90 minutes
Length of sleep cycle in adults
1. Family 2. Peers 3. Religion 4. Government 5. Media 6. Work 7. Ethnic Background 8. Clubs / Social Groups 9. School
List nine agents of socialization.
Hypothalamus
Located below the thalamus, synthesizes and releases a variety of neurotransmitters Serves many homeostatic functions, and is involved in modulating emotion By controlling the neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal, largely dictates emotional states
complex interaction between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin
Mechanism of action of hallucinogens
neologisms
New words that a person with schizophrenia invents
Falls under the realm of psychodynamic theories of personality. In this context, object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy. These objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, including the social bonds we create and our predictions of others' behavior.
Object relations theory
Abraham Maslow
Observed that certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation; established a hierarchy of needs
Overconfidence
Occurs when our self-efficacy is too high Can lead us to take on tasks for which we are not ready, leading to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury
Symbols (Ex: menorah and American flag, respectively)
Play an important role in both ethnic and national identity.
Temporal Lobe, with some input from the Occipital Lobe
Primarily controls the ability to distinguish and interpret others' facial expressions Lateralized - the right hemisphere is more active when discerning facial expressions than the left Gender differences: Woman demonstrate more activation of these brain areas than men Ability is present but weak in children and develops into adulthood. Adults are much more effective at identifying both positive and negative emotions.
Predictability
Psychological Stressor Ex: Firefighters and policeman who cannot predict their daily scenarios experience higher levels of stress on the job.
intersectionality
Racial and ethnic identity may be more pronounced in first generation immigrants, and the same biases and prejudices against certain racial and ethnic minorities might be compounded by the individual's immigrant status; this interplay between multiple demographic factors - especially when it leads to discrimination or oppression - is termed __________________
Schizotypal Personality Disorder (Cluster A)
Refers to a person of odd or eccentric thinking May have ideas of reference - similar to delusions of reference, but not as extreme in intensity as well as magical thinking such as superstitiousness or a belief in clairvoyance
Resistance
Second stage of general adaptation syndrome The continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor
Bandura's Triangle
See figure 8.9 on page 322 Relates Behavior, Personal, and Environmental factors of social cognitive thoery
generativity vs stagnation (40 to 65 years)
Seventh Conflict, conflict of middle age, the successful resolution of this conflict results in an individual capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self indulgent, bored, and self centered with little care for others
Native Americans
Show higher rates of death from diabetes, alcohol and drug use, and infant mortality, but lower mortality rates compared to white Americans from cancer, heart disease, and HIV/AIDS Also show some of the highest rates of death by suicide in comparison to the general population This group also has some of the highest mortality racial inked to diabetes compared to any racial category
Increased
Skin temperature in subjects experiencing anger
Decreased
Skin temperature in subjects experiencing fear
Token Economies
Skinner Behaviorism Positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforces
Sociological / Psychological Hopelessness Form of Poverty
Some define poverty as a form of powerlessness or a sociological and psychological condition of hopelessness, indifference, or distrust In other words, poverty can be the result of the inability to control events that shape a person's life, often leading to a large degree of dependency on others
Shift of our understanding of disease
Some entities formerly defined as illnesses are now considered a normal part of the human condition Ex: Homosexuality and transgenderism Other entities have become *medicalized*, or defined and treated as medical conditions Ex: Hoarding and binge eating disorder
James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer
State the corresponding theories of emotion. 1. FR: Nervous system arousal SR: Conscious Emotion 2. FR: Nervous system arousal and conscious emotion SR: Action 3. FR: Nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal SR: Conscious emotion FR = First Response SR = Second Reponse
Selfishness
Strategic alternatives for socially influenced competitors The donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted
Spite
Strategic alternatives for socially influenced competitors both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted
Cooperation
Strategic alternatives for socially influenced competitors both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating
SIG E. CAPS Sadness + Sleep Interest Guilt Energy Concentration Appetite Psychomotor Symptoms Suicidal Thoughts
Symptoms of a major depressive episode?
(DIG FAST) Distractible Insomnia (Decreased Sleep) Grandiosity Flight of ideas (racing thoughts) Agitation Speech (Pressured) Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)
Symptoms of a manic episode
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
System for measuring stress level via "life change units"
theory of mind
The ability to sense how another's mind works Ex: Understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it
secondary reinforcer / conditioned reinforcer
The clicker in the scenario where a trainer feeds a dolphin a fish after a trick; fish is a treat that the dolphin responds to naturally, and clicker is paired via classical conditioning to the fish to elicit the same response
What will the MCAT likely connect Schizophrenia to?
To the "downward drift hypothesis," which states that schizophrenia causes a decline in socioeconomic status, leading to worsening of symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis. This is why rates of schizophrenia are much, much higher among the homeless and indigents.
Gordon Allport
Trait theorist who listed three basic types of traits or dispositions: cardinal, central, and secondary
Role Set
Various roles associated with a status
The inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe
Where is Broca's area located
Kurt Lewin
Who developed force field theory
B.F. Skinner
Who is associated with operant conditioning?
Church
a large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations
controlled (effortful) processing
actively working to gain information
Relearning
another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long term memory that involves learning previously learned information again more quickly
System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)
based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs submission, friendliness vs unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs emotional controlled
Dispositional approach
behavior is primarily determined by an individual's personality
dual-coding theory
both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information Ex: Word "dad" and picture of "dad" can recall same information
schema
can include a concept (What is a dog?), a behavior (What do you do when someone asks you your name?) or a sequence of events (What do you normally do in a sit down restaurant?)
Extrinsic Motivation
can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved Ex: Praise from your boss for working hard a work Ex: Practicing regularly for a port so that you will perform strongly in an upcoming game Ex: Studying for months on end to achieve a high score on the MCAT Ex: Competition - person is incentivized to beat others and not only to win, perform, or achieve for him- or herself Ex: Doing chores to avoid punishment and working to avoid being fired
stimulants
cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system, each drug increases the frequency of action potentials
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills; long term consequence of alcoholism
amphetamines
causes increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse AND decreasing their reuptake Increases arousal and causes a reduction in appetite and decreased need for sleep Increases heart rate and blood pressure euphoria, hypervigilance ("on edge"), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia Prolonged use can lead to stroke or brain damage Users suffer from withdrawal after discontinuation, leading to depression, fatigue, and irritability
Emotionally Focused Coping
center on changing one's feelings about a stressor Include taking responsibility for the issue, engaging in self-control, distancing oneself from the issue, engaging in wishful thinking, and using positive reappraisal to focus on positive outcomes instead of the stressor
Intergenerational changes in social status
changes in social status that happen from parents to children
Intragenerational changes in social status
changes in social status that happen within a person's lifetime
demographic shifts
changes in the makeup of a population over time
obediance
changing one's behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure While a classmate has no authority to demand notes from you, an authority figure has social power over other individuals. For instance, if a teacher demands that you provide your notes from class to him, you would be obeying rather than complying. People are far more likely to obey than comply due to the real or perceived social power of the individual.
Dependent Personality Disorder (Cluster C)
characterized by a continuous need for reassurance Individuals with dependent personality disorder tend to remain dependent on one specific person, such as a parent or significant other, to take actions and make decisions
Manic episodes
characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following: increased distractibility, decreased need for sleep, inflated self-esteem or grandiosity (beliefs that one is all-powerful, famous, or wealthy), racing thoughts, increased goal-directed activity or agitation, pressured speech or increased talkativeness, and involvement in high-risk behavior
dissociative amnesia
characterized by an inability to recall past experiences "dissociative" simply means that the amnesia is not due to a neurological disorder Disorder often linked to trauma Some individuals with this disorder may also experience dissociative fugue: a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering from one's home or location of usual daily activities
social anxiety disorder
characterized by anxiety that is due to social situations People with this condition have persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarrassment; for example, delivering a speech, socializing at a party, or using a public restroom
Type A
characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive More prone to heart disease than Type B, but not much evidence to suggest that people with Type A personalities have a higher mortality rate
illness anxiety disorder
characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition individuals with this disorder are quick to become alarmed about their health, and either excessively check themselves for signs of illness or avoid medical appointments altogether People classified under hypochondriasis in DSM-IV-TR now fit into somatic symptom disorder if somatic symptoms are present or this disorder if they are not
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) that produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life Relationship between the two is key: obsessions raise the individual's stress level, and the compulsions relieve this stress Ex: a person might obsess about dirt and compulsively wash his hands to neutralize he anxiety produced by the obsession
preoperational stage
characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration
conversion disorder
characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions Symptoms generally begin soon after the individual experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event, but may not develop until some time has passed after the initiating experience Ex: paralysis or blindness without evidence of neurological damage, person may be surprisingly unconcerned by the symptom - what is called la belle indifference Previously called "hysteria" Symptoms seen in this disorder may sometimes be connected with the inciting even in a literal or poetic way; for example, a woman going blind shortly after watching her son die tragically
concrete operational stage
children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others Children are able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available Have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly
fertility rate
children per woman per lifetime
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
choices between two negative options
appraisal model
closely related to Darwin's basic model of emotional expression, and accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent (a thing or event that existed before or logically precedes another) to emotional expression
Generalized anxiety disorder
common in the population and is defined as a disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things - making mortgage payments, doing a good job at work, returning emails, political issues, and so on - for at least six months. Individuals with this disorder often have physical symptoms like fatigue, muscle tension, and sleep problems that accompany the worry
Secondary Appraisal
component of cognitive appraisal If primary appraisal reveals a treat, this stage beings; Directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. Involves the evaluation of three things a. Harm or damage caused by the event b. Threat, or the potential for future damage caused by the event c. Challenge, or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event Individuals who perceive themselves as having the ability to cope with the event experience less stress than those who don't.
cilia
composed of microtubules projections from a cell that are primarily involved in the movement of materials along the surface of the cell, Ex: these line the respiratory tract and are involved in the movement of mucus
flagella
composed of microtubules structures involved in the movement of the cell itself, such as the movement of sperm cells through the reproductive tract
Attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or sensorium
Stereotype Threat
concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group Can cause reduced performance, encourage self-handicapping strategies, and lower one's personal investment in an activity Ex: White males in sports, women driving, and homosexual couples providing childcare Due to the awareness of stereotypes, individuals may perform worse or avoid performance altogether. The vulnerability of an individual to stereotype threat is in part based on how highly he or she identifies with the stereotyped group. This phenomenon can occur simply based on the presence of others. It has been shown that women taking a math exam with other women present scored higher than when taking a math exam when only men were present. Gender was not mentioned or emphasized, but it is possible that self-identification with a group and awareness of a stereotype resulted in reduced performance.
in group
concept related to ethnocentrism a social group with which a person experience a sense of belonging or identifies as a member Can form the based on a variety fo identifying characteristics, including but not limited to race, culture, gender, religion, profession, or education
out group
concept related to ethnocentrism refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify Negative feelings towards this group from the in-group are not based on a sense of dislike toward the characteristics of the out-group; rather, they are based on favoritism for the in-group and the absence of favoritism for the out-group
Risky Shift
concept that groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals, but changed to "Choice Shift" after psychologists realized that groups could also shift toward caution
semantic network
concepts are linked together based on similar meaning, sort of like an internet encyclopedia where each page includes links for similar pages
7 - 11 years old
concrete operational stage duration
Peers
considered individuals who are equals within a social group Play an extremely important role in determining, lifestyle, appearance, and social activities in adolescence While parents and other adults provide the foundation for development of beliefs and values, peers become very important as teenagers become independent from their parental figures
cyclothymic disorder
consists of a combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not sever enough to qualify as major depressive disorder
Panic disorder
consists of repeated panic attacks Panic attacks include: fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and a sense of unreality Sense of panic attack should not be underestimated: these individuals are suddenly struck with what is often described as a sense of impending doom and may be convinced that they are about to lose their mind Frequently accompanied by agoraphobia because of the pervasive fear of having a panic attack in a public location
explicit / declarative memory
consists of those memories that require conscious recall
Peroxisomes
contain hydrogen peroxide Breakdown very long chain fatty acids via beta-oxidation participate in the synthesis of phospholipids and contain some of the enzymes involved in the pentose phosphate pathway (discussed in biochemistry)
Semi-autonomous
contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus via binary fission (mitochondria are this)
semantic encoding
controlled processing method involving putting information into a meaningful context (think of Real World sidebars in MCAT book)
acoustic encoding
controlled processing method involving storing the way something sounds
visual encoding
controlled processing method involving visualization
Broca's area
controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex
Medicaid
covers patients who are in significant financial need.
Noam Chomsky
credited for Nativist (Biological) Theory
display rules
cultural expectations of emotions Ex: In Utkuhikhalik Inuit society, anger is rarely expressed; individuals who demonstrate anger are considered social pariahs These govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree, they may differ as a function of the culture, gender, or family background of an individual
DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
currently in its fifth addition, a compilation of many known psychological disorders Based on description of symptoms, rather than theories of the cause (etiology) or treatments of disorders Used by clinicians to fit lists of compiled symptoms from a patient into a category and thus to diagnose the patient 20 diagnostic classes of mental disorders
mortality rate
deaths per 1000 people per year
habituation
decrease in response as a result of repeated exposure to the same stimulus
splitting
defense mechanism used by those with borderline personality disorder (cluster B), involves viewing others as either all good or all bad (angel vs devil mentality)
Ghettoes
defined as areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities
Poverty
defined by low socioeconomic status and a lack of possessions or financial resources Can be handed down from generation to generation, and can be defined on its own terms or in comparison to the rest of the population
ascribed status
derived from clearly identifiable characteristics, such as age, gender, and skin color Involuntary
anima (feminine) and animus (masculine)
describe sex-inappropriate qualities, in other words, feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females Ex: In Jung's theory, the anima is the suppressed female quality in males that explains emotional behavior (described by Jungs as a "man's inner woman," while the animus is the analogous male quality of female that explains power seeking behavior ("a woman's inner man")
Erving Gofman
described impression management the through dramaturgical approach, using the metaphor of a theatrical performance to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situations
Alfred Kinsey
described sexuality on a zero to six scale, with zero representing exclusive heterosexuality and six representing exclusive homosexuality When ranked on this *Kinsey scale*, few people actually fell into the categories of zero and six, with a significant proportion of the population falling somewhere between the two
Gender Identity
describes a person's appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity.
Symbolic Ethnicity
describes a specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life Ex: Many Irish Americans in the United States celebrate "Irishness" only one day per year: St. Patrick's Day...In all other facets of life, these individuals' Irish-American ethnicity does not play a significant role Ex: attending folk festivals, visiting specific cultural locales for holidays, or participating in an ethnic pride rally
Mating system
describes the organization of a group's sexual behavior Includes monogamy, polygamy, and promiscuity
cognitive development
development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the life span
Heroin
diacetylmorphine
Formal organizations
different from groups in many ways 1. Continue despite the departure of an individual member. This means that the organization can have a history before and after an individual member. 2. Organizations have expressed goals. These are generally recorded in a written format and guide the members and their activities. 3. Formal organizations have enforcement procedures that seek to control the activities of their members 4. Organizations are characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members. Formal organizations can be quite large.
Insomnia
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep; most common sleep wake disorder and may be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep cycles and circadian rhythms
Instinctive drift
difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors Ex: Very difficult to train raccoons to put coins in a piggy bank because this task conflicted with their natural food gathering instinct
paternalism
doctor knows best mentality
problem solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping; dreams are untethered by the rules of the real world, and thus allow interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours
activation-synthesis theory
dreams are caused by wide-spread, random activation of neural circuitry. This activation can mimic incoming sensory information, and may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences. The cortex then tries to stitch this unrelated information together, resulting in a dream that is both bizarre and somewhat familiar
cognitive process dream theory
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness; Just as you may bethinking about an upcoming weekend trip when your consciousness quickly shifts to your upcoming MCAT Test Day, so too does the content of a dream rapidly shift and change
opium
drug derived from poppy plant
birth - 2 years
duration of sensorimotor stage
activities of daily living
eating, bathing, toileting, dressing and ambulation; decline in intellectual abilities is linked with how long an adult has the ability to perform these
working memory
enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information; also involves frontal and parietal lobes to integrate short term memory, attention, and executive function Allows us to do simple math in our head
Culture
encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group Binds our nation-states, political institutions, marketplaces, religions, and ideologies Flavors our interpretations of the world, and is generally passed through familial lines What makes human societies unique from one another
Common Stressors
environmental factors daily events workplace or academic setting social expectations chemical and biological stressors
Prodromal Phase
exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawl, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences. Followed by the active phase of symptomatic behavior. If schizophrenia development is slow, the prognosis is especially poor. If the onset of symptoms is intense and sudden, the prognosis is better.
culture shock
experiencing cultural differences when traveling outside one's society
Learning (Behaviorist) Theory
explained language acquisition by operant conditioning Very young babies are capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages, but by six months of age show a strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents. Skinner explained language acquisition by reinforcement. Parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents. Sounds that are often heard are perceived as valuable and are reinforced and sounds that are not heard are not reinforced. Many psycholinguists point out that this theory cannot fully explain the explosion in vocabulary that occurs during early childhood.
identity shift effect
explains mechanism behind peer pressure When an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group Upon doing so, however, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual. To eliminate the sense of internal conflict, the individual experiences an identity shift wherein the individual adopts the standards of the group as her own This identity shift highlights the effect of cognitive dissonance - the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
semantic memory
explicit memory consisting of the facts that we know
episodic memory
explicit memory of our experiences
Social Interaction
explores the ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other's behavior Include group processes and establishment of culture
Stigma
extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society Deviations from the norm can include differences in belief, abilities, behaviors, and appearance Common stigmatized medical conditions include HIV, achondroplasia (dwarfism), and obesity Can also spread to affect others who are associated with a particular individual. Ex: Family members of an alleged or convicted murderer or rapist can be stigmatized. Can evolve over time. Ex: Divorce was stigmatized in the early twentieth century, but now does not have such a strong negative connotation
Delusions
false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individual's culture that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary Common delusions include delusions of reference, persecution, and grandeur
depersonalization
feeling detached from you own mind and body Out of body experience is an example of this
derealization
feeling detached from your surroundings This is often described as giving the world a dreamlike or insubstantial quality
Charles Darwin
first established basic model of emotional expression
basic model of emotional expression
first established by Charles Darwin States that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes Claimed that expression is consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures Also stated that primates and animals exhibit rudimentary muscle actions that are similar to those used by humans for facial expressions
capitalist economies
focus on free market trade and laissez-faire policies, where success or failure in business is primarily driven by consumerism with as little intervention from central governing bodies as possible In this, a private owner or corporation maintains and profits from the success of the business Encourage *division of labor*, where specific components of a larger task (say, developing, manufacturing, quality testing, and marketing goods) are separated and assigned to skilled and trained individuals Promotes specialization and efficiency
microsociology
focuses on small groups and the individual
Social Stratification
focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic question of who gets what and why Thus, this is related to one's socioeconomic status (SES), which may be achieved or ascribed
Attribution Theory
focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the cause of other people's behavior
Crack
form of cocaine that can be smoked Quick and potent effects, highly addictive drug
Dissociatve Identity Disorder (DID)
formerly multiple personality disorder two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behavior Results when the components of identity fail to integrate In most cases, patients have suffered severe physical or sexual abuse as a child. After much therapy, the personalities can sometimes be integrated into one Existence of this disorder is justifiably debated within the medical community, but its characteristics are still important to recognize on Test Day Ex: One of the first and most famous cases of dissociative identity disorder in the media is Shirley Ardell Mason, also known as "Sybill," who had at least 13 separate personalities. Mason underwent years of therapy in an attempt to combine her personalities into a single one. Two separate TV movies, both called Sybil, have been produced to tell the story of Sybil's struggle with this disorder
algorithm
formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem; can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce the desired solution
Centrioles
found in a region of the cell called the centrosome Organizing centers for microtubules and are structured as nine triplets of microtubules with a hollow center During mitosis, these migrate to opposite poles of the dividing cell and organize the mitotic spindle. Microtubules emanating from these attach to the chromosomes via complexes called kinetochores and exert force on the sister chromatids, pulling them apart
reference groups
groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves Ex: to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are, you may consider yourself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants
hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Bipolar I disorder
has manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes
Latinos or Hispanic Americans
have a mixed profile in comparison to white Americans, in that they have lower mortality rates attributable to cancer, heart disease, and infant mortality, but high mortality rates attributable to diabetes, alcohol and drug use, and HIV/AIDS Hispanics also have a high mortality rate from influenza, pneumonia, and accidents
Stratified Epithelia
have multiple layers of cells
primacy effect
idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
long term potentiation
if a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptors sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density; neurophysiological basis of long term memory
Echopraxia
imitating another's actions
privilege
inequality in opportunity
trial and error
less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work; usually only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions
chromosomes
linear strands of DNA wound around histones
columnar cells
long and thin
Conformity
matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms Pressure to __________ can be real or imagined: an actual pressure from others, or a perceived pressure or expectation Also known as majority influence
artifacts
material culture material items that people make, possess, and value
alcohol
most common depressant
night terrors
most common in children, periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow wave sleep; children often thrash and scream during these terrors, and will show signs of sympathetic overdrive, with high heart rate and rapid breathing, Because these usually occur during SWS, the child experiencing the episode is very difficult to wake, and usually does not remember the dream the next morning
Child Abuse
most commonly manifests as neglect, although physical, sexual, and psychological abuse are also common
emigration
movement away from a geographic space
decay
natural loss of memory over time as the neurochemical trace of a short term memory fades
opiates
naturally occurring derivatives of opium, includes morphine and codeine
Folkways
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social situations Ex: Shaking hands after a sports match
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
not a freestanding diagnosis in the DSM-5, but is best categorized as a major depressive disorder with seasonal onset In this case, depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months This disorder may be related to abnormal melatonin metabolism; it is often treated with bright light therapy, where the patient is exposed to a bright light for a specified amount of time each day
representational thought
object permanence marks the beginning of this
proactive interference
old information is interfering with new learning Ex: After moving, you may have trouble recalling your new address in place of your old address Ex: Became more difficult for a man to memorize new lists as he memorized more and more lists
Sensorium
one aspect of the sensory environment
Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex
plays a substantial role in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala
Ageism
prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person's age Can be seen at all ages Ex: Young professionals entering the workplace are often viewed as being inexperienced, and their opinions and ideas may therefore be ignored or downplayed. Older individuals may be perceived as frail, vulnerable, or less intelligent, and may thus be treated with less respect
Prestige
refers to the amount of positive regard society has for a given person or idea Certain occupations, such as physicians, are broadly viewed with high levels of respect and importance Particular educational institutions, organizations, awards, and accolades may also be considered this
cultural capital
refers to the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills
morphology
refers to the structure of words
Wernicke's area
responsible for language comprehension
conduction aphasia
results from arcuate fasciculus is affected
Avoidant Attachment
results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child Given the choice, these children will show no preferences between a stranger and the caregiver Children show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or nor relief when the caregiver returns
serial position effect
retrieval cue that appears while learning lists; participants have a much higher recall for both the first few and last few items on the list
plutocracy
rule by the upper class
libido
sex drive
Esteem Support
similar to emotional support Touches more directly on affirming the qualities and skills of a person Reminding someone of the skills they possess to tackle a problem can bolster their confidence Ex: Consider a friend who has missed a significant amount of school due to an illness, telling her that she would have no problem making up the work because she is smart and an efficient worker would be providing esteem support
taboo
socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible
belief
something that an individual accepts to be truth
class systems
stratify by achieved SES
caste and estate systems
stratify by ascribed SES
Whorfian hypothesis
suggests that our perception of reality (the way we think about the world) is determined by the content of language. Language affects the way we think rather than the other way around Ex: Inuit language has a wide variety of names for different types of snow, whereas the English language has very few. Therefore, according to the Whorfian hypothesis, Inuits are better at discriminating subtleties between different types of snow than English speakers are A more expansive framework with more specific vocabulary allows for more sophisticated processing of that information and enhanced communication of that information to others.
Phonology
the actual sound of language
Anticipatory Socialization
the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships Ex: A couple living together in preparation for married life
Counterculture
the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
emotion
the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation
learning
the way in which we acquire new behaviours
Implicit / nondeclarative / procedural memory
type of long term memory that consists of our skills and conditioned responses
emotional memory
unconscious (implicit memory); storage of the actual feelings of emotion associated with an event When experiencing a similar event later on, these emotions may be retrieved
Values
what a person deems important in life, which dictates one's ethical principals and standards of behavior
stages 3 and 4
what sleep stages characterize slow wave sleep; especially difficult to rouse someone from sleep
somatic
word for "bodily"
Age
"graying of America" is occurring as the Baby Boomer generation ages Over 70 million Americans will be 65 or older by 2030, representing nearly 20 percent of the population The fastest growing *age cohort* in the United States is the 85-or-older group This has profound effects on healthcare: more than 40% of adult patients in acute care hospital beds are 65 or older
symbolic thinking
(preoperational stage) the ability to pretend, play make believe, and have an imagination
egocentrism
(preoperational stage) the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
secondary circular reactions
(sensorimotor stage) occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair These behaviors are often repeated because the child gets a response from the environment (such as a parent picking up the dropped toy)
primary circular reactions
(sensorimotor stage) the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb; usually, the behavior is repeated because the child finds it soothing
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
A stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled. Founder believed taht when peripheral organs receive information and respond, that response is then labeled as an emotion by the brain. Ex: A car cutting you off on the highway is a stimulus for elevated heart rate and blood pressure, increased skin temperature, and dry mouth. These physiological responses result in the cognitive labeling of anger: //I must be angry because my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high.// Thus, according to this theory, an emotion would not be processed without feedback from the peripheral organs. Therefore, individuals who cannot mount a sympathetic response, like spinal cord injuries, should show decreased levels of emotion. Weakness: Subsequent studies haven proven this claim to be false; spinal cord injury subjects continue to show the same level of emotion after their injuries as before. Weakness: Also, study by Walter Cannon studied the expression of emotion in cats whose afferent nerves had been severed. Also demonstrates weakness of this theory.
Actual Self
According to self-descrepancy theory, the way we see ourselves as we currently are
High levels of arousal
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, what is the optimal level of arousal to be successful in activities that require physical endurance and stamina?
Lower levels of arousal
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, what is the optimal level of arousal to be successful in highly cognitive tasks?
Ecstasy / MDMA
Acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine Mechanism and effects similar to other amphetamines Increased heart rate, blood pressure, blurred vision, sweating, nausea, and hypERthermia Produces feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well being and connectedness Club / rave drug
Secondary Drives
Additional drives not directly related to biological processes Though to stem from learning Ex: The drive to matriculate into medical school and become a physician Also include certain emotions, such as the desire for nurturing , love, achievement, and aggression
Prejudices
Affective, reflect the overall attitude and emotional response to a group
style of life
Alfred Adler represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority. Family environment is crucial in molding the person's style of life
creative self
Alfred Adler the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personaltiy
fictional finalism
Alfred Adler the notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences According to Adler, human goals are based on the subjective or fictional estimate of life's values rather than objective data from the past This concept can often be summed up by the phrase "Life would be perfect if only..."
Yes, cultural dissimilarities in emotion include varying reactions to similar events, differences in the emotional experience itself, the behavior exhibited in response to an emotion, and the perception of that emotion by others within the society.
Although emotions are experienced universally, is it possible for them to be greatly affected by culture?
Just-World Hypothesis
Another cognitive bias during impression formation In a so-called just world, good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people; noble actions are rewarded and evil actions are punished Consequences may be attributed to a universal restoring force Ex: In Hinduism, this force is referred to as Karma A strong belief in a just world increases the likelihood of "laming the victim" or stating that a victim is "getting what he or she deserves" because such a world view denies the possibility of innocent victims
self-disclosure
Another component of attraction The sharing of one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with nonjudgmental empathy Engaging in this behavior deepens attraction and friendship Must be a reciprocal behavior, however. Revealing one's innermost secrets creates a sense of vulnerability that, if not met by the other person, can be interpreted as being taken advantage of Reciprocity is important in other aspects of interpersonal attraction as well
Self determination theory
Another need based motivation theory Emphasizes the roles of three universal needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness Autonomy - the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas Competence - the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks Relatedness - the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships These three needs must be met in order to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others
Prefrontal Cortex
Anterior portion of the frontal lobes Associated with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions Receives arousal input from the brainstem, coordinating arousal and cognitive states Left part is associated with positive emotions and the right part with negative emotions Phineas Gage's frontal lobes were destroyed after they were pierced with a metal rod. His memory speech and motor skills were unaffected, but his personality was dramatically altered. Post-accident, Gage displayed irritable and impatient behavior, which inhibited his ability to complete simple tasks.
No, in general, appraisal and stress level are personal, as individuals have different skills, abilities, and coping mechanisms. For example, while a spider might incite fear and stress in some, it would result in irrelevant appraisal in others.
Are appraisals and stress levels the same for everyone?
Children's are more plastic, can remove an entire hemisphere of brain and remaining hemisphere will change to take over the functions of the missing parts of the brain, allowing the kids to essentially lead normal lives
Are children's or adult's brains more plastic?
No, emotions that a person expects to feel from a particular decision are also involved. For example, if a person believes a car will make them feel more powerful, he or she may be more likely to purchase that car
Are emotions in decision making only limited to the emotions experienced while the decision is being made?
No, neither schizotypal or schizoid personality disorder are the same as schizophrenia!
Are schizotypal or schizoid personality disorders the same as schizophrenia?
Relatedness
As described by self determination theory ,the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships
Autonomy
As described by self determination theory, the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas
Competence
As described by self determination theory, the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks
synaptic pruning
As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information.
Robert Hooke
Assembled a crude compound microscope and tested its properties on a piece of cork Noticed a honeycomb like structure and compared the spaces within the cork to the small rooms of a monastery, known as cells
3 years, but it may morph and change over time
At what age is gender identity usually well established?
Type Theorists
Attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types Examples of type theories are Types A and B and the Meyers-Briggs Type Inventory
Functional Attitudes Theory: Ego-Defensive
Attitudes protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong Ex: A child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject
Situational (external) attributions
Attribution Theory Attributions that relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressrue Ex: Suppose you hear that a friend has been nominated for and academic award. Believing that the friend has been nominated because of hard work and personal effort would be a dispositional attribution. Contrarily, chalking up the nomination to luck would be a situational attribution. Situational attributions, therefore, consider the characteristics of the social context rather than the characteristics of the individual as the primary cause
Dispositional (internal) attributions
Attribution Theory attributions that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics
Diffuse atrophy of the brain on CT or MRI Flattened Sulci in the cerebral cortex Enlarged cerebral ventricles Deficient blood flow in parietal lobes, which is correlated with cognitive decline Reduction in levels of acetylcholine Reduction in choline acetyltransferase (ChAt), the enzyme that produces acetylcholine Reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes Senile plaques of B-amyloid (a misfolded protein in B-pleated sheet form) Neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein
Biological Markers of Alzheimer's Disease (Don't worry about understanding each of these markers in depth, but rather be able to recognize these factors if you see them on the MCAT)
Yes, in one experiment, two groups of children were told to draw. One group was told that they would receive a gold star for their drawing. The group that was told that they would receive a gold star, and therefore rewarded extrinsically, drew for a shorter amount of time and acted only to receive the reward. Children who were not told that they would receive the gold ribbon spent more time drawing and drew just to draw.
Can extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation?
Yes, dog owners may use vocal commands to tell their pets to come, stay, or sit. Additionally, just as tone of voice can express joy or anger to a person, it can communicate the same information to a pet. Pets can be scolded with a look or a gesture. Communication works in opposite directions as well, as a pet's body language and expressions convey information to its owner.
Can pets and humans communicate?
1. paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary 2. officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office 3. regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones 4. officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training 5. responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization 6. responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position
Characteristics of bureaucracies
Disorganized Thought
Characterized by loosening of associations May be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would be unable to follow the train of thought Patient's speech may be so disorganized that it seems to have no structure - as though it were just words thrown together incomprehensibly (word salad) In fact, a person with schizophrenia may even in vent new words, called neologisms
categorical perception (also an auditory example of constancy see chapter 2)
Children learn to produce and recognize sounds of language, separating them from environmental noises and other human created sounds, like coughing Also need to know when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not; pronunciation of a word varies between people
9 + 2 Structure Cilia and flagella share the same structure, composed of nine pairs of microtubules forming an outer ring, with two microtubules in the center Only seen in eukaryotic organelles of motility, bacterial flagella have a different structure with a different chemical composition, as discussed later in this chapter
Cilia and flagella of eukaryotic organelles of motility share the same structure, what is it?
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Classifies needs into five groups, and assigned different levels of priority to each group. Displayed as a pyramid. Primitive, most essential needs at the base. If lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority. Once that need is met, if additional needs exist, they will be satisfied based on priority. Ex: A person's most basic motivation will be to satisfy physiological needs, followed by the need to establish a safe and secure environment First four levels of pyramid correspond to physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging, and self esteem. The highest level of the pyramid corresponds to self-actualization, or the need to realize one's fullest potential.
Stereotypes
Cognitive, refer to the expectations, impressions, and opinions about the characteristics of members of a group Fundamentally necessary to everyday life, despite negative connotations Purpose: Make sense of a complex world by categorizing and systematizing information in order to better identify items, predict their behavior, and react Extremely useful in defining categories and determining what does or does not fit into that category. However, when stereotypes are used to develop prejudices toward others and to discriminate, they are being appropriated for negative uses. Occur when attitudes and impressions are based on LIMITED and SUPERFICIAL information about a person or a group of individuals
McDonaldization
Commonly used to refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies While the original model was the fast food restaurant McDonald's, examples of these same characteristics can be seen in many other institutions. Ex: The establishment of 24 hour news channels, which feature a running footer of the latest news stories as "bite-size" headlines, demonstrate an efficient and predictable source of information Corporations may mine "big data" to make business decisions using controlled, standardized methods, allowing the business to focus on the calculable outcomes of a choice such as profit and loss analysis and market share
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Deals with only one choice, goal or event, but the outcome could have both positive and negative elements. Ex: While a job promotion might mean more money or status, it also comes with increased responsibility, potential for longer working hours, and increased pressure
cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, but by a different mechanism than amphetamines Effects similar to amphetamines Also has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, and is therefore sometimes used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas like the nose and throat Vasoconstrictive properties can also lead to heart attacks and strokes when used recreationally
Solomon Asch's conformity experiment
Demonstrated effects of peer pressure showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by a group males observed actors and made observations point of the study was to see if the behavior of the males was influenced by the peers compared two cards one card had length C one card had three lines (length A, length B, length C) actors were told to say the correct answer incorrectly or correctly when actors answered correctly the error rate of the males was less then one percent when actors answered incorrectly 33.33% was the error rate in males thus - individuals will sometimes provide answers the know to be untrue if it avoids going against the group *the urge toward conformity could outweigh the desire to provide the right answer*
Monamine theory of depression
Depression caused by decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine
Kelly thought of the individual as a scientist, as person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in his or her life. The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based on his or her knowledge, perception, and relationships with these other people. Thus, the anxious person, rather than being the victim of inner conflicts and pent-up energy (as in psychodynamic theory), is one who is having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in the environment. According to Kelly, psychotherapy is a process of insight whereby the individual acquires new constructs that will allow him or her to successfully predict troublesome events. Then, the individual will be able to integrate these new constructs into already existing ones.
Describe Kelly's personal construct psychology.
A memory begins its life as a sensory memory in the projection area of a given sensory modality. This sensory memory is brief, unless maintained in consciousness and moved, as short term memory, into the hippocampus in the temporal lobe. The memory can then be manipulated through working memory while in the hippocampus (in tandem with the frontal and parietal lobes), and even stored for later recall. Over very long periods of time, memories are gradually moved from the hippocampus back to the cerebral cortex.
Describe a simple summary of the transfer of a memory from sensory memory to long term memory.
Alcoholism rates tend to be higher for those of lower socioeconomic status (SES), but low-SES alcoholics tend to enter recovery sooner and at higher rates
Describe alcohol use among those of low socioeconomic status
To overcome basic anxiety or basic hostility and attain a degree of security, the child uses three strategies in his or her relationships with others: moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security; moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand; and moving away, or withdrawing, from people. These three strategies are the general headings under which the ten neurotic needs fall. Healthy people use all three strategies, depending on the situation. However, the highly threatened child will use one of these strategies rigidly and exclusively, and carries this strategy into adulthood.
Describe how Horney believed neurotic tendencies developed.
Rather than providing solutions or diagnoses, the person centered therapist helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny. Carl Rogers was the originator of the concepts of the real and ideal self discussed earlier in the chapter, and his therapeutic techniques aimed to help clients reconcile the difference between the various selves and reduce stress inducing incongruence
Describe how a person centered therapist works.
children of alcoholics are more likely to suffer from major depressive disorder
Describe how alcoholism can affect families
Explicit memory of the emotion produces a conscious memory of the experience, and implicit memory determines the expression of past emotions. Ex: PTSD - The explicit memory is the "story" of the event: what happened, where it occurred, who was involved, the fact that the scenario was traumatic, and so forth. The implicit memory corresponds to the sensations of unease and anxiety when put back into a similar environment.
Describe how implicit and explicit memory are involved in emotion.
Based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands. It is possible to fail at resolving the conflict central to any given stage of development, but this does not mean that mastery of each stage is required to move onto the next. Instead, Erikson viewed successful resolution of a stage, marked by answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages.
Describe the basis of Erikson's psychosocial development
Cortisol levels slowly increase during early morning because increasing light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus. CRF causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release. Cortisol contributes to wakefulness.
Describe the relationship between waking and cortisol.
Personality
Describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations In a way, identity describes who we are, while personality describes how we act and react to the world around us
Group Polarization
Describes the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group This can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions based on the initial tendencies of the group members toward risk or caution Has shown that individuals in group situations will form opinions that are more extreme than they would if making the same decision alone Initial ideas tend not to be extreme, but through discussion within the group, these ideas tend to become more and more extreme Originally termed "risky shift" because it was noted that groups tended to make riskier decisions than individuals, however, when psychologists began to realize that groups could also shift toward caution, the term became "choice shift" Choice shift and polarization refer to the same idea; however, polarization is used to describe behavior at the individual level, while choice shift describes the behavior change of the group as a whole Explains many real life scenarios, including policy making, violence, and terrorism Ex: Members of the same political party may espouse the same ideals and opinions in the group setting, but may waver slightly on issues when alone Ex: In the case of punitive damages (monetary penalties for a certain behavior), jurors who initially favor a high punishment may deliberate and decide upon an even higher punishment after discussion Social media research has shown that the group does not necessarily need to be together physically in order for polarization to occur. Simply reading others' ideas on social media sites can result in more extreme ideas from individuals
Whereas we have one all-encompassing self-concept, we have multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context. Ex: Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships, and membership in social groups re just a few of the identities that sum to create our self-concept
Difference between self concept and identity.
In humans, mating behavior is highly influenced by both biological and social factors. Humans also differ from animals by having formal relationships to correspond with mate choice Mating may or may not be associated with these social relationships, such as marriage or dating
Different than animal species, where there is usually one dominant mating system, describe human mating.
Role Conflict (This one is easy to understand lol)
Difficulty satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles Ex: A single parent who also works a full time job. Both of these roles carry a very large set of expectations, which are often at odds with each other.
New: controlled (effortful) processing Familiar: automatic processing
Discuss the processing of new tasks versus old tasks
The retina has direct connections to the hypothalamus, which controls the pineal gland; thus, decreasing light can cause the release of melatonin.
Discuss the relationship between sunlight and melatonin release
Yes Ex: It is common for sex discrimination in birds; females are often less colorful than males because it permits them a greater degree of camouflage and protection when caring for their young. However, this also serves as communication between birds, as sex is readily apparent from the bird's appearance. Ex: Bioluminescence (the production of light), colorful plumage (as in peacocks), and dancing. Bees are well-known for communicating through dancing Ex: Koko the Gorilla can communicate with humans through the use of American Sign Language. Koko's vocabulary includes more than 1000 words.
Do animals use visual displays for communication?
No, are you the same person when interacting with your friends as you are when you interact with coworkers or family? For most people the answer is //no//; they take on particular identities indifferent social situations.
Do individual identities always need to be compatible?
The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), a government agency, reports that race and ethnicity influence a patient's chance of receiving many specific procedures and treatments. Whether due to conscious or unconscious bias, there is evidence that different races are not always offered the same level of care escalation in a medical emergency.
Do race and ethnicity affect one's ability to receive proper health care?
No, about 75% during REM, when we enter stage 2 sleep, our mental experience starts to shift to a dreamlike state
Do we only experience dreams during REM sleep?
Yes, children who attend school tend to have greater increases in IQ, and IQ actually decreases slightly during summer vacations
Does the educational system play a significant role in the development of intelligence?
Role
Each status has this A set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status Role Performance - the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role Individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role Ex: Part of a doctor's role is to translate medical information into language their patients can understand; however, some doctors are far better at this skill than others Role performance can also change depending on the social situation and context of the interaction Ex: When doctors interact with each other, the pertinent parts of their roles are quite different than when interacting with patients. Behaviors and expectations thus change as a result of the role partner - the person with whom one is acting Doctors have many role partners: patients, nurses, patients' relatives, other doctors, residents, and hospital administration Various roles associated with a status are referred to as a role set
Distortion of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection Increases heart rate and blood pressure, dilates pupils, sweating, increased body temperature
Effects of hallucinogens
integrity vs despair
Eighth and final conflict, old age, if favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, which Erikson defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact taht one's life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death. If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one's life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one's own impending death
Anger
Emotion corresponding with glaring, eyebrows pulled down and together, lips pressed together
Disgust
Emotion corresponding with nose wrinkling and / or raising of upper lip
Contempt
Emotion corresponding with one corner of the mouth pulled upwards
Happiness
Emotion corresponding with smile, wrinkling around the eyes, raised cheeks
Surprise
Emotion corresponding with wide eyes, eyebrows pulled up and curved, jaw open
Fear
Emotion corresponding with wide eyes, eyebrows pulled up and together, lips pulled toward ears
Physiological Response
Emotional element that includes changes in heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure When a feeling is first experienced, arousal is stimulated by the autonomic nervous system
Behavioral Response
Emotional element that includes facial expressions and body language Ex: A smile, a friendly hand gesture, or even a subtle head tilt toward someone are commonly recognized as warm and happy signals. On the other hand, a frown, slumping of the shoulders, and looking downward are recognized as sad or downtrodden signals
Cognitive Response
Emotional element that is the subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced Determination of one's emotion is largely based on memories of past experiences and perception of the cause of the emotion
Acceptable behavior in downtown Manhattan is not identical to acceptable behavior in rural Montana.
Ethnic background, religion, and government play a role in learned behavior. Geography at the national, regional, and neighborhood levels also dictate norms of behavior. Give an example of how geography also dictates norms of behavior.
misinformation effect
Ex1: Participants were shown several pictures including one of a car stopped at a yield sign. Later, they were presented with written descriptions of the pictures, some of which contained misinformation, such as describing a car stopped at a stop sign. When asked to recall the details of the pictures many pictures insisted on having seen a stop sign in the picture. Ex2: Participants were shown a video of an automobile accident. Some participants were then asked how far the cars were moving when they collided, while others were asked about the accident using more descriptive language like how fast were the cars moving when they crashed. Participants who were asked the question with leading language were much more likely to overstate the severity of the accident than those who had been asked the question with less descriptive language.
Some Asian cultures believe that health care decisions should be the responsibility of a patient's family, which avoids burdening the patient (who is already ill) with having to make such a decision. This is in direct contrast to the American belief that patient autonomy should be prized and that healthcare decisions should be made by a patient whenever possible. These conflict can prove challenging to healthcare professionals, and there is not always one correct answer to such a dilemma. Such situations - when a cultural difference impedes interaction with others - are called *cultural barriers*
Example of every culture having its own belief and value systems
morphine and codeine
Examples of opiates
oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin
Examples of opioids
Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment
Experiment where actors (confederates) were hired to feign electric shocks, and a person was told to keep giving them shocks even when the shock was perceived to be really painful and they did not desire to continue hurting the person. Numerous repetitions of this experiment has shown that over 60% of people will obey even if they do not wish to continue.
Being in a foul mood primes negative memories, which in turn works to sustain the foul mood. So not only will memory be better for information learned when in a similar mood, but recall of negative or positive memories will lead to the persistence of the mood.
Explain the toxic spiral associated with negative emotions and memories.
opponent-process theory
Explains continuous drug use Explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology Ex: The body will counteract repeated use of alcohol, a depressant, by increasing arousal. The problem with this reaction is that it will last longer than the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms that are exactly the opposite the effects of alcohol: sensations of anxiety, jitteriness, and irritability The withdrawal created by this mechanism can create a physical dependence on the drug
Incentive Theory
Explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards
Drive Reduction Theory
Explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states Theorists hypothesize that certain physiological conditions result in a negative internal environment This internal environment then drives motivation and seeks homeostasis in order to reduce the uncomfortable internal state
PEN Model
Eysencks reasoned that people could be distinguished from one another based on where they fell in each of these three dimensions Consists of three traits: Psychoticism - a measure of nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion - a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism - a measure for emotional arousal in stressful situations
Alarm
First stage of general adaptation syndrome Initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system Shortly after, the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which maintains the steady supply of blood sugar needed to respond to stressful events Hypothalamus also activates the adrenal medulla, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to activate the sympathetic nervous system
Anton van Leeuwehoek
First to view a living cell under a microscope
past behavior in similar situations
For a social cognitive theorist, what is the best predictor of future behavior?
schizophrenia
For an individual to be diagnosed with this, he or she must show continuous signs of the disturbance for at least six months, and this six month period must include at least one month of "active symptoms" (delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech) Includes positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized or catatonic behavior - these positive symptoms can be further split into the psychotic dimension (delusions and hallucinations) and the disorganized dimension (disorganized thought and behavior) Negative symptoms - disturbance of affect and avolition
Rationalization
Freudian theory of personality, Justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society. Drivers who engage in reckless feats such as Cannonball Run (a race from Los Angeles to New York for which the current record is just under 33 hours) might justify their dangerous pursuits by saying, both to themselves and others, "I'm in complete control, and besides, there are plenty of dangerous drivers on the road. What difference will one more make?"
Life instincts
Freudian theory of personality, Referred to as Eros, promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs
defense mechanisms
Freudian theory of personality, The ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego
repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and sublimation
Freudian theory of personality, What are the eight main defense mechanisms?
life and death instincts
Freudian theory of personality, What are the two types of the propelling aspects of Freud's dynamic theory of personality?
Two common characteristics: first, they deny, falsify, or distort reality; second, they operate unconsciously
Freudian theory of personality, What do all defense mechanisms have in common?
reaction formation
Freudian theory of personality, When individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites, they are taking advantage of this Ex: a man pining after a female celebrity he knows he will never meet may outwardly express hatred for the celebrity as a way of reducing the stress caused by his unrequited feelings
superego
Freudian theory of personality, Whereas the id's desires are basic needs, those of this are refined and focused on the ideal self The personality's perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures Can be divided into two subsystems, both of which are a reflection of the morals taught to a child by his caregivers 1. Conscience - a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished 2. Ego-Ideal - consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded Ultimately, a system of right and wrong substitutes for parental rewards and punishments
Id's reliance on wish fulfillment cannot effectively reduce tension a permanent basis.
Freudian theory of personality, Why does the ego come into play?
Suppression
Freudian theory of personality, a conscious form of forgetting, while regression is mostly an unconscious form of forgetting
Thematic apperception test
Freudian theory of personality, consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. The story, presumably, will elucidate the client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings
id
Freudian theory of personality, consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce...functions according to the pleasure principle - the aim is to achieve IMMEDIATE gratification to relieve any pent-up tension primary process - id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later Mental imagery, such as daydreaming of fantasy, that fulfills this need for satisfaction is termed "wish fulfillment"
primary process
Freudian theory of personality, id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later
ego
Freudian theory of personality, operates according to the "reality principle" - taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle Guidance by this is referred to as "secondary process" Aim of reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained This can be understood to be the organizer of the mind: it receives its power from - and can never be fully independent of - the id Also responsible for moderating the desires of the superego
Death Instincts
Freudian theory of personality, referred to as Thanatos, represent and unconscious wish for death and destruction Proposed by freud as a response to his observations of victims of trauma reenacting or focusing on their traumatic experiences
Regression
Freudian theory of personality, reversion to an earlier developmental state. Faced with stress, older children may return to earlier behaviors such as thumb sucking, throwing temper tantrums, or clinging to their mothers
Projection
Freudian theory of personality, the defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others Ex: "I hate my parents" might turn into "My parents hate me" This defense mechanism is an important part of personality analysis. Rorschach inkblot tests make uses of this defense mechanism to gain insight into a client's mind Thematic apperception test - consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. The story, presumably, will elucidate the client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings
Repression
Freudian theory of personality, the ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms, the aim of which is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their wayback from the unconscious. While repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting, suppression is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting
Displacement
Freudian theory of personality, the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another Someone angry at her boss may hold her tongue at work but snap at her spouse when she gets home
Sublimatin
Freudian theory of personality, the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors Ex: Freud might say that pent up sexual urges may be sublimated into a drive for business success or artistic creativity
unconscious thoughts
Freudian theory of personality, thoughts that have been repressed (note that "subconscious" is often erroneously used to refer to Freud's ______________ mind.
A patient with amnesia bight not remember the time he learned to ride a bicycle or the names of the parts of a bicycle (episodic and semantic memories, respectively) but may, to his surprise, retain the skill of riding a bicycle when given one.
Give an example demonstrating the separateness of implicit and explicit memories.
Consider learning to drive: at first, drivers intensely grip the steering wheel and pay undivided attention to the road ahead. But as you become more accustomed to driving, you relegate some aspects of driving, like knowing how hard to push on the pedal, to automatic processing. This lets a driver perform secondary tasks such as changing the radio station. However, automatic processing is far from perfect. It does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change, which may contribute to the high incidence of car accidents that result from distracted driving.
Give an example of automatic processing.
When entering college, teenagers experience a complete lifestyle change and are in nearly constant interaction with people of their own age. This creates a shift in acceptable behavior that can include late nights out with friends, all-night study sessions, and significant time away from family. When entering the workforce, another change environment leads to socialization within the organization.
Give an example of how environment can aid socialization?
Ex: Low-income women are more likely to deliver babies with low birth weights, thereby placing them at risk for numerous physical and cognitive problems in life. Similarly, poor racial and ethnic minorities have lower lie expectancies.
Give an example of how poverty, in combination with a culture of inequality, leads to worse health outcomes, and this effect runs across gender, age, and racial and ethnic boundaries.
functional autonomy
Gordon Allport A major part of Allport's theory A behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior A hunter, for example, may have originally hunted to obtain food to eat. However, the hunter may continue even after there is enough food simply for the enjoyment of the hunt: that which began as a means to obtain a goal became the goal itself.
Central traits
Gordon Allport represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma
Marijuana
Has active chemical agent THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) Exerts its effects by acting on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors THC inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity (causing pleasure) eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered blood pressure Acts as stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen
Discrimination and decreased access to healthcare are quite common, largely due to remaining prejudices and homophobia
Healthcare for LGBT men and women
Admiration Stereotype
High Status, Not Competitive (In-group, close allies) High Warmth, High Competence Those stereotypes in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings
Theory of Gender Schema
Hold that key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means
Basic Anxiety
Horney's primary concept; inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness, which Horney termed ___________
Emotional expressions can be managed in several different ways: 1. By simulating feelings one does not actually feel 2. By qualifying (making less extreme), amplifying, or de-amplifying feelings 3. By masking an emotion with another emotion 4. By neutralizing any emotional expression whatsoever
How are emotional expressions managed?
In direct contrast to the psychoanalysts, who focus on "sick" individuals and their troubling urges, humanistic or phenomenological theorists focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization.
How are humanistic or phenomenological theorists different than psychoanalysts?
L-DOPA, a prescursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain, replacing that which is lost due to Parkinson's disease
How can Parkinson's disease be partially treated?
Psychic energy in general, not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality
How did Carl Jung prefer to think of libido?
personal unconscious (similar to Freud's notion of the unconscious) and the collective unconscious (a powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors)
How did Jung describe the unconscious?
Infants learn mainly through instinctual interaction with the environment. For example, infants possess a grasping reflex. Through experience with this reflex, the infant learns that it is possible to grasp objects
How did Piaget believe that infants learned?
Humors (Body fluids, and imbalance of which could lead to various personality disorders)
How did the ancient Greek devise personality types?
Ex: Research has shown that prairie dogs have different "words" for specific predators, and can even create new words for novel objects Ex: Bird calls are species specific and are used to attract a mate or warn of a threat
How do animals communicate through vocalizations with various levels of communication?
Culture and society influence what is deemed appropriate sexual behavior, the age at which it is deemed appropriate, and with whom. For example, one study involved showing porn to both men and women. Men and women experienced the same level of physiological arousal, but women more often reported being unaroused or having feelings of disgust based on subjective interviews.
How do cultural norms and conditioning influence the desire for sexual interaction, or lack thereof?
They are capable of killing the cell by release of enzymes from the electron transport chain
How do mitochondria kick start apoptosis?
Brain stops sending signals to breathe
How do opiates / opioids cause death?
It also includes a fourth, judging (J, preferring orderliness) vs perceiving (P, preferring spontaneity)
How does Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) add on to Jung's three dichotomies?
Research on the expression of emotion in the United States has shown that women are expected to express anger in public less often than men, while men are expected to repress the expression of sadness. Research also supports the conclusion that women are better at detecting subtle differences in emotional expression than men.
How does gender play a role in emotional expression?
Social relationships between different agents, such as capitalists, laborers, the government, and citizens, result in spatially varied social structures, built environments, and unequal regional development Ex: Poorer neighborhoods tend to have less political and social influence than more affluent neighborhoods; as a result, "undesirable" buildings, like water refineries, trash-smoldering plants, and chemical manufacturers, tend to be placed in poorer areas. Citizens of these areas may lack the social resources to fight government and industry.
How does space itself create social inequalities?
Directly correlated
How is skin conductivity correlated with sympathetic arousal?
40
How many speech sounds are in English
Gestalt therapy
Humanism is often associated with this, in which practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives. For the humanists, our personality is the result of the conscious feeling we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals
Nationality
Identity based on political borders This type of identity is the result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols such as a country's flag Not tied to one's ethnicity or even to legal citizenship
partial report
If a participant was given a group of letters, this report is when you ask him or her to list all of the letters of a particular row or column
identity vs role confusion (12 to 20 years)
In Erikson's psychosocial development, Fifth conflict, this stage encompasses what Erikson termed physiological revolution. The favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day
industry vs inferiority (6 to 12 years)
In Erikson's psychosocial development, Fourth conflict, if resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self esteem
intimacy vs isolation (20 to 40 years)
In Erikson's psychosocial development, Sixth Conflict, main crisis of young adulthood; favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals. If this crisis is not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or capable of only superficial relationships with others
initiative vs guilt (3 to 6 years)
In Erikson's psychosocial development, Third conflict, the favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself or may overcompensate by showing off
trust vs mistrust (0 to 1 year)
In Erikson's psychosocial development, first conflict, if resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins out, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout life
autonomy vs shame (1 to 3 years)
In Erikson's psychosocial development, second conflict, the favorable outcome here is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self restraint. The unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control
phallic / Oedipal stage
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the analogous Electra conflict for female children. In Freud's view, the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands. He wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes. To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. Also, the child to a large extent de-eroticizes, or sublimates, his libidinal energy. This may be expressed through collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork. Freud did not elaborate much on the Electra complex, although he theorized a similar desire. Because females cannot have castration fear, they instead have *penis envy* Girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed in this theory
anal stage
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, Libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs during this stage Fixation during this stage would lead to either excessive orderliness (//anal-retentiveness//) or sloppiness in the adult.
0 to 1 year
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, age range of oral stage
3 to 5 years
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, age range of phallic / Oedipal stage
either excessive orderliness (//anal-retentiveness//) or sloppiness in the adult.
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, fixation during the anal stage would lead to what
Neurosis
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development In response to fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as this
5 to puberty
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, how long does latency last
sublimate
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, sublimate means to de-eroticize libidinal energy
Latency
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, this is the stage in which libido is largely sublimated and lasts until puberty
Genital Stage
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, this is the stage that begins at puberty. If previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships. If not, homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result
Fixation
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, this occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development In response to this, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as neurosis
Oral stage
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, this stage is characterized by obtaining gratification primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth. A fixated adult would likely exhibit excessive dependency.
homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, what happens if sexual traumas of childhood occurred.
puberty through adulthood
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, what is the time frame for the genital stage
excessive dependency
In Freudian Psychosexual Development, what would an orally fixate adult exhibit?
language acquisition device (LAD)
In Nativist (Biological) Theory a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
critical period
In Nativist (Biological) Theory between 2 years and puberty If no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is largely ineffective Think of case of a victim of child abuse. She was isolated from all human contact from age 2 to 13. With later language exposure, she was unable to master many rules of language, although she was able to learn some aspects of the syntax, indicating that there may be a sensitive period for language development rather than a critical period.
transformational grammar
In Nativist (Biological) Theory focuses on syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that retain the same meaning For example: "I took the MCAT" or "The MCAT was taken by me"
Needs
In addition to drives, also motivators that influence human behavior Through this lens, motivation can be described as how we allocate our energy and resources best to satisfy these Motivation thus determines which behaviors are most important to pursue, how much effort will be taken, and for how long the effort will be maintained
1. Cluster A (paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid) 2. Cluster B (antisocial, borderline, histrionic (overdramatic), and narcissistic) 3. Cluster C (avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive)
In addition to general personality disorder, there are ten personality disorders grouped into three clusters. What are these three clusters?
Yes, allows for compartmentalization of functions
In eukaryotic cells, are most organelles membrane bound?
inclusive fitness
In evolutionary psychology, a measure of an organism's success in the population Based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others Early descriptions of evolutionary success were based solely on the number of viable offspring of an organism. However, contemporary theories take into account the benefits of certain behaviors on the population at large. Ex: The existence of altruism could be supported by the observation that close relatives of an individual will share many of the same genes; thus, promoting the reproduction and survival of related or similar individuals can also lead to genetic success Other species show examples of inclusive fitness by protecting the offspring of the group at large. By sacrificing themselves to protect the young, these organisms ensure the passing of genes to future generations. Inclusive fitness therefore promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole. This is one potential solution to why altruistic behavior is demonstrated, as this behavior has puzzled traditional Darwinist evolutionsists
Functional Attitudes Theory: Ego-Expressive
In functional attitudes theory Attitudes allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identify Ex: if a person strongly identifies with a sports team, she may wear a hat that helps identify her as a fan of that team
Functional Attitudes Theory: Knowledge
In functional attitudes theory Is important in that it provides consistency and stability: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior Ex: One would predict that an individual who cares about political action would vote in an upcoming election.
Functional Attitudes Theory: Adaption
In functional attitudes theory the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
self reference effect
In semantic encoding, the phenomenon of recalling information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives
central route processing
In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, high elaboration, scrutinizing and analyzing the content for persuasive information
peripheral route processing
In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, low elaboration, focusing on superficial details of persuasive information, such as appearances, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility
sick role
In the mid-twentieth century, a patient was expected to carry out this role, in which he or she was not responsible for the illness and was exempt from normal social roles Further, the patient had the obligation to wan tot become well and seek out competent help While this paradigm still exists, patients are now expected to take more ownership of their health through diet, exercise, seeking help before it is needed (through annual primary care visits and screenings) and so on
(Erving Goffman) dramaturgical approach
In this analogy, Goffman likens a person's status to that person's part in the performance and role in the script. While Goffman stretched this analogy to its very limits, the MCAT will only expect you to be familiar with the concepts of front stage and back stage self. Front Stage - where the actor is in front of the audience and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see Back Stage - were the actor is not being observed by an audience and is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image without having to worry about ruining his performance
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
In this sleep stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed; called paradoxical sleep because one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep Dreaming is mostly likely to occur during this stage along with memory consolidation
Cannon-Bard Theory
In this theory of emotion, a person will respond with action after experiencing the emotion both mentally and physically. When exposed to a stimulus, sensory information is received and sent to both the cortex and the sympathetic nervous system simultaneously by the thalamus. Cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioral component of emotion, or action: // I am afraid because I see a snake and my heart is racing...Let me out of here!// Weakness: Fails to explain the vagus nerve, a cranial nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying information from the peripheral organs back to the central nervous system.
egalitarian societies
In what societies are best health outcomes generally seen?
discriminative stimulus
Indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm The presence of the trainer in the scenario where a trainer feeds a dolphin a fish after a trick; dolphin eventually associates presence of trainer with possibility of reward
Group Conformity
Individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goal Individuals conform in an attempt to fit in and be accepted by the groups. Individuals will often participate in behaviors they normally would not.
Delusions of Reference
Involve the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual Ex: A person with this type of delusion may believe that characters of a TV show are talking to him directly
Delusions of Persecution
Involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened
Yes, according to the Census Bureau, the nation's total immigrant population is growing rapidly; it was quantified at 40.4 million in 2011 and is expected to increase by roughly 20 million in the next two decades. This tells us that immigrants, whether documented or undocumented, are interwoven into every social structure and institution in the United States and make up a significant demographic bloc. The nativity of immigrant populations changes over time; in the most recent census, the largest proportions of immigrants had emigrated from Mexico, the Caribbean, and India.
Is immigration relevant?
No, although education can certainly help with achieving social mobility. Some of the best examples of upward mobility are seen with professional athletes and professional musicians. In addition to education, athletics and music may offer opportunities for disadvantaged individuals to move to a higher social status
Is social mobility directly correlated with education?
1. The complex organization of the US healthcare system is starkly different from those of most other nations, and this may present a barrier to understanding for immigrants 2. Language barriers may also make it difficult for immigrants to access healthcare or to take control of their healthcare decisions; telephone translation services have been created to help facilitate the conversation between clinician and patient. 3. Undocumented status presents a major barrier for many immigrants to access healthcare for fear of reporting and deportation
Issues immigrants face with healthcare.
persona
Jungian archetype, likened to a mask that we wear in public, and is the part of our personality that we present to the world Like our identity, Jung described the persona as adaptive to our social interactions, emphasizing those qualities that improve our social standing and suppressing our other, less desirable qualities
shadow
Jungian archetype; responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness
Preconventional Morality
Kohlberg Phase 1 Typical of preadolescent thinking and places and emphasis on the consequences of the moral choice Stage 1 (obedience) is concerned with avoiding punishment (//If I steal the drug, I'll go to jail//), while stage 2 (self interest) is about gaining rewards (//I need to save my wife because I want to spend more of my life with her) Stage 2 = instrumental relativist stage, it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing //I scratch your back, you scratch mine//
Conventional Morality
Kohlberg Phase 2 Begins to develop in early adolescence when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others Based on understanding and accepting social rules Stage 3 (conformity) places emphasis on the "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others (//I should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong//) Stage 4 (Law and Order) maintains the social order in the highest regard (//If everyone stole things they couldn't afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business//)
Postconventional Morality
Kohlberg Phase 3 Describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws Stage 5 (social contract) views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights (//Everyone has a right to live; businesses have a right to profit from their products//) Stage 6 (Universal Human Ethics) reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles (//It is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom//)
Force Field Theory
Kurt Lewin Puts very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id, ego, and superego. Further, Lewin focused little on individual's past or future, focusing instead on situations in the present. Lewin defined the field as one's current state of mind, which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time. If the focus of humanistic psychology is exploring how an individual reaches self-realization, then these forces could be divided into two large groups: those assisting in our attainment of goals and those blocking the path to them
50 minutes
Length of sleep cycle in children
zone of proximal development
Lev Vygotsky; refers to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development Gaining these skills successfully require the help of a "more knowledgeable other," typically an adult Ex: A child may struggle to ride a bicycle on her own, but with the help and guidance of a parent she may be successful. Vygotsky would say that this skill is currently within the child's _____________________
External locus of control
Locus of control in which people feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences Ex: A runner who loses a race attributes the cause to his or her shoes not fitting well enough.
Paternalistic Stereotype
Low Status, Not competitive (housewives, elderly people, disabled people) High Warmth, Low Competence those stereotypes in which the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored
Relationship of Education With Socioeconomic Class
Lower socioeconomic status is associated with decreased accessibility and quality of education Not an easy trend to reverse Low funding, deprioritization of education, and poor historical performance can make it challenging for a failing school district to acquire resources and improve education to its students It is often the case that institutions are intentionally or unintentionally connected Ex: There is a well-known, persistent association between education and medicine. Health disparities between more and less educated individuals are significant, and lack of education may be a hurdle to accessing or trusting healthcare providers
stereotyping
Making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed
Fisherian / Runaway Selection
Method of mate choice A positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect or a negative effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerate over time. In this model, a trait is deemed sexually desirable and thus is more likely to be passed on. This increases the attractiveness of the trait, which in turn increases the likelihood that it continues to be passed on. Ex: The bright plumage of the peacock is the prototypical example of Fisherian selection.
Sensory Bias
Method of mate choice Development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population. Ex: Fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source; male crabs take advantage of this fact by building pillars around their territory to attract mates
Phenotypic Benefits
Method of mate choice Observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex. Usually, these traits indicate increased production and survival for the offspring. Ex: Males that appear more nurturing are more likely to care for, and promote the survival of, their offspring
Indicator Traits
Method of mate choice Traits that signify overall good health and well being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates. Notably, these traits may or may not be genetic in origin. Ex: Female cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats; a dirty and dull coat may be related to an underlying genetic problem, or to malnutrition or infection
Phenotypic Benefits Sensory Bias Fisherian / Runaway Selection Indicator Traits Genetic Compatibility
Methods of mate choice
Impression bias
Model of perception that focuses on our selection of cues to form interpretations of others taht are consistent over time When a perceiver comes into contact with an unfamiliar target, they take in all cues from the target and environment, UNFILTERED. As the perceiver becomes more familiar with a given target, they use these cues to categorize the target: friend vs enemy, caring vs standoffish, open-minded vs bigoted, and so on. Additional time spent with the target in the situational context will lead the perceiver to confirm his or her categorization. After this point, the perception of additional cues becomes selective in order to pain a picture of the target that is consistent with the perceptions the perceiver has already made Supports the primacy effect - the idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions Sometimes, however, it is actually the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions (recency effect) individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver (reliance on central traits) there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related. Making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed is known as stereotyping (implicit personality theory) Making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed (stereotyping)
Major Depressive Disorder
Mood Disorder characterized by at least one major depressive episode
Alzheimer's disease
Most common cause of dementia
Schizophrenia
Most potential causes are genetic, but trauma at birth, especially hypoxemia (low oxygen concentrations in the blood), is also considered to be a risk factor Excessive marijuana use in adolescence is associated with an increased risk of this disease If a person has this disorder, the risk that his or her first degree relatives will also have the disorder is ten times that of the general population Highly associated with EXCESS dopamine in the brain; many medications used to treat schizophrenia, such as neuroleptics (antipsychotics), block dopamine receptor Neuroleptics tend to induce side effect of sedation
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation that comes from within oneself, can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment Ex: Student that enjoys subject matter and strives to master the content is driven by intrinsic motivation, while the student who wants to achieve the reward of high grades is motivated extrinsically
Destructive Motivations
Motivations that result in harm to oneself Ex: Drug abusers can be motivated to take drugs by the pleasure experienced when taking the drug or by the removal of withdrawal symptoms
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Negative symptoms are those that involve the absence of normal or desired behavior In this specific disease, negative symptoms include disturbance of affect and avolition
Family Group
Not self selected unlike a peer group but determined by birth, adoption, and marriage Joins members of various ages, sexes, and generations through emotional ties Can be filled with conflict at times; often true in adolescence when peer groups begin to compete with this type of group for time and loyalty May also struggle with cultural gaps and social differences between generations, such as speaking in different languages
Heroin
Once used as morphine derivative, however once injected, heroin is rapidly metabolized to morphine
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Cluster B)
One has a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, a need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement People would think that these people like themselves too much, but they actually have a very fragile self-esteem and are constantly concerned with how others view them There may be marked feelings of rage, inferiority, shame, humiliation, or emptiness when these individuals are not viewed favorably by others
Fritz Heider
One of founding fathers of attribution theory. Divided causes of attribution theory into two main categories - dispositional (internal) and situational (external).
Poverty is highly geographical, and the official poverty line is not contextualized according to geographic location and, as a result, does not take into account the cost of living in different communities. Ex: The price of renting an apartment in a major urban center is much higher than the cost of rent in a rural small town.
One of the main problems with the official *poverty line*.
semantic encoding, visual encoding, acoustic encoding
Order the methods of encoding information in from strongest to weakest.
self concept
Our own internal list of answers to the question //Who am I?//
Cognitive Appraisal
Part of Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion; to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal
instinct theory
People are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionary programmed instincts Derived by Darwin's theory of evolution Ex: instincts of suckling and carrying food to the mouth result in naturally motivating one to eat
William McDougall
Person who was greatest proponent of instinct theory Ex: Postulated that the instincts of suckling and carrying food to the mouth result in naturally motivating one to eat
Biological Perspective
Personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain
adaptation
Piaget theorized that new information is processed and placed into different schemata via _______________.
media
Plays a large role in what is accepted within a particular society Impacts beliefs and can determine what is considered important in a particular society Most commonly accessed through television, radio, newspapers, and the internet Delivers impersonalized communication to a vast audience, and can thereby establish trends in American or international pop culture
Environmental Justice
Poor living conditions and dangerous environmental conditions can result in an increase in illness and disease. Many poor and minority groups tend to reside closer to sites of environmental pollution because these areas are usually cheaper housing markets. It is no surprise that inadequate housing, heating, and sanitation, in concert with toxin exposure, can contribute to acute medical problems. These low income areas may also lack the social and political power to prevent environmental risks from encroaching on their communities.
Learning Theory
Posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning Direct contact with the object can influence attitudes Ex: Children form a positive attitude toward sweets almost immediately after tasting them. Direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes Ex: A child who is taught by her parents not to use curse words can form a negative attitude toward curse words and, indirectly, a negative attitude towards those who use curse words. Our attitudes can be influenced by others' attitudes Ex: A teenager may begin to have a positive attitude toward smoking if his friends all smoke. Attitudes may be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance States that performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level Optimal level of arousal varies between different types of tasks: lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks, while higher levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina Simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks
Global Inequalities
Poverty and social inequalities are not limited to hierarchies within a country. *world system theory* - categorizes countries and emphasizes the inequalities of the division of labor at the global level *core nations* - focus on higher skills and higher paying productions, while exploiting *peripheral nations* for their lower-skilled productions *Semi-peripheral nations* - midway between core and peripheral nations - these nations work toward becoming core nations, while having many characteristics of peripheral nations Much of the world, especially within semi-peripheral and peripheral nations, lives on less than the equivalent of $1.25 / day. Especially seen in parts of India, sub-Saharan Africa, and South Central Asia
Preparedness
Predisposition to learn or not to learn behaviors based on natural abilities and instincts Ex: Birds naturally peck when searching for food, so rewarding them with food in response to a pecking based behavior works well Ex: Very difficult to train raccoons to put coins in a piggy bank because this task conflicted with their natural food gathering instinct
Trait Theorists
Prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors Use clusters of behaviors to describe individuals
expand on family members to social circles, including friends, peers, and teachers
Primary agents of socialization for adolescents
colleagues and bosses
Primary agents of socialization for adults
Parents or family members
Primary agents of socialization for children
Shaping
Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors For example, if you wanted to train a bird to spin around in place and then peck a key on a keyboard, you might first give the bird a treat for turning slightly to the left, then only for turning a full 90 degrees, then 180, and so on
Control
Psychological Stressor Ability to control one's surroundings typically reduces stress levels, while inability to control a situation or event increases stress Ex: In a study of nursing home patients, it was observed that those who had the most control of their daily environment displayed more active, positive, and social behavior.
Conflict
Psychological Stressor Arises from the need to make a choice Approach-Approach: refers to the need to choose between two desirable options Avoidance-Avoidance: choices between two negative options Approach-Avoidance: Deals with only one choice, goal or event, but the outcome could have both positive and negative elements. Ex: While a job promotion might mean more money or status, it also comes with increased responsibility, potential for longer working hours, and increased pressure
Pressure
Psychological Stressor Experienced when expectations or demands are put in place from external sources; produces a feeling of urgency to complete tasks, perform actions, or display particular behaviors
Frustration
Psychological Stressor Occurs when attaining a goal or need is prevented Can be external, such as not getting a raise, or internal, such as a disability interfering with everyday life
Homeostasis
Regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions
Some theorists have identified illness as a social phenomenon rather than a purely physical condition In this model, a sick individual is unable to be a productive member of society and is therefore deviant from society Remember, deviance does not necessarily imply judgement; it merely refers to an act or a behavior that goes against social norms. The manifestation of deviance in healthcare and medicine is that the individual who has fallen ill is not only physically sick, but now adheres to the specifically patterned social role of being sick that disrupts the normal social order of society
Relate the theory of functionalism to health and illness
Religion in Modern Society
Religions are struggling to find a place in contemporary society Reflected by a shift toward modernization within the religion and relaxing historical practices For others, there is a shift away from religion as society *secularizes*, or moves from a world dominated by religion toward rationality and scientific thinking For other groups, maintenance of strict adherence to religious code, or *fundamentalism*, predominates
Foraging
Seeking out and eating food Driven by biological, psychological, and social influences Biologically, hunger is driven by a complex pathway involving both neurotransmitters and hormones. Lateral hypothalamus promotes hunger, while the ventromedial hypothalamus responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety. Foraging also impacted by genetics. Certain genes play a role in the onset of foraging behavior and the division of tasks between members of the same group. Some species forage together while others engage in solitary foraging. Cognitive skills play a role in the success of both solitary and group foraging. These skills include spatial awareness, memory, and decision making. In species that forage as a group, foraging is primarily a learned behavior. Young individuals learn through observation how to find and consume food and determine what is safe to eat. Animals also learn how to hunt by watching others. Some animals, such as wolves, hunt in packs that have strict rules regarding the order in which individuals are allowed to eat after a successful hunt.
Secure Attachment
Seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to Child will be upset at the departure of the caregiver and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver Child trusts that the caregiver will be there for comfort, and while the child can be comforted by a stranger, he or she will clearly prefer the caregiver Having a secure attachment pattern is thought to be a vital aspect of a child's social development Children with avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized attachment can have deficits in social skills
self-enhancement and locus of control
Self serving bias motivational process that focuses on the need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures cognitive process, internal and external locuses of control Respectively
Self-Serving Bias / Self-Serving Attributional Bias
Self-identity and perception can be skewed through this Refers to the fact that individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors Notion that all good things that happen are based on our good traits and behaviors and that all bad things are based on situational factors beyond our control is used to protect our self-esteem. Ex: A student who earns a good grade on a test may attribute her success to her intelligence or to how intensely she studied. However, if she received a bad grade, she might attribute it to poor teaching by the professor, unfair questions, or too longs a test for the allotted time emotion is also a factor in self-serving bias because it can impact self-esteem, which influences the need to protect one's self-identity Locus of control and self-enhancement influence self serving bias Relationships to others also determine the likelihood of the bias: Individuals with higher self-esteem are more likely to protect this image and thus more likely to exhibit self-serving bias. Relationships to others also determine the likelihood of the bias: Individuals who have close relationships are less likely to attribute failures to one another, and instead will make joint attributions. On the other hand, strangers are more likely to self-serve by placing blame for a failure on each other
opioids
Semisynthetic derivatives of opium
before the onset of puberty
Sensitive period for language development
amygdala
Small round structure that signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions Processes the environment, detects external cues, and learns from the person's surroundings in order to produce emotion Associated with fear and also plays a role in human emotion through interpretation of facial expressions
Health Benefits of Social Support
Social Support Provides Many Health Benefits Helps reduce psychological distress such as anxiety and depression. People with lower social support show higher levels of major mental disorders, alcohol and drug use, and suicidal ideation. Beyond these intuitive improvements in mental health, there are also improvements to our physical health. Studies have found that people with low social support have a higher mortality risk from many different diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Strong social support correlates with immunological health, too: those with higher social support are less likely to get colds and recover faster when they do
Describe Schachter-Singer experiment.
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer gave injections of epinephrine or placebo to groups of subjects that were either informed, ignorant, or misinformed. They also manipulated external cues in the study by having an actor act either happy or angry. Observed that epinephrine did result in increased physiological arousal; however, they also discovered that the environment and cognitive processing affected the emotion experienced by the subjects. Misinformed and ignorant groups experienced highest levels of emotion. Schachter and Singer explained this by stating that a subject experiencing physiological arousal with not explanation or with misleading explanation will attribute that arousal to the surrounding environment, the presence of unexpected arousal plus an environment that encourages a particular emotion is sufficient to create that emotion in the subject. Contrarily, the informed group knew to expect physiological arousal from the drug, and thus attributed their feelings to being side effects, rather than emotion.
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
States that both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. //I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy.// Cognitive Appraisal - to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Stereotypes can lead to expectations of certain groups of individuals These expectations can create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations Ex: During their first year on the wards, medical students are stereotyped as being unable to quickly and efficiently throw knots during a surgery. With this knowledge in mind, many medical students are nervous so suture for the first time and may struggle with every step of the know-tying process. This validates the stereotype and thus completes the self-fulfilling prophecy
Altruism
Strategic alternatives for socially influenced competitors the donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to him- or herself
Social Cognitive Perspective
Takes behaviorism one step further Focuses not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on how we interact with that environment Reciprocal determinism (Alfred Bandura) is a centra idea to this perspective
Genetic compatibility
The creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics. This theory provides a mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population: attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disease-carrying allele
primary reinforcer
The fish in the scenario where a trainer feeds a dolphin a fish after a trick; fish is a treat that the dolphin responds to naturally
Encoding
The process of putting new information into memory
Cognitive Dissonance
The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions Generally leads to an internal state of discomfort, which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion. Individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts
Positive symptoms of schizophreina
The symptoms are symptoms that are behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior. For this specific disease, symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized or catatonic behavior - these positive symptoms can be further split into the psychotic dimension (delusions and hallucinations) and the disorganized dimension (disorganized thought and behavior)
Choice Shift
The tendency of groups to make either riskier or more cautious decisions than individuals
Social Interactionist Theory
Theory that focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes Language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner, such as interacting with caretakers and other children. This theory allows for the role of brain development in the acquisition of language. As the biological foundations for language develops and children are exposed to language, the brain groups sounds and meanings together. Then, as the child interacts with others, certain brain circuits are reinforced, while others are de-emphasized, resulting in atrophy of those circuits.
Social Cognitive Theory
Theory that postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others According to this idea, behavior is not learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (such as thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior These three factors - behavior, personal factors, and environment - are not independent concepts, but influence each other, as shown in Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation Ex: The work ethic of employees in a company (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment) Reciprocally, this behavior may create a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment)
Exhaustion
Third stage of general adaptation syndrome The body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity At this point, individuals become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions (such as ulcers and high blood pressure) Organs can begin to deteriorate (with effects including heart disease) In extreme cases, death can result
Alfred Adler
This man's theory focused on the immediate social imperatives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors Originator of the concept of the inferiority complex - an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially According to this man, striving for superiority drives the personality. This striving enhances the personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorder when it is selfish.
dominance vs submission friendliness vs unfriendliness instrumentally controlled vs emotional controlled
Three fundamental dimension of interaction according to System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)
Methadone (long acting opioid with lower risk of overdose)
Treatment for opioid addiction
True
True or False: Simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks?
material culture and symbolic culture
Two different categories of culture
Social Trust
Two primary sources: social norms of reciprocity ("I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine" and social networks
beta and alpha waves
Two waves that characterize brain wave activity when we are awake
Cultural Attribution
Type of culture an individual is a part of plays a major role in the types of attributions the individual makes Individualist cultures, including Anglo-American and Anglo-Saxon European cultures, put high value on the individual, personal goals, and independence. Individualists tend to make more fundamental attribution errors than those in collectivist cultures. Individualists are also more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors. Collectivist cultures, including many Asian and African societies, view individuals as members of a group and place high value on conformity and interdependence. Collectivist cultures are more likely to attribute behavior to situational factors.
internalization and identification
Types of conformity
George Kelly
Used himself as a model to theorize about human nature, and set aside the traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement in his descriptions of personal construct psychology
Social Institutions
Well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture Ex: Family is a social institution that encourages learning of acceptable behavior, socialization, and bonding
1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development?
1. Spoken Language 2. Written Language (print and electronic) 3. Sign Languages (American Sign Language) 4. Tactile Languages (Braile)
What are examples of verbal communication?
foot-in-the-door-technique, door-in-the-face technique, lowball technique, and that's-not-all technique
What are four notable techniques used to gain compliance from others?
neurofibrillary tangles and beta amyloid plaques
What are physical characteristic findings associated with Alzheimer's disease?
1. Poor access to quality medical care 2. Poor nutrition 3. Feeling less in control of life circumstances 4. Poor are more likely to smoke and be overweight or obese 5. Poor are less likely to engage in physical activity 6. In addition to socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity can create barriers to care. Sometimes, culture and non-native language are viewed as contributors to pathology because they can act as obstacles to diagnosis and treatment. Further, despite efforts to systemically address unequal treatment of minority populations by physicians, there are still inequalities and disparities in treatment relative to race and ethnicity over a wide range of medical specialities. In other words, minorities and low-income groups tend to face greater barriers to care, and poorer quality fo care when they receive it. To be specific, it has been demonstrated that African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics receive worse care than white Americans
What are primary reasons low-income groups have higher mortality rates?
1. Self-Disclosure - giving information about oneself to establish an identity ex: disclosing that you are a premedical student 2. Managing Appearances - using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image ex: Wearing a white coat, keeping calm while dealing with a difficult patient, mentioning associations with important researchers during an interview 3. Ingratiation - using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over Ex: Blindly agreeing to someone else's opinion, complimenting a friend before asking for a favor 4. Aligning Actions - Making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses Ex: Justifications for missing deadlines, blaming a bad grade on too little sleep 5. Alter-Casting - Imposing an identity onto another person Ex: Any example in this course that says "As a good MCAT student, you shoud..." in which Kaplan is assigning you the role of "good MCAT studying"
What are some common impression management strategies?
1. Some argue postconventional morality describes views that are more prevalent in individualistic societies and is therefore biased against collectivist culture 2. Also, Kohlberg's research was only performed using male subjects, which may cloud differences in reasoning patterns between men and women
What are some criticisms of Kohlberg's theories?
1. Increased norepinephrine and serotonin (monoamine theory) 2. Higher risk if parent has bipolar disorder 3. Higher risk for persons with multiple sclerosis
What are some markers associated with bipolar disorders?
1. Abnormally high glucose metabolism in the amygdala 2. Hippocampal atrophy after a long duration of illness 3. Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol) 4. Decreased norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine (monamine theory of depression), It has been found that both these neurotransmitters and their metabolites are decreased, meaning that their actual production is decreased (rather that production staying the same and their degradation increasing)
What are some markers associated with depression?
persona - the aspect of our personality we present to the world anima - a "man's inner woman" animus - a "woman's inner man" shadow - unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness
What are the Jungian archetypes?
phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics
What are the five components of language?
beta, alpha, theta, delta waves, and REM sleep (BAT-D)
What are the five sleep stages?
Knowledge Ego Expression Adaptation Ego Defense
What are the four functions that attitudes serve according to Functional Attitudes Theory?
Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Punishment, Negative Punishment
What are the four possible relationships between stimulus and behavior in operant conditioning?
Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Muscle Nervous Tissue
What are the four tissue types?
Mutation in the presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 contribute to having the disease Mutations in the apolipoprotein E gene on chromosome 19 can also alter the likelihood of acquiring the disease B-amyloid precursor protein gene on chromosome 21 is known to contribute to Alzheimer's disease, explaining the much higher risk of Alzheimer's in individuals with Down syndrome
What are the genetic components to Alzheimer's disease?
caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol
What are the most commonly used psychoactive substances in the United States?
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
What are the seven types of intelligence according to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
1. Extraversion (E, orientation toward the external world) vs. introversion (I, orientation toward the inner, personal world) 2. Sensing (S, obtaining objective information about the world) vs. intuiting (N, working with information abstractly) 3. Thinking (T, using logic and reason) vs. feeling (F, using a value system or personal beliefs)
What are the three dichotomies of personality according to Jung?
Physiological response, behavioral response, and cognitive response
What are the three elements of an emotion?
id, ego, and superego
What are the three major entities in personality, according to Sigmund Freud?
(ABC) Affective, Behavioral, Cognitive
What are the three primary components of attitude?
1. Alarm Stage 2. Resistance Stage 3. Exhaustion Stage
What are the three stages of general adaptation syndrome?
Ascribed Status - one that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background Achieved Status - a status that is gained as a result of one's efforts of choices, such as being a doctor Master Status - the status by which a person is most identified; this status is typically the most important status the individual holds and affects all aspects of that person's life - Master statuses can also cause pigeonholing: we may view an individual only through the lens of his or her master status, without regard to any other personal characteristics (such as with a president or any other major political figure)
What are the three types of statuses?
assimilation and accomodation
What are the two processes, according to Piaget, by which adaptation to information comes about
fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence
What are the two types of intelligence?
cognitive arousal theory and two factor theory
What are two other terms for the Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
higher level of education, more frequent performance of intellectual activities socializing, and a stimulating environment
What can be protective against cognitive decline?
recognition-primed decision model (sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern)
What can intuition be more accurately described by?
semantic memory and episodic memory
What categories can explicit / declarative memory be divided into?
a nonhostile sense of humor, originality, creativity, spontaneity, and a need for some privacy
What characteristics did the self actualizers Abraham Maslow studied, such as Ludwig van Beethove, Albert Einstein, and Eleanor Roosevelt, have in common?
hippocampus
What controls explicit memory?
amygdala
What controls implicit memory?
genetics, environment, parental expectations, socioeconomic status, and nutrition
What correlates with intelligence?
General Adaptation Syndrome
What did Hans Selye develop?
ego
What did Jung identify as the conscious mind?
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)
What did Jung's work lay the groundwork for? Hint: It is a classic personality test
The child's internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, languages, and so on
What did Lev Vygotsky believe was the engine driving cognitive development?
Not on resolving conflicts or urges, but rather on the development of moral thinking. Kohlberg reasoned that, as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong. Kohlberg viewed these stages as a progression in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses. In other words, we all begin in stage one and progress to varying degrees as our thinking matures.
What does Kohlberg's theory of personality development focus on?
motivation and emotion
What does the limbic system play a large role in?
nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
What does the mesolimbic pathway include?
Number of factors, including the amount of work we have invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with the identity, and the amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity
What factors influence salience (prominence or noticeability) of an identity?
Organism can no longer be classically conditioned to establish new fears.
What happens if the amygdala is damaged?
We become aware of judgements from the outside world and react to these judgements.
What happens when children develop theory of mind.
Cognitive recovery and memory consolidation, as well as increased growth hormone release
What has slow wave sleep been associated with?
Five Factor Model (the Big Five) which uses dimensions of five traits: Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (Notice OCEAN mnemonic)
What has the PEN theory (developed by Eysencks) been expanded to recently?
Discrimination against overweight and obese patients. This can apply to any overweight individual, regardless of socioeconomic status, gender, age, and racial and ethnic background, although there is a higher prevalence of obesity in low-income groups. Doctors are less likely to recommend effective weight loss programs to obese patients, sometimes based on the flawed assumption that obese patients lack the willpower to effectively lose weight. As a result, overweight and obese patients are more likely than normal-weight patients to switch doctors repeatedly. When one does not have a consistent primary care doctor, continuity of care is nearly nonexistent. Additionally, overweight or obese patients are less likely to have quality preventative care and screenings , including screenings for breast and colon cancer.
What is a common bias aside from race and ethnicity that may have . a large impact on how patients are treated by their providers?
Vascular (multi-infarct) dementia
What is a common cause of dementia aside from Alzheimer's?
Eukaryotic cells form tissues with division of labor, as different cells in a tissue may carry out different functions.
What is a unique characteristic of eukaryotic cells consistent with the following example? Ex: In the heart, some cells participated in the conduction pathways while others cause contraction; still others serve a supportive role like maintaining structural integrity of the organ.
Phillip Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment, participants were shocked by the degree to which they internalized their roles
What is an example of internalization?
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
What is another name for the cognitive arousal theory / two factor theory?
spreading activation
What is at the heart of the retrieval cue called priming?
Negative Feedback Loops
What is homeostasis usually controlled with? Ex: When our bodies are lacking nutrients and energy, feedback systems release hormones like ghrelin that that create a hunger drive and motivate eating. After we consume food, feedback is sent tot he brain to turn off the hunter drive through hormones like leptin.
Semi-autonomous - contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus via binary fission (example of cytoplasmic / extranuclear inheritance - the transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus)
What is one way that mitochondria are unique from other organelles?
hippocampus
What is responsible for the consolidation of short term memory into long term memory?
The least restrictive environment, in which they are encouraged to participated as much as possible in the regular mainstream classroom, with individualized help as needed.
What is the best educational environment for cognitively disabled students?
7 +- 2 rule, however, remember that the capacity of short term memory can be increased by clustering information, and the duration can be extended using maintenance rehearsal
What is the capacity of short term memory?
Decreased heart rate variability
What is the correlation of heart rate variability and stress, frustration, and anger.
Retrieval is the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained. Learning can be demonstrated by recognizing or quickly relearning information, not necessarily by stating previously learned information. Recall is stating previously learned information, so it is, therefore, a type of retrieval but not the only type of retrieval. All squares are rectangles but not all rectangles are squares.
What is the difference between retrieval and recall?
Social action considers just the individual that is surrounded by others, while social interaction looks at the behavior and actions of two or more individuals who take one another into account.
What is the difference between social action and social interaction
Permits the compartmentalization of DNA transcription separate from RNA translation
What is the significance of the location of DNA in the nucleus?
The combination of immediate and distant networks provide the most benefit to individuals, which is augmented if the networks work complementarily to provide different resources.
What network provides the most benefit to individuals?
Maintained by neurological circuits at the prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain. Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation to keep the cortex in this state. Brain injury that results in disruption of these connections results in coma.
What parts of brain control alertness?
mesolimbic reward pathway
What pathway is drug addiction highly related to? Activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence, including gambling and falling in love
15%
What percent of people with major depressive disorder die by suicide?
Learned helplessness
What phenomenon do dogs in the third group demonstrate? In one study, dogs were divided into three groups. The first was a control group in which the dogs were simply strapped into a harness. In the second group, dogs were similarly strapped into a harness but subjected to painful electrical shocks, which they could stop by pressing a lever. Dogs in the third group were similarly harnessed and shocked, but were powerless to control the administration of the shock. Dogs in the first two groups recovered from the experience quickly; the third group soon stopped trying to escape the shock and acted as if they were helpless to avoid the pain of the experience, when offered opportunities to avoid being shocked. Only when the dogs were forcibly removed from their cages did they change their expectations about their control over the electrical shocks and took action to escape their predicament.
Sigmund Freud
What psychologist believed the following: The libido (sex drive) is present at birth. It does not lie dormant until puberty. Libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes.
cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors
What receptors does marijuana act on?
Variable ratio schedules (VR = "Very Rapid" "Very Resistant to extinction" Ex: Gambling slot machines follows a variable ration reinforcement schedule)
What reinforcement schedules are most resistant to extinction and works the fastest?
circular reactions
What repetitive phenomenon begins during the sensorimotor stage?
power, prestige, and class
What social factors influence prejudice?
Amygdala Thalamus Hypothalamus Hippocampus Fornix Septal Nuclei Parts of Cerebral Cortex
What structures make up the limbic system?
12 to 18 months
What time during a child's language development do children add about one word per month? Gestures, inflection, and context are essential for the parent or caregiver to identify meaning. For example, child may ask "Apple?" while pointing at an apply in a bowl to eat it, or may ask "Apple?" in a grocery store to ask if that is in fact an apple
2 to 3 years
What time during a child's language development do children speak longer sentences (3 words or more)? During this stays, vocabulary grows exponentially. As a child creates longer sentences, grammatical errors increase as the child internalizers the complex rules of grammar. Errors of growth - a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply eg: runned instead of ran or funner instead of more fun Parents less likely to correct errors of grammar than errors of word choice
9 to 12 months
What time during a child's language development does babbling peak?
18 to 20 months
What time during a child's language development does the explosion of language and combining of words occur? Child may instead say "Eat apple" to tell a caregiver that he would like to eat an apple. In grocery store, may ask "That apple?" to distinguish between fruit Context and gesture becomes less important as the ability to assemble sentences develops
SWS = early in the night REM = later in the night
What time of night do SWS and REM predominate?
linguistic and logical-mathematical (they are tested on IQ test, after all)
What two abilities does Gardener believe western culture values over the other two?
dyssomnias and parasomnias
What two categories are sleep wake disorders divided into?
REM = procedural memory consolidation (implicit) SWS = declarative memory consolidation (explicit)
What type of memory consolidation is REM vs SWS associated with?
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep
What type of sleep are stages 1-4?
SWS
What type of sleep do children spend more time in than adults?
2 to 3 years
When do errors of growth occur?
NREM sleep
When do most sleep wake disorders occur?
SWS
When do night terrors usually occur?
middle adulthood
When does crystallized intelligence peak?
early adulthood
When does fluid intelligence peak?
starts around 11 years
When does the formal operational age begin?
during teens and twenties, when asked when most pivotal events occurred in people's lives, most said an event that occurred during their teens and twenties
When is the peak period of encoding in a person's life?
first few items (recall of last few items fades because the recency effect is a result of the last items still being in short term memory on initial recall)
When memorizing a list, what do people show the strongest recall for?
spreading activation
When one node of this is activated, such as seeing red on a sign, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
evolutionary stable strategy (ESS)
When this is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising Strategies are thus inherited traits passed along with the population, with the object of the game being becoming more fit than competitors Ex of evolutionary game: Hawk-Dove Game Hawk: fighter, displays aggression and fighting until wins or is injured Dove: fight avoidance strategy, displaying aggression at first but retreating if the fight escalates...If dove not faced with fight, will attempt to share food resources Outcomes: 1. Two hawks compete: one wins and one loses 2. Hawk and dove compete: hawk will invariably win 3. Two doves compete: they will share food resources There exists and equilibrium point where, based on the magnitude of the reward and the cost of fighting, the hawk and dove strategies can coexist as evolutionary stable strategies
primarily controlled by the hippocampus, but moved back over time to the cerebral cortex
Where are long term memories stored?
In the dominant hemisphere, which is usually the left hemisphere
Where are the two different brain areas that are responsible for speech production located?
superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe
Where is Wernicke's area located?
adrenal cortex
Where is cortisol produced?
hippocampus
Where is short term and working memory primarily housed?
Spatial Inequality
Where one lives plays a major role in the distribution of valuable resources. Does a person living in an inner-city neighborhood in Mumbai have the same access to water and electricity as someone living in the posh neighborhood of London's West End? This term focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations. Examining space helps to illuminate social inequalities because it attends to how geography influences social processes. Social categories such as gender, ethnicity and race, and class are distributed across spaces differently, In turn, these groups use spaces differently Ex: Some cultures consider the home the center of family life, culture, and entertainment, while other cultures may view the home as merely as stop-off point for eating and sleeping while spending most of their time outside the home.
Residential Segregation
Where one resides - an urban, suburban, or rural environment, and which neighborhood in that environment - has a substantial effect on how people interact, cooperate, and advance. The cultural diversity and anonymity of urban neighborhoods offer a person a greater range of opportunities than normally found in rural areas Ex: People are less likely to fall into their occupations and social positions because of familial ties in urban environments. In rural environments, this is more likely to occur: "My father was a farmer, my grandfather was a farmer, my great-grandfather was a farmer; therefore, I will take up the family business when it's handed down to me" People in urban areas tend to have more career options to choose from and can more easily improve their SES through such avenues as education, career choice, and marriage. This exists, but is less universally available, in rural environments. Neighborhood in which one lives plays a major role: affluent neighborhoods tend to have more homeowners, professionals and managers, college graduates, and higher-quality schools. Low-income neighborhoods tend to have greater poverty, unemployment rates, lower-quality schools, and higher rates of homelessness. Low-income neighborhoods are also less safe, with higher rates of violent crime, organized crime, and gang activity. These key attributes stratify neighborhoods and create uneven changes for people who live in these communities.
primal emotions like fear
Which emotions developed earliest?
social emotions like guilt and pride
Which emotions developed latest?
Hispanics and African Americans, female-headed families, and the elderly
Which groups have higher rates of social inequality?
fluid and crystalized intelligence
Which intelligences decline with age?
personal unconscious
Which part of Jung's description of the unconscious is similar to Freud's description of the unconscious?
western cultures like America, in Eastern cultures group mentality often supersedes the individual and this type of collectivist society tends toward conformtiy
Which societies have the lowest likelihood of conformity?
recognition or skill based memory
Which type of memory does not demonstrate much degeneration with age?
Spirituality vs Religion
While spirituality and religion are not equivalent terms, they are often linked to each other because they both seek to understand the meaning of existence and to identify what is sacred. Spirituality and religion may play a role in a patient's understanding of disease, may impact health care decisions, and can be an essential component of the patient's coping mechanisms
someone who is like them: for example, young children will reliably mimic behaviors performed by their same-sex siblings
Who are children more likely to imitate behaviors by watching?
Karen Horney
Who argued that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships, and adamantly disagreed with many of Freud's assumptions about women such as the concept of penis envy Postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten "neurotic needs" Each of these needs is directed toward making life and interactions bearable Examples of these neurotic needs include the need for affection and approval, the need to exploit others, and the need for self-sufficiency and independence. While healthy people have these needs to some degree, this woman emphasized that these needs become problematic if they fit at least one of four criteria: that they are disproportionate in intensity, that they are indiscriminate in application, that they partially disregard reality, or taht they have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety. Ex: Someone with a neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence would go to great extremes to avoid being obligated to someone else in any way. As the central focus of the person's life, it would be a neurotic need and not a healthy one.
Carl Rogers
Who believed taht people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are neither slaves to the unconscious (as the psychoanalysts would suggest), nor subjects of faulty learning (as the behaviorists would say).
George Mead
Who built on previous work by James, outlining the two parts of the self as the "I" and the "me" "me" - the part of self that is a response to the environment Ex: Going to school and studying hard would be part of "me" since this is a societal expectation "I" - the creative expression of the individual Ex: Deciding that studying may not be the only path toward a goal and choosing to find alternative approaches would be part of "I"
BF Skinner
Who championed the Behaviorist perspective Based heavily on the concepts of operant conditioning Skinner reasoned that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time Therapy, then, should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques Token economies, for example, are often used in inpatient therapeutic settings: positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers
Ivan Pavlov
Who conducted the classical conditioning dog experiments?
Paul Ekman
Who described a set of basic emotions that are recognized by societies around the world and further identified that six emotions are associated with consistent facial expressions across cultures? This list has been revised to include seven emotions, and these emotions are: Happiness Sadness Contempt Surprise Fear Disgust Anger
George Kelly
Who developed personal construct psychology?
Albert Bandura
Who developed the concept of reciprocal determinism? Reciprocal Determinism refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. People choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and react to events in those environments.
Hans Selye
Who developed the sequence of physiological responses called general adaptation syndrome.
Howard Gardner
Who developed the theory of multiple intelligences?
Women As a whole, women tend to fare better when it comes to accessing healthcare, largely because women are morel likely to be insured. Women tend to utilize healthcare services more than men, with more examinations, blood pressure checks, lab tests, drug prescriptions, and physician visits per year. Women also receive more services per visit than men do. Healthcare use is likely more common among women due to higher morbidity rates among women for many illnesses, thereby facilitating the need to seek medical attention. On the other hand, women are more likely to be delayed or unable to obtain necessary medial care, dental care, and prescription medicines.
Who fares better in the healthcare system, men or women?
Females Mortality rates from heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory disease, and diabetes are higher for males than females. Men are also three times more likely than women to die from accidents, suicide, and homicide. Males are far less likely to seek medical attention than females. Men, especially those raised to have hyper-masculine behaviors, may try to "tough it out" rather than go to a doctor. When men do seek healthcare, they are less likely to comply with medical instructions or adhere to medical advice. While women show better mortality rates, this is not the case when it comes to morbidity rates for certain acute and chronic diseases. More women than men suffer from infectious and parasitic diseases, digestive problems, respiratory conditions, high blood pressure (hypertension), arthritis, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel disease (colitis). Women tend to suffer more from illnesses and disabilities than men, but their conditions are less often life threatening. Reasons men tend to have lower life expectancy rates are both sociological and biological. Sociologically, men are considered to be bigger risk takers, and therefore more likely to expose themselves to accidents and unintentional injuries. This is especially true for young men. Men are also more likely to be employed in dangerous jobs, such as the police force, steel industry, and coal mining. Men also have higher rates of alcohol use, speeding, and participation in potentially violent sports. Biologically speaking, men are at a disadvantage from infancy onward. Throughout life, men are morel likely to come down with diseases that are life threatening.
Who generally has higher life expectancy: Females or Males?
Jean Piaget
Who insisted that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think, and thus divided the life span into four stages of cognitive development
Carl Rogers
Who is known for his psychotherapy technique known as client-centered, person-centered, or non-directive therapy?
B.F. Skinner
Who is the father of behaviorism?
peers
Who plays the most important role in modeling behavior for a developing child during adolescence?
BF Skinner
Who proposed Learning (Behaviorist) Theory?
William Sheldon
Who proposed personality types based on body type called somatotypes?
Lev Vygotsky
Who proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language.
Benjamin Whorf
Who proposed the Whorfian hypothesis / linguistic relativity hypothesis?
Albert Bandura (the psychologist behind the Bobo Doll Experiment)
Who said that observational learning contributes greatly to our future behaviors?
Alfred Kinsey
Who studied sexual motivation, and wanted to determine what sexual behaviors people were participating in, how often, with whom, and at what age they began
Hans and Sybil Eysenck
Who used factor analysis to group behaviors that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups? Ex: People who are more reserved and less outspoken in groups also tend to enjoy solitary activities and avoid overstimulation These behaviors all fall under the label of introversion
Abraham Maslow
Who was a humanist who developed the hierarchy of needs (Discussed in Chapter 5)?
Karl Marx
Whose works is Conflict theory based on?
Darwin made the argument that emotions are a result of evolution; thus, emotions and their corresponding expressions are universal. Darwin explained that all humans evolved the same set of facial muscles to show the same expressions when communicating emotion , regardless of their society or culture
Why are emotions considered universal?
Due to situations encountered overt he evolutionary history of the human species that guide sensory processing, physiological response, and behavior?
Why are emotions thought to be evolutionary adaptations?
essential for speedy and effective decision making Ex: To win at chess, one must be able to think several moves ahead. One any particular turn, there may be 15 or 20 possible moves, each one of which may have multiple consequences; analyzing every possibility would take far too long. There are heuristics, however, that can quickly rule out some of the possible moves: the king must be protected, generally good to control the center squares, and pieces should not be put in danger when possible, etc. Heuristics provide a more efficient, although sometimes inaccurate, method for problem solving
Why are heuristics useful, even though they can lead us astray?
Social psychologists find that attraction also occurs if opposing qualities match up with each other; for example, a nurturer is attracted to someone who craves being nurtured Notably, successful complementary relationships still have fundamental similarities in some attitudes that make the complementary aspects of the relationship work
Why is there a cliche about opposites attracting?
somatotypes
William Sheldon William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body type called _________. Sheldon presumed that all short, stocky people were jolly, and tall people were high strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well adjusted.
la belle indifference
a French term descriptive of the lack of concern for their (imagined) medical problem sometimes shown by people with conversion disorders
fad
a behavior that is transiently viewed as popular and desirable by a large community
Stressor
a biological element, external condition, or event that leads to a stress response
arcuate fasciculus
a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production; connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area
Social Class
a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society Can be identified by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a given slice of society
Compliance
a change in behavior based on a direct request The person or group that asks the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command the individual, yet will ask him to change his behavior
horizontal mobility
a change in occupation or lifestyle that remains within the same social class Ex: a construction worker who switches jobs to work in custodial services or mechanical maintenance has made a shift in occupation but remains in the lower-middle class
errors of growth
a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply eg: runned instead of ran or funner instead of more fun; usually found 2 to 3 years of age
sensorimotor stage
a child learns to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs
halo effect
a cognitive bias in which judgements about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of the individual It is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person (I like Judy) to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person (Judy is a good mother, Judy is trustworthy, Judy can do no wrong). This effect explains why people are often inaccurate when evaluating people that they either believe to be generally good or those that they believe to be generally bad An individual's attractiveness has also been sen to produce this effect. As described earlier, attractiveness can be determined by a variety of traits, and the perception of these traits can impact the view of an individual's personality. It has been shown that people who are perceived as attractive are also more likely to be perceived as trustworthy and friendly
Pheromones
a common example of scents use to communicate by members of a species to attract a mate Also, aside from pheromones, animals use scents to communicate both intraspecifically (between members of the same species) and interspecifically (between members of different species) Ex: Pheromones are an example of between same species, and skunks spraying for defense or dogs marking their territory is an example if interspecific communication via scents
Propaganda
a common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others These posters often invoke messages of fear, and depictions of the target group are often exaggerated to an absurd degree
Narcolepsy
a condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep; symptoms include cataplexy (loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours) usually caused by an emotional trigger
migration
a contributor to population growth *immigration* is defined as movement into a new geographic space *emigration* is movement away from a geographic space Can be motivated by both *pull factors*, which are positive attributes of the new location that attract the immigrant, and *push factors*, which are negative attributes of the old location that encourage the immigrant to leave
tolerance
a decrease in perceived drug effect over time
relative deprivation
a decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of the society
Aphasia
a deficit of language production or comprehension
Alzheimer's disease
a degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus, although exact causes not understood; marked by progressive dementia and memory loss with atrophy of the brain; loss of memories occurs in retrograde fashion, with loss of recent memories before distant memories Sundowning (increase in disfunction in late afternoon and evening) common Characterized by neurofibrillary tangles and beta amyloid plaques
intermediate filaments
a diverse group of filamentous proteins, which includes keratin, desmin, vimentin, and lamins Many of these are involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of the overall integrity of the cytoskeleton Able to withstand tremendous amounts of tension, increasing the structural rigidity of the cell Help anchor other organelles, including the nucleus Identity of this protein within a cell is specific to the cell and tissue type
nuclear membrane / envelope
a double membrane that maintains a nuclear environment separate and distinct from the cytoplasm
polyandry
a female having exclusive relationships with multiple males
Continuous reinforcement
a fixed ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Atruism
a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him- or herself Helping behavior can be motivated by selflessness, but can also be motivated by egoism or ulterior motives, such as public recognition
Power
a form of influence over other people
ritual
a formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior tend to have a prescribed order of events or routine Can be associated with specific milestones, such as baby-naming, graduation ceremony, wedding, or funeral; with holidays, such as a Thanksgiving dinner, trick-or-treating on Halloween, or a Passover seder; or with regular activities, such as a Catholic mass, a pregame pep rally, or even just getting ready in the morning (showering, brushing teeth, eating breakfast, and so on)
Peer Group
a group that id defined by association of self selected equals around similar interests, ages, and statuses Provide an opportunity for friendship and feelings of belonging
door-in-the-face technique
a large request is made at first and, if refused, a second, smaller request is made Often, this smaller request is the actual goal of the requester Using this technique, a fellow student might ask you to make a copy of your notes from class and bring them to the next class. If you deny the request, the student might follow up with a smaller request, asking to borrow your notes so he can make copies for himself. The second, more reasonable request may be granted.
cataplexy
a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger
false consciousness
a major barrier to class consciousness, a misperception of one's actual position within society Members of the proletariat either do not see just how bad conditions are, do not recognize the commonalities between their own experiences and others, or otherwise are too clouded to assemble into the revolutionaries Marx envisioned
polygyny
a male having exclusive relationships with multiple females
prevalence
a measure of the number of cases of an illness overall - whether new or chronic - per population in a given amount of time Ex: The number of people with new or chronic lung cancer per 1000 people per year
cultural relativism
a method to avoid ethnocentrism The perception that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself In other words, while one group may follow a given set of rules (say, the dietary rules of kashrut or halal), that group does not perceive those rules as superior to those of other cultures - just different
Emotion
a natural instinctive state of mind derived form one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others
Religion
a pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence As an organization, this persists over time and has a structure into which members are resocialized *Religiosity* - refers to how religious one considers him- or herself to be, and includes strength of religious beliefs, engagement in religious practices, and attitudes about religion itself When studying this from a sociological perspective, it is not important to agree with the belief system. Rather, it is important to examine religion objectively within its social and cultural context Can be organized in multiple ways. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam can be divided into multiple *denominations* or *sects* that may share certain beliefs and practices but note others. *Church* - a large, universal religious group that can be divided into multiple coexisting denominations Whereas the word *sect* was historically a pejorative term, it now refers more properly to a religious group that has chosen to break off from the parent religion
Major Depressive Episode
a period of at least two weeks with at least five of the following symptoms: prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia), appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt (sometimes delusional), difficulty concentrating or thinking, psychomotor symptoms (feeling "slowed down"), and thoughts of death or attempts at suicide; at least one of the symptoms must be depressed mood or anhedonia
body dysmorphic disorder
a person has an unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part Person sees their nose, skin, or stomach as ugly or even horrific when it is actually normal in appearance. This body preoccupation also disrupts day-to-day life, and the sufferer may seek multiple plastic surgeries or other extreme interventions
state dependent memory / state dependent effect
a person's mental state can also affect recall Ex: people who learn facts or skills while intoxicated will show better recall or proficiency when performing those same tasks while intoxicated as compared to performing them while sober
specific phobia
a phobia in which anxiety is produced by a specific object or situation Ex: claustrophobia is an irrational fear of closed spaces Ex: arachnophobia is an irrational fear of spiders Ex: acrophobia is an irrational fear of heights
collective unconscious
a powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors Building blocks are images of common experiences, such as having a mother and a father These images invariably have an emotional element, and are referred to as archetypes in Jung's theory Example of archetypes: God and the Devil, archetypes are underlying forms or concepts that give rise to archetypal images, which may differ somewhat between cultures
bureaucracy
a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control Generally, has these six characteristics: 1. paid, non-elected officials on a fixed salary 2. officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office 3. regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones 4. officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training 5. responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization 6. responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position Due to these characteristics, bureaucracies are often slow to change and less efficient than other organizations
cult
a religious sect that takes on extreme or deviant philosophies
eustress
a result of positive stressors; Ex: life events such as graduating from college, achieving a high score on the MCAT, getting married, or buying a house While the above events are positive, any event requiring a person to change or adapt his or her lifestyle leads to stress
interference / interference effect
a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar, information
self-schema
a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities Ex: the //athlete// self-schema usually carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness, and dressing and acting in certain ways, although these qualities may change depending on culture, socioeconomic status, and personal beliefs The idea of concept goes beyond these self-schemata; it also includes our appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become: our past and future selves
sleep paralysis
a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
a series of interconnected membranes that are actually contiguous with the nuclear envelope Double membrane of this organelle is folded into numerous invaginations, creating complex structures with a central lumen Two varieties, smooth and rough
cultural syndrome
a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme These influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced Ex: Happiness is generally considered a positive emotion across cultures. However, in countries with more individualistic cultural syndromes, like the United States, happiness is viewed as infinite, attainable, and internally experienced. In contrast, in countries with a more collectivist cultural syndrome, such as Japan, happiness is a very rational emotion and generally applied to collective experiences more than to individual successes or experiences. --This difference is illustrated in the contrast between the phrases "I am happy" and "I am sharing happiness with others"
sleep cycle
a single complete progression through the sleep stages
foot-in-the-door-technique
a small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made Ex: A fellow classmate asks to borrow your notes because he had to miss class. You agree and offer to share the notes at the next class session. Later in the day, you see the student again, and he asks you if you would be willing to make copies of your notes because he does not have access to a copier. Most people will still agree at this point, as the first request opened the door to continued compliance.
Race
a social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people May either be real or perceived differences Notable that race is not strictly defined by genetics, but rather classifies individuals based on superficial traits such as skin color
Gender
a social construct that corresponds to the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex Gender differences tend to emphasize the distinct roles and behaviors of men and women in a given culture, which is influenced by cultural norms and values Differences between genders do not necessarily imply inequity, although it occurs in many cultures
Groupthink
a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision In an attempt to eliminated or minimize conflict among the group members, consensus decisions are reached without alternative ideas being assessed...desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent critical thinking Group begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints, seeing their own ideas as correct without question
hypnosis
a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state
Achieved Status
a status that is gained as a result of one's efforts of choices, such as being a doctor
Ascribed Status
a status that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background
social structure
a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships
dictatorship
a system where a single person holds power, and usually includes mechanisms to quell threats to this power
theocracy
a system where power is held by religious leaders
Interaction Process Analysis
a techniques for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups In 1970s, revised to the "System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)", which is based on the belief that there are three fundamental dimensions of interaction: dominance vs submission, friendliness vs unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs emotional controlled
Sensitive period
a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
Alzheimer's disease
a type of dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and a tendency to misplace things Later stages of the disease are associated with changes in mood or behavior, changes in personality, difficulty with procedural memory, poor judgement, and loss of initiative Each of these symptoms alone does not necessarily point to the disease Most common in patients older than 65, and women are at a greater risk than men Family history is a significant risk factor and, interestingly, there is a lower risk of developing this disease with higher levels of education
Divided attention
ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
parasomnia
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, and include night terrors and sleepwalking.
undifferentiated
achieving low scores on both masculinity and femininity scales
achieved status
acquired via direct, individuals efforts Achieved through hard work or merit
Mnemonics
acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember
social action
actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around Idea is that humans will behave in different ways based on their social environment and how their behavior will affect those around them If individuals predict a negative reaction from those around them, they will often modify their behavior
positive punishment
adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior, eg flogging to prevent stealing
Nativist (Biological) Theory
advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language Innate ability for children to perform translational grammar is the result of the language acquisition device (LAD) - a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
Avoidant Personality Disorder (Cluster C)
affected individual has extreme shyness and fear of rejection Individual will see herself as socially inept and is often socially isolated, despite and intense desire for social affection and acceptance These individuals tend to stay in the same jobs, life situations, and relationships despite wanting change
healthcare and medicine
aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, community, and society as a whole Goals: 1. Increased access to care 2. Decreased costs of healthcare 3. Prevention of disease before it occurs 4. Association of patients with a primary care physician or a patient-centered home 5. Increased education for the public with public health outreach 6. Deceased paternalism (doctor knows best mentality) 7. *Life course approach to health* (maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient's history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms)
indirect therapy
aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of the affected individual
democracy
allows every citizen a political voice, usually through electing representative to office (representative democracy)
cytosol
allows for the diffusion of molecules throughout the cell
Ethnicity
also a social construct Sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors The distinction between race and ethnicity can be important because one can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display Ex: A person could be considered black due to physical characteristics; however, this same person's ethnicity could be Latino, African, African American, or a number of other ethnic identities
Symbolic Culture
also called nonmaterial culture Focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people May be encoded in mottos, songs, or catchphrases, or may simply be themes that are pervasive in the culture Ex: Phrases like "free enterprise and life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" are examples of American symbolic culture Material culture is often the tangible embodiment of the underlying ideas of symbolic culture Usually slower to change than material culture, which can lead to the phenomenon of *culture lag* *culture lag* - the expansion of devices and technology in contemporary times are prototypical examples of this: whereas American culture still prizes individuality and privacy, the development of smartphones and social media push toward a more community-oriented and less private world...still, there is evidence that symbolic culture is beginning to change in response to these technological (material) innovations: younger generations appear to have less concern about what personal information is publicly accessible than older generations For any social group to remain connected over time, there must be a culture that binds its members together. In times of war and crisis, governments often draw upon symbolic culture to rally people to action, using songs, parades, discussion of heroes past, and so on...It is not a coincidence that most high schools have a school mascot, school colors, and a school song. Such cultural artifacts are in place to help create a shared sense of identity, loyalty, and belonging. Symbolic culture includes both cognitive and behavioral components; that is, it informs cultural values and belief, as well as cultural norms and communication styles
situation
also very important in developing perception Any given social context can determine what information is available to the perceiver
prokaryotic organisms
always single celled do not contain a nucleus
REM rebound
an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal; often exhibited by people who are permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation
Attachment
an emotional bond between a caregiver and a child Development of this begins at infancy While parental figures are most common, emotional bonds can occur with any caregiver who is sensitive and responsive during social interaction Ex: After World War II, psychiatrist John Bowlby noticed the negative effects of isolation on social and emotional development in orphaned children and started the study of attachment. In the 1970s, psychologist Mary Ainsworth expounded on this theory, saying that infants need a secure base in the form of a consistent caregiver during the first six months to two years of life from which to explore the world and develop appropriately. Four types of attachment: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganzed
long term memory
an essentially limitless warehouse for knowledge that we are able to recall on demand, sometimes for the rest of our lives
second sickness
an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social unjustice
attitude
an expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario Develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors Even prior to meeting someone, past experiences and information from others can influence your _________ toward a person
slum
an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation
sleep apnea
an inability to breathe during sleep; people with this disorder awaken often during the night in order to breathe
sundowning
an increase in dysfunction in the later afternoon and evening in Alzheimer's disease
that's-not-all technique
an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected Ex: This method is frequently seen in infomercials: "For the low price of $19.99, you will receive two bottles of salon-grade shampoo. But, if you call in the next thirty minutes, you will receive not only those two bottles, but also a bottle of conditioner.
phobia
an irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it
Prejudice
an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity Process of socialization results in the formation of attitudes regarding our own groups and a sense of identity as a an individual and a group member. Prejudice can form in response to dissimilarities among groups, races, ethnicities, or even environments. Prejudice can exist against objects and places as well. Ex: People have attitudes toward different regions of the country based on culture, weather, and history; which car manufacturers are the most reliable; what types of food are considered unhealthy; and even what types of animals make good pets.
Context effects
another common retrieval cue; memory aided by being in physical location where encoding took place Ex: facts learned underwater are better recalled when underwater than when on land
Korsakoff's syndrome
another form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain; marked by both retrograde and anterograde amnesia, as well as confabulation
Bystander effect
another observed phenomenon that occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present The likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to the number of bystanders, the more people standing by, the less likely an y one of those people is to help Factors that play into this: 1. When in groups, people are less likely to notice danger or anything out of the ordinary. Thought to be due to social etiquette in that it is rude to watch others and their surroundings. 2. When in groups, humans take cues from others. If other people are not responding to a situation, an individual is less likely to perceive the situation as a threat or emergency. In low danger scenarios, bystanders are less likely to provide aid. In high danger scenarios, bystanders are more likely to intervene. 3. Degree of responsibility felt by the bystander. Determine d by the competency of the bystander, his or her relationship to the victim, and whether he or she considers the victim to be deserving of aid. 4. Cohesiveness of the group has been shown to influence the responsiveness of the bystanders. In groups made up of strangers, the likelihood of response and speed is much slower than a group of well acquainted individuals
Resocialization
another process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change, and can have positive or negative connotations Ex: Method by which members of the armed forces ar trained to obey orders and commands without hesitation is a prime example of resocialization, but so is attracting and indoctrinating members into a cult
Deindividuation
another social phenomenon that occurs when individuals are in group settings In group settings, the individual loses his sense of individuality and becomes an anonymous part of a group, with anonymity he is more likely to act in a manner that is inconsistent with his normal self Individuals behavior can be dramatically different in social environments due to large group that provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity Can lead to antinormative behavior, or behavior against the norm...This aspect of ______________ attempts to provide an explanation for violent behavior seen in crowds and riots Further enhanced when the group is in uniform or masked, disguising the individual within the group and increasing anonymity
paradoxical sleep
another word for REM sleep, coined because of one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness during REM
Agoraphobia
anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or in situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape. These individuals tend to be uncomfortable leaving their homes for fear of a panic attack or exacerbation of another mental illness
Animal communication
any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another
reference group
any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior Ex: The average annual salary for a physician in the US is $200,000. Compared to the national median household salary ($50000), these individuals are well off. But only 11 percent consider themselves rich. Why? Many physicians live in higher socioeconomic areas, and their responses may thus be biased by comparison to those around them.
Material Support / Tangible Support
any type of financial or material contribution to another person Can come in the form of making a meal for a friend after they have lost a loved one or donating money to a person in need
stimulus
anything to which an organism can respond
Pseudostratified Epithelia
appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cell height but are, in reality, only one layer.
centrosome
area of the cell where centrioles are found
Education systems
arm the population with information Information may be in the form of facts, figures, and mental processes, but the education system also emphasizes the social role of education, creates statuses within society, and stimulates learners to add to their knowledge base Education, therefore, includes not only the information and cognitive skills students learn but also the *hidden curriculum* of transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students Performance in the education system depends not only on a student's intrinsic abilities, but also on the education system itself *Teacher Expectancy* refers to the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students Ex: A teacher who places high demands on students - but who also believes taht her students can rise to the challenge - will more often see students succeed than a teacher who places the same demands but doubts that the students can achieve them This is an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy, and may be due to differences in how teachers motivate, interact, and offer feedback to their students
social construction model
assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions Instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone Also suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently - and thus play different roles - across cultures In this model, one must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation
Stereotype Content Model
attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence Warm Groups: those that are not indirect competition with the in-group for resources Competent Groups: those that have high status within society
Game theory
attempts to explain decision making behavior Originally used in economics and mathematics to predict interaction based on game characteristics, including strategy, winning, and losing, rewards and punishments, and profits and cost A game is defined by its players, the information and actions available to each player at decision points, and the payoffs associated with each outcome In context of biology, game payoffs refer to fitness
Feminist Theory
attempts to explain social inequalities that exist on the basis of gender Theory focuses on the subordination of women through social structures and institutional discrimination This subordination takes many forms, including expected gender roles, sexuality, financial opportunity, and social mobility Gender roles - the behaviors expected of a given gender; in the US, the Industrial Revolution begat a doctrine of "separate spheres," in which men served as breadwinners and protectors of the family's finances and safety whereas women served as caretakers of the children and home While the feminist movement of the mid- to late twentieth century helped diversify these gender roles, biases may still exist against individuals who step out of traditional roles Sexual inequality includes differential expectations of behavior between men and women; for example, men may be rewarded for promiscuity (being seen as a womanizer or player) whereas women may be stigmatized for carrying out the same behavior Women are also more frequently objectified than men - being viewed as a sexual object rather than as a person Institutional discrimination also creates limits on women, sometimes marginalizing or devaluing their contributions to society (ex women are less frequently promoted - glass ceiling)
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
Meritocracy
based on intellectual talent and achievement, and is a means for a person to advance up the social ladder Given the rising levels of social inequality and concentration of wealth in the US, some argue that motivation, a strong work ethic, a conscientious drive, and mastery of skills no longer offer opportunities for advancement Some fear that America's meritocratic system is quickly becoming a *plutocracy* - rule by the upper class Nonetheless, while merit still plays a key role in many segments of society, such as academia, it does not always guarantee positive social mobility
Situational approach
behavior is primarily determined by the environment and context
Aggression
behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance Can take the form of physical actions as well as verbal or nonverbal communication More displays of this are settled by threat and withdrawal rather than bodily harm Threat displays are common in both animals and humans. Before a fight, a man might puff up his chest or pull back his fist to threaten another person. This display may or may not result in physical harm or violence. Other examples of aggression include a bully hurling insults at another child or a teenage gang member making threatening gestures to a member of another gang. Higher levels of testosterone have been linked to more aggressive behavior in both males and females Viewing violent behavior indeed does correlate to an increase in aggressive behavior (Remember Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment) Purpose evolutionary is to offer protection against perceived and real threats. Helped our ancestors fight off predators. Also helps organisms gain access to resources such as food, additional territory, or mates. In case of limited resources, this could be the deciding factor that allows one to pass on genes.
Yerkes-Dodson law of Social Facilitation
being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (or simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (or complex tasks) Ex: An expert pianist may perform better in concert than when alone in practice sessions Ex: Someone with very limited knowledge of music would perform worse in a social setting than when alone
function
beneficial consequences of people's actions Can either be manifest or latent
Evolution
both influences and is influenced by culture Makes sense taht culture would have been evolutionarily beneficial for early human populations Culture serves as a method of passing down information from generation to generation; in prehistoric times, culture likely served as a conduit for teaching future generations how to create tools, hunt, domesticate animals, and grow crops Also creates a sense of loyalty and allegiance, which may help explain altruistic behavior Creates a sense of "us vs them," which presumably served a role in the dispersion of populations across the globe in different environmental niches Culture may also have effects on evolution There is evidence that some genetic traits may have been favored because of cultural values and beliefs Ex: Human beings - at least those who are not lactose intolerant - are the only animals that are able to digest milk after adolescence; they are also the only animals that ingest another animal's milk May have arisen out of Northern European cultures, which relied heavily on cattle farming for sustenance A mutation permitting digestion of milk into adulthood presumably imparted a nutritional and survival advantage to certain individuals, and would thus be retained within the population
generalization
broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response Think of little albert fearing small white stuffed animals after being conditioned to associate white bunnies with a loud noise
biopsychosocial approach
broader classification system than the biomedical approach Assumes that there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual's disorder Biological component of a disorder is something in the body, like having a particular genetic syndrome The psychological component of a disorder stems from the individual's thoughts, emotions, or behaviors Finally, the disorder's social component results from the individual's surroundings and can include issues of perceived class in society and even discrimination or stigmatization Ex: Consider depression Certain genetic factors make an individual more or less susceptible to depressive tendencies, showing a purely biological influence on the disorder. However, from a psychological perspective, the levels of stress that the individual experiences can also contribute to the severity of the depression experienced. Finally, the social environment may provide additional stressors or support from one's career, family, and friends. This model of therapy has the goal to provide not only direct therapy (treatment that acts directly on the individual, such as medication periodic meetings with a psychologist) but also indirect therapy (aims to increase social support by educating and empowering family and friends of the affected individual)
morphemes
building blocks of words, each of which connotes a particular meaning For example, redesigned re - to do again; design - verb root; ed - indicates action in the past
Social Exclusion
can arise from this sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel segregated and isolated form society However, the problem is that this attitude can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect Disadvantaged groups, such as racial and ethnic minorities, can experience magnified feelings of alienation and powerlessness when living in an affluent community. These are similar to anomic conditions, which tend to further accelerate social inequality.
Social Capital
can be considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards The greater the investment, the high the level of social integration (peaceful movement into mainstream society) and inclusion One of the main forms of this is the social network Social networks can create two types of social inequality: situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within a network and one's centrality within that network) It is claimed that inequality in networks creates and reinforces privilege, or inequality in opportunity Moreover, low social capital leads to a greater social inequality. If social capital refers to the benefits one receives from group association, cultural capital refers to the benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities, and skills
government and economy
can be defined as systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, and social structures that affect rule making, representation of the individual in society, rights and privileges, division of labor, and production of goods and services Notably, political and economic institutions impact all other institutions to some extent That is, the government may sanction or define specific family structures, may finance and regulate education, may recognize some religions but not others, and may play a key role in funding and certifying healthcare and medicine Effects of the economy on institutions can also be viewed from the individual level Ex: When the economy takes a downturn, large swaths of the population may have trouble supporting their families and paying for health insurance. Note that this institutional influence is bidirectional: because of the economic downturn and changes in family, education, or health, an individual may choose to vote a new political candidate into office, or to support or oppose a particular piece of legislation.
Power
can be described as the ability to affect others' behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments, and is based on the unequal distribution of valued resources At its core, this defines the relationship between individuals, groups, and social institutions These relationships function to maintain order, organize economic systems, conduct warfare, and rule over and exploit people As a result, this creates worldwide social inequalities as people tend to fall somewhere within the "haves" and the "have nots"
sleep deprivation
can result from as little as one night without sleep, or from multiple nights with poor quality, short duration sleep results in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, and slowed reaction time...and if extreme, psychosis
Parkinson's disease
characterized by bradykinesia (slowness in movement), resting tremor (a tremor that appears when muscles are not being used), pill-rolling tremor (flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as if rolling something in the fingers), masklike facies (a facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth), cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb), and a shuffling gait with stooped posture Common but not characteristic symptom is depression, dementia also common in this disease Biological basis of this disease is decreased dopamine production in the substantial nigra, a layer of cells in the brain that functions to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia Can be treated partially with L-DOPA, a prescursor that is converted to dopamine once in the brain, replacing that which is lost Attempted treatment has been to regenerate dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra using stem cells placed into the CNS with limited results
Histrionic Personality Disorder (Cluster B)
characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior These individuals often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted May also use seductive behavior to gain attention
Golgi Apparatus
consists of stacked membrane bound sacs Materials from the ER are transferred to this via vesicles Once inside this organelle, these cellular products may be modified by the addition of groups like carbohydrates, phosphates, and sulfates. This organelle may also modify cellular products through the introduction of signal sequences, which direct the delivery of the product to a specific cellular location After modification and sorting in this organelle, cellular products are repackaged in vesicles, which are then directed to the correct cellular location If the product is destined for secretion, the secretory vesicle merges with the cell membrane and its contents are released via exocytosis
mitochonrdria
consists of two layers: the inner and outer membranes Outer membrane serves as a barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondria Inner membrane, which is arranged into numerous infoldinfgs called cristae, contains the molecules and enzymes of the electron transport chain Semi-autonomous - contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus via binary fission (example of cytoplasmic / extranuclear inheritance - the transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus) Thought to have originated when the engulfing of an aerobic prokaryote by an anaerobic prokaryote resulted in a symbiotic relationship Can kickstart apoptosis by releasing enzymes from the electron transport chain
Group (social group)
consists of two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity Simplest of these is called a "dyad" - two people, followed by a "triad" - three people As size of this increases, group trades intimacy for stability Not the same as a group of individuals who happen to be in the same physical space (eg: people waiting to cross the street at a crosswalk) Common characteristics shared by social groups include values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties, and political representation Many sociologists see social interaction as the most important characteristic that strengthens a social group We also learn, earn a living, and practice religion in groups
Epithelial tissues
cover the body and line its cavities, providing a means for protection against pathogen invasion and desiccation In certain organs, these cells are involved in absorption, secretion, and sensation To remain as one cohesive unit, these cells are tightly joined to each other and to an underlying layer of connective tissue known as the basement membrane Highly diverse and serve numerous functions depending on the identity of the organ in which they are found In most organs, these cells constitute the parenchyma (functional parts of the organ) Ex: Nephrons in the kidney are composed of these cells, and hepatocytes in the liver, and acid-producing cells of the stomach Often polarized, meaning that one side faces a lumen (the hollow inside of an organ or tube) or the outside world, while the other side interacts with underlying blood vessels and structural cells Ex: In small intestine, one side of the cell will be involved in absorption of nutrients from the lumen, while the other will be involved in releasing those nutrients into circulation for use in the rest of the body Can be classified as simple, stratified, or pseudostratified AND can be classified as cuboidal, columnar, or squamous
Though Broadcasting
delusion consisting of the belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world
Immediate Networks
dense with strong ties May include friends
normative conformity
desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
Persistent Depressive Disorder
diagnosis given to individuals who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode, most of the time for at least two years Individuals with major depressive disorder that lasts at least two years can also be given this diagnosis Individuals with this disorder may also suffer from a combination of dysthymia and occasional major depressive episodes
dyssomnia
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
Organizations
entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and area characterized by having a structure and a culture Ex: schools, companies, music groups, sports teams, fraternities and sororities, political organizations, community action committees, and so on
Exchange Theory
extension of rational choice theory Whereas rational choice theory can be applied to an individual independently of social interactions (such as choosing "What do I want to eat for dinner tonight?"), exchange theory focuses on interactions in groups. Posits that an individual will carry out certain behaviors because of anticipated punishments. Similar to operant conditioning, this theory assumes that a behavior that is met with approval by others will reinforce that behavior and encourage it continuation On the other hand, behavior that is met with disapproval by others is punished, discouraging its continuation
short term memory
fades quickly, over the course of approximately 30 seconds
Rational Choice Theory
focuses on decision making in an individual and attempts to reduce this process to a careful consideration of benefits and harms to the individual Every outcome in a given social interaction can be associated with particular rewards (such as money, accolades, honor, prestige, and social approval) and with particular punishments (such as embarrassment, humiliation, sanctions, sanctions, and stigmatization) In this theory, an individual carefully considers all of the possible rewards and punishments of each social action and chooses the option that has the highest benefit-to-harm ration Thus, this theory can be likened to a mental pros and cons list, and the course of action and individual takes is taht which maximizes personal benefit Theory problematized by concepts like altruism, in which an individual benefits another at some cost to him- or herself Exchange theory is an extension of rational choice theory
Strain theory
focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance Anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation; these all erode social solidarity
Social Constructionism
focuses on how individuals put together their social reality social constructs arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle Social constructionism can be applied to intangible concepts; how a society defines honor and justice is dependent on the interactions and decisions of the individuals within that society Notably, because the se concepts depend on the society itself, they are subject to change as social norms and opinions develop over time Social constructionism can also be applied to physical objects, such as money. Paper money and coinage do not inherently have significant value; it is only because we, as a society, imbue them with value that they can be used to trade for goods and services Other examples of social constructs include work ethic, acceptable dress, and gender roles
Malthusian Theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder
macrosociology
focuses on large groups and social structure
selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems Previously thought of if we choose a particular stimulus to give this to, all other stimuli are lost, however, recent evidence indicates this is not the case For example, if you hear your name in a party, your ears perk up, even though you were engaged in conversation and presumably paying attention (cocktail party phenomenon) Thus, this is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background, and only if important do we shift our attention to them
parenchyma
functional parts of an organ
nucleus
genetic material is encoded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in this organelle, allowing for the formation of two identical daughter cells
triad
group consisting of three people
dyad
group consisting of two people
Out-groups
group of which an individual competes or is in opposition
In-groups
groups to which an individual belongs
African Americans
have a worse health profile in comparison to white Americans, showing higher rates of death linked to cancer, heart disease, drug and alcohol use, infant mortality, and HIV/AIDS African American infants have twice the infant mortality rate of white infants Specifically, African American males have the lowest life expectancy of any racial or gender cateogory
beta waves
have high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration; occur when neurons are randomly firing
Simple Epithelia
have on layer of cells
cristae
highly convoluted structures on the inner membrane of mitochondria that increase the surface area available for electron transport chain enzymes
sect
historically a pejorative term, now refers more properly to a religious group that has chosen to break off from the parent religion In rare cases, this can take on extreme or deviant philosophies and transform into a cult
barbiturates
historically used as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications includes amobarbital and phenobarbital mostly replaced by benzodiazepines, which are less prone to overdose Highly addictive, if taken with alcohol overdose may result in coma or death
microtubules
hollow polymers of tubulin proteins radiate throughout the cell, providing the primary pathways along which motor proteins like kinesin and dynein carry vesicles (example of non-enzymatic proteins) Cilia and flagella are motile structures composed of this
David McClelland
identified a personality trait taht is referred to as the need for achievement (N-Ach) People who are rated high in N-Ach tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments These individuals avoid high risks (to avoid failing) and low risks (because easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement) Additionally, they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely
manifest function
if an action is intended to help some part of a system, it is a manifest function These functions can have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society called latent functions Ex: Annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and settings goals for next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.
cocktail party phenomenon
if you hear your name in a party, your ears perk up, even though you were engaged in conversation and presumably paying attention
migration rate
immigration rate minus emigration rate
Babbling
important precursor to language Most children spontaneously begin to do this within their first year For hearing children, this reaches its highest frequency between nine and twelve months For deaf children, this ceases soon after it begins
bourgeoisie
in Marxist Theory, the "haves"
proletariat
in Marxist theory, the "have nots"
Negative cognitive symptoms
in PTSD, include an inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world
arousal symptoms
in PTSD, include an increased startle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, and sleep disturbances
Avoidance symptoms
in PTSD, include deliberate attempts to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma
intrusion symptoms
in PTSD, recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks nightmares, and prolonged distress
magical thinking
in Schizotypal Personality Disorder (Cluster A), ex: superstitiousness or a belief in clairvoyance
ideas of reference
in Schizotypal Personality Disorder (Cluster A), similar to delusions of reference, but not as extreme in intensity
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a normally neutral stimulus that, through, association, now causes a reflexive response
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, anything that brings about a reflexive response
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, innate or reflexive response
signaling stimuli
in classical conditioning, neutral stimuli that have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimuli
neutral stimuli
in classical conditioning, stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the reflexive response brought about through association of a neutral stimulus with a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus
Hypomania
in contrast to mania, typically does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, although the individual may be more energetic and optimistic
dissociative fugue
in dissociative amnesia, a sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering from one's home or location of usual daily activities People in a fugue state are confused about their identity and can even assume a new identity Significantly, they may actually believe that they are someone else, with a complete backstory
indirect benefits
in mate bias promoting better survival in offspring
direct benefits
in mate bias providing material advantages, protection, or emotional support
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
belief perseverance
inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
monarchies
include a royal ruler (a king or queen), although the ruler's powers may be significantly limited by the presence of a constitution and parliamentary system
benzodiazepines
includes alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam increase GABA activity, causing a sense of relaxation Highly addictive, if taken with alcohol overdose may result in coma or death
Positive reinforcers
increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior Ex: Paying people with money to work
Negative reinforcers
increase the frequency of a behavior by removing something unpleasant Ex: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache, so next time you have headache, you are more likely to take aspirin
alcohol
increases activity of the GABA receptor, a chloride channel that causes hyper-polarization of the membrane Results in brain inhibition and arousal reduction Behavior may seem less inhibited because the centers of the brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed increases dopamine levels, leads to mild euphoria At high doses, logical reasoning and motor skills are affected, and fatigue results inability to recognize consequences of actions
theta waves
indicative of stage 1 sleep; present on EEG as soon as you doze off; irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) (Cluster C)
individual is perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order Other characteristics may include and inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of a sense of humor, and maintenance of careful routines Note OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER IS NOT THE SAME A OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER Whereas OCD has obsessions and compulsions that are focal and acquired, OCPD is lifelong. OCD is also ego-dystonic (I can't stop washing my hands because of the germs!), whereas OCPD is ego-syntonic (I just like rules and order!)
ego-syntonic personality disorder
individual perceives her behaviors as correct, normal , or in harmony with her goals In contrast to ego-dystonic disorders, meaning that the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
ego-dystonic personality disorder
individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
depersonalization / derealization disorder
individuals feel detached from their own mind and body or from their surroundings Often presents as a feeling of automation, and can have findings like a failure to recognize one's own reflection May cause significant impairments of regular activities, however, even during these times the person does not display psychotic symptoms like delusions or hallucinations
reliance on central traits
individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver
somatic symptom disorder
individuals with this disorder have at least one somatic (bodily) symptom , which may or may not be linked to an underlying medial condition, and that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety
Family
influenced by a number of different factors including culture, value systems, beliefs, practices, gender, age, race, ethnicity, and others Does not have a fixed definition across cultures or through time; what is accepted as family in the current day does not necessarily match expectations from even a few generations ago Terms for this (such as sister, father, cousin, etc.) are not conserved across culture and time, different *patterns of kinship* may be reflected by these terms Ex: It is common in Hawaiian culture to refer to all family members as cousins, while this term would not be used by many other Americans to describe one's mother's brother (the term "uncle" being preferred) Different patterns of kinship between societies have bearing on responsibility for child rearing, familial loyalty, and even the boundaries of what is considered incest Numerous family structures (Ex; single mother, same sex, families that co-habitate with other family members besides nuclear family) Divorce rates in the US rose significantly in the second half of the twentieth century; over the last two decades, however, these rates have started to drop
perceiver
influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state Past experiences affect our attitudes toward current and future experiences and can lead to particular expectations of events Our motives influence what information we deem important and what we chose to ignore Emotional state can influence our interpretation of the event
Instincts
innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli; may be consistent throughout life, or may appear or disappear with time Ex: Wolves are instinctively pack creatures that naturally follow the alpha male of their group
fluid intelligence
intelligence that consists of problem solving skills
crystallized intelligence
intelligence that is more related to use of learned skills and knowledge
primary group
interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members These groups often last a long period of time and may include a core circle of friends, a tightly knit family, or members o a team
secondary group
interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds Typically last for a short period of time, and they form and dissolve without any special significance, such as students working together on a group project
Drives
internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals Thought to originate within an individual without requiring any external factors to behavior Help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve internal tension created by unmet needs
Problem-Focused Coping
involve working to overcome a stressor, such as reaching out to family and friends for social support, confronting the issue head-on, and creating and following a plan of problem-solving actions
Polygamy
involves a male having exclusive relationships with multiple females (polygyny), or a female having exclusive relationships with multiple males (polyandry)
representative heuristic
involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category Ex: Consider a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. Mathematically, the probability of landing on heads next time is 50%, but most individuals will either overestimate the probability based on the pattern that has been established, or underestimate the probability with the logic that the number of heads and tails must "even out." Representative heuristic here leads us astray.
internalization
involves changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group
source monitoring error
involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory; a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained Often manifests when a person hears a story of something that happened to someone else, and later recalls the story as having happened to him or herself
meditation
involves quieting the mind for some purpose; can be used for counseling and psychotherapy due to sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worrying Causes physiological changes such as decreased heart rate and blood pressure On EEG, meditation resembles Stage 1 sleep with theta and slow alpha waves
object permanence
key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage
Respect for patient autonomy
key tenet of medical ethics The physician has a responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare. While there are exceptions to this rule (significant psychiatric illness interfering with decision-making capacity, children, public health threats), patients do have the right to refuse life-saving therapies
Nonmaleficience
key tenet of medical ethics do no harm; the physician has a responsibility to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit
Beneficience
key tenet of medical ethics the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest
Justice
key tenet of medical ethics the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
lacks ribosomes and is utilized primarily for lipid synthesis (such as the phospholipids in the cell membrane) and the detoxification of certain drugs and poisons Also transports proteins from the RER to the Golgi apparatus
modeling
learning what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them
histones
linear DNA would around these organizing proteins, and then further wound into linear strands called chromosomes
Operant conditioning
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors
Emotional Support
listening, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings It's the "I'm so sorry for your loss" condolence card or a trip to the hospital to visit a sick relative Many people equate social support with emotional support, but other forms of support exist as well
Nuclear pores
located in the nuclear membrane and allow selective two-way exchange of material between the cytoplasm and the nucleus
ethnic enclaves
locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity, ex: Chinatown or Little Italy Can slow cultural assimilation
Internal locus of control
locus of control in which people view themselves as controlling their own fate Ex: A runner losing a raise may attribute the cause of the loss to not training hard enough.
agnosia
loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though usually only one of the three; usually caused by physical damage to the brain, such as that caused by a stroke or a neurological disorder such as multiple sclerosis
dementia
loss of cognitive function
anhedonia
loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities
retrograde amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
delta waves
low frequency high voltage waves
Microfilaments
made up of solid polymerized rods of actin Actin filaments are organized into bundles and networks and are resistant to both compression and fracture, providing protection for the cell Actin filaments can also use ATP to generate force for movement by interacting with myosin, such as in muscle contraction These also play a role in cytokinesis, during which a cleavage furrow is formed from these, which organize as a ring at the site of division between the two new daughter cells, contract, and eventually pinch off the connection between the two daughter cells
Life course approach to health
maintaining and considering a comprehensive view of the patient's history beyond the immediate presenting symptoms
self-descrepancy theory
maintains that each of us has three selves 1. Actual Self - the way we see ourselves as we currently are 2. Ideal Self - the person we would like to be 3. Ought Self - our representation of the way others think we should be The closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self worth will be.
fundamentalism
maintenance of strict adherence to religious code
Bipolar disorders (Manic Depression)
major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania
charismatic authority
many systems of leadership are based around this A leader with a compelling personality
Paranoid Personality Disorder (Cluster A)
marked by a pervasive distrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives In some cases, these patients may actually be in the prodromal phase of schizophrenia and are termed premorbid
formal operational stage
marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas and problem solve Different than concrete operational stage. Ex: Piaget gave children a pendulum in which they could vary the length of the string, the width of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the initial angle of the swing. Children were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the string. Children in concrete operational stage manipulated the variables at random and even distorted the data to fit preconceived hypotheses. Adolescents, on the other hand, were able to hold all variables but one constant at a given time, proceeding to methodically discover that only the length of the string affects the frequency
Avolition
marked decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions
avoidance learning
meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen Ex: studying to receive a good MCAT score, receiving the good score, then behavior of studying is positively reinforced for when you study for USMLE
Lysosomes
membrane bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of breaking down many different substrates, including substances ingested by endocytosis and cellular waste products Often function in conjunction with endosomes, which transport, package, and sort cell material traveling to and from the membrane Membrane of this organelle sequesters powerful enzymes to prevent damage to the cell Release of these enzymes can occur in a process known as autolysis, when these hydrolytic enzymes are released into the cell, it results in apoptosis
chunking/clustering
memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning ex: E N A L P K C U R T R A C S U B can be memorized by realizing that if you reverse it and group into meaningful chunks, can be BUS CAR TRUCK PLANE
Latent Learning
method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach; learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced Ex: Rats that were simply carried through a maze then incentivized with a food reward for completing the maze on their own performed just as well and sometime better than rats that had been trained to run the maze using more standard operant conditioning techniques by which they were rewarded along the way
Problem Solving
method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach; think of young children solving a jigsaw, they primarily use trial and error, older people and chimpanzees would likely avoid trial and error learning and instead take a step back, observe the situation, and take decisive action to solve the problem
peg word system
mnemonic technique involving associating numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers ex: sun, shoe, tree, boar, contrive, pick, heaven As groundwork, the individual memorizes their personal peg list, when another list needs to be memorized, the individual can simply pair each item in the list with their peg list ex: eggs being fried by the sun, pair of shoes filled with milk, tree with leaves made of butter, etc.
sensory memory
most fleeting kind of memory storage, lasts only a very short time (generally under one second), but within that time our eyes and ears take in an incredibly detailed representation of our surrounding s that we can recall with amazing precision Consists of both iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory Maintained by the major projection areas of each sensory system, such as the occipital lobe (vision) and the temporal lobe (hearing) Fades quickly, and unless tended to, will be lost
Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia
motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost; because speech comprehension is lost, these patients speak non-sensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning Patients with this condition often believe that they are speaking and understanding perfectly well, even though the people around them have no comprehension of what is being said, which also can be very frustrating for patients
immigration
movement into a new geographic space US continues to have larger net immigration than emigration, driving an increase in the population size This also increases the racial and ethnic diversity of the United States, as do increased mobility within the country and increases in intermarriage between different races
mirror neurons
neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing an action Largely involved in motor processes, but also thought to be related to empathy and vicarious emotion, as some of these neurons fire both when we experience an emotion and also when we observe another experiencing the same emotion
retroactive interferece
new information causes forgetting of old information One way to avoid this is to avoid the number of clashing events, which is why it is often best to study in hte evening about an hour before falling asleep Ex: At the beginning of the school year, a teacher may find that they forget their old students' names after learning his or her new students' names
alpha waves
occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves; also more synchronized than beta waves
extinction
occurs after conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus
posttramatic stress disorder (PTSD)
occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event, such as war, a home invasion, rape, or a natural disaster, and consists of intrusion symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms
somnambulism (sleep walking)
occurs during SWS; some of these people may eat, talk, have sex, or even drive great distances while in this state and have absolutely no recollection of the event;
Primary Socialization
occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in our proximity In children, this sets the stage for future socialization and provides the foundation for creating personal opinions
accomodation
occurs if new information does not fit neatly into existing schemata; the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information
Ambivalent Attachment / Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully As such, the child is unable to form a secure base as he or she cannot consistently rely on the caregiver's response Child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns, often displaying ambivalence. Sometimes called anxious-ambivalent attachment because the child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver
obstructive sleep apnea
occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow
Distress
occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressor
Attribute substitution
occurs when individuals must make judgements that are complex, but instead they substitute a simple solution or apply a heuristic When making automatic or intuitive judgements on difficult questions or scenarios, an individual may address a different question or scenario without even realizing a substitution has been made. Ex: In one study, individuals were asked to envision a sphere that could just fit inside a cube. They were then asked what percentage of the volume of the cube would be taken up by the sphere. This is challenging to envision, so most individuals likely simplified the problem in their minds to imagine a circle inside a square. The answers given in this study averaged around 74%, which is approximately the area of a square taken up by a circumscribed circle (79%), but significantly higher than the volume of a cube taken up by a circumscribed sphere (52%) Attribution substitution can take place in far simpler setups as well. Ex: A pencil and an eraser cost $1.10 together. If the pencil costs one dollar more than the eraser, how much does the eraser cost? ---Most individuals respond instinctively with the answer ten cents. It is easy to recognize that the pencil costs more, and to integrate the information given in the question stem ($1.10 and one dollar) incorrectly Process is also common when dealing with size and color in optical illusions. Ex: When judging the size of figures in an image with perspective, the apparent sizes shown in the image can be distorted by three-dimensional context (figure 10.6 pg 387). The expected three-dimensional size of the figure, based on perspective cues, substitutes for the actual two-dimensional size of the birds within the image. It is interesting to note that painters and photographers with experience in dimensional images are less likely to substitute due to the fact that two dimensional size is more understandable to their perception. Shadows, patterns, the position of the sun, and other visual cues can also cause attribute substitution for color (Figure 10.7)
discrimination
occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others While prejudice is an attitude, this is a behavior A prejudice is typically a negative attitude, and discrimination is typically a negative behavior Also important to note that prejudice does not always result in discrimination. For instance, a person might have strong feelings against a particular race (prejudice), but may not express those feelings or act on them. As social inequality influences prejudice, the same idea applies to discrimination. The unequal distribution of power, prestige, and class influence discrimination
central sleep apnea
occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe
Empath-altruism hypothesis
one explanation for the relationship between empathy and helping behavior According to this theory, one individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost. This theory has been heavily debated, and more recent conception of altruism posit that an individual will help another person only when the benefits outweigh the costs for the individual
Max Weber
one of the first sociologists to study the interaction between social processes and interaction; attempted to understand and describe social action - actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around
consciousness
one's level of awareness of both the world and one's own existence within that world
Reappraisal
ongoing monitoring of a situation Ex: If you think you are being followed
discrimination
organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli The opposite of generalization Ex: If Pavlov's dogs had been conditioned to discriminate between bells of different tones by having one tone paired with meat, and another presented without meat. In this case, association could have occurred with one tone, but not the other
Social Movements
organized either to promote or to resist social change These movements are often motivated by *relative deprivation*, or a decrease in resources, representation, or agency relative to the past or to the whole of society
schemata
organized patterns of behavior and thought
self-efficacy
our belief in our ability to succeed This can vary by activity for individuals, we all can think of situations in which we hold the belief that we are able to be effective and, conversely, those in which we feel powerless Also can be depressed to the point past recovery Ex: In one study, dogs were divided into three groups. The first was a control group in which the dogs were simply strapped into a harness. In the second group, dogs were similarly strapped into a harness but subjected to painful electrical shocks, which they could stop by pressing a lever. Dogs in the third group were similarly harnessed and shocked, but were powerless to control the administration of the shock. Dogs in the first two groups recovered from the experience quickly; the third group soon stopped trying to escape the shock and acted as if they were helpless to avoid the pain of the experience, when offered opportunities to avoid being shocked. Only when the dogs were forcibly removed from their cages did they change their expectations about their control over the electrical shocks and took action to escape their predicament. This phenomenon is called learned helplessness and is considered one possible model of clinical depression.
circadian rhythm
our daily cycle of waking and sleeping is regulated by these internally generated rhythms
amygdala
part of the brain responsible for associating stimuli and their corresponding rewards or punishments In short, responsible for telling us whether or not something is a threat If activated, this increases aggression. However, higher order brain structures such as the prefrontal cortex, can place brakes on a revved-up amygdala, reducing emotional reactivity and impulsiveness Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex has been linked to increased aggressive behavior
personality disorder
pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control
sanctions
penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior; can be used in addition to norms to maintain social control Negative sanctions include fines or incarceration, corporal punishment (infliction of pain or bodily injury) and capital punishment (execution) These can be either formal (enforced by social institutions) or informal (enforced by social behaviors)
Relative view of poverty
people are poor in comparison to the larger population in which they live Ex: Surviving on a low teaching salary while living on the Upper East Side of Manhattan may very well be considered poor relative to healthy residents
social facilitation
people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others supports the idea that people naturally exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched Reflects the idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability, but also by social environments and awareness of that environment
psychotic disorder
people with this suffer from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and negative symptoms.
Hallucinations
perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality Most common: auditory, involving voices that the individual perceives as coming form inside or outside his or her head Less common: Visual and tactile, but maybe seen in drug use or withdrawal Even less common: Olfactory and gustatory (concerned with sense of taste), may be experienced during the aura before a seizure
Spearman's theory of g factor
performance on different cognitive tasks is in many cases positively correlated, indicating an underlying factor or variable playing a role
Schizoid Personality Disorder (Cluster A)
pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression People with this disorder show little desire for social interactions; have few, if any, close friends; and have poor social skills
interpersonal attraction
phenomenon of individuals liking each other affected by similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity Outward appearance plays a role, the more symmetric someone's face is, the more physically attractive we find him or her to be Attracted to people who are similar to us in attitudes, intelligence, education, height, age, religion, appearance and socioeconomic status Reason for this may be convenience: easier to spend time together if you both want to go on a bike ride or if you both enjoy Thai food Also bc people are drawn to having their values and choices validated by another person Humans attracted to individuals with certain body proportions approximating the golden ration (1.618:1)
spontaneous recovery
phenomenon where a weak conditioned response occurs when, after some time, an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again
Statuses
positions in society that are used to classify individuals Ex: Being a premed student is considered this Most of statuses exist with other statuses Ex: Being a premed student does not have meaning unless there are other statuses with which to compare it, such as medical student or resident Note: Not all personal characteristics are considered statuses Ex: Being left-handed is not considered a status
Racial Formation Theory
posits that racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, and social factors
fundamental attribution error
posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts Ex: Suppose that you were working on a team project and another team member was unable to complete his assignment. Our immediate response may be to assume that this team member is lazy, unreliable, or even stupid - all of which are dispositional attributions. We may ignore the possibility that the team member got ill, has too many concurrent assignments, or suffered a personal tragedy - all of which are situational attributions
Absolute view of poverty
poverty is a socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water This view of poverty applies across locations, countries, and cultures
mitochondria
powerhouse of the cell
assimilation
process of classifying new information into existing schemata
Retrieval
process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
Observational Learning
process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others Ex: Bobo doll experiment, if children saw adult kicking bobo doll, they were also aggressive to bobo doll, if they saw adults kicking bobo then getting yelled at for it, they were not violent to the bobo doll Thus, observational learning is not simply imitation because the children learned to not be aggressive to the bobo doll by watching adults be punished for attacking the bobo doll
Recognition
process of merely identifying a piece of information (much easier than recall)
population pyramids
provide a histogram of the population size of various age cohorts
Cytoskeleton
provides structure to the cell and helps it to maintain its shape Provides a conduit for the transport of materials around the cell Three components: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments
Social Perception / Social Cognition
provides the tools to make judgements and impressions regarding other people
Electroencephalography (EEG)
records an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain; used to record brain wave activity occurring during the course of a night's sleep
negative punishment
reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed, eg parent forbidding a child to watch television before doing homework
Subcultures
refer to groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong Symbolic attachment to things such as clothing or music can differentiate the group from the majority Can be formed based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and other differentiating factors from the whole society Can be perceived as negative when they subvert the majority culture's definitions of normalcy Counterculture - the subculture group gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores
Strong Ties
refer to peer group and kinship contacts, which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful
Weak Ties
refer to social connections that are personally superficial, such as associates, but that are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals Ex; Social networking websites - especially those focusing on professional relationships, are examples of weak ties People without multiple weak ties, such as disadvantaged groups, may find it extremely difficult to contribute to and access social capital
consistency cues
refer to the consistent behavior of a person over time. The more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person
distinctiveness cues
refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios. If a person's behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it
Mortality rates
refer to the number of deaths in a population per unit time Usually, this is measured in deaths per 1000 people per year With advancements in healthcare and access, the mortality rate in the US has dropped significantly over the past century However, mortality rates are a significant brake on population growth in many parts of the world The decreased mortality rate in the US is one contributor to the increase in average age of the population, as is a decreased fertility rate. In addition, the aging of the baby boomer generation, one of the largest generations in United States history, increases this average age. Both birth and mortality rates can be reported in multiple forms: the total rate for a population, the *crude rate* (adjusted to a certain population size over a specific period of time and multiplied by a constant to give a whole number), or age-specific rates.
Anomie
refers to a lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society
Promiscuity
refers to a member of one sex mating with any member of the opposite sex, without exclusivity
mass hysteria
refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society In this, many features of groupthink lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering Ex: The Salem witch trials in colonial Massachusetts, which led to the execution of twenty individuals for fear of witchcraft
Disorganized Behavior
refers to an inability to carry out activities of daily living, such as paying bills, maintaining hygiene, and keeping appointments Catatonia - refers to certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia. Patient's spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or the patient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved. May also include useless and bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli Echolalia - repeating another's words Echopraxia - imitating another's actions
Deviance
refers to any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society (not necessarily negative, simply refers to any act that goes against societal norms) Can vary in severity, from something as simple as jaywalking to something as serious as committing a murder Also includes any act that meets with disapproval from the larger society, such as promiscuous sexual behavior Functional theorists argue that this is necessary for social order. These theorists argue that deviance provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity within society, and can even promote social change
Catatonia
refers to certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia. Patient's spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or the patient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved. May also include useless and bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli
Multiculturalism
refers to communities or societies containing multiple cultures Encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural DIFFERENCES Can enhance cultural diversity and acceptance within society, ,which CONTRASTS WITH THE CONCEPT OF ASSIMILATION "cultural mosaic"
mortality
refers to deaths caused by a given disease
Urbanization
refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration In other words, cities are formed as individuals move into and establish residency in these new urbane centers Urbanization is not a new phenomenon; ancient populations established cities in Jerusalem, Athens, Timbuktu, and other locations The economic opportunities offered in cities and creation of a large number of "world cities" has fueled an increase in urbanization during the last few decades Currently, more than half of the world's populations live in what are considered urban areas. Sociologists and other professionals have found links between urban societies and health challenges related to water sanitation, air quality, environmental hazards, violence and injuries, infectious diseases, unhealthy diets, and physical inactivity
Mate bias
refers to how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate Evolutionary mechanism aimed at increasing the fitness of the species May carry direct benefits (providing material advantages, protection, or emotional support) or indirect benefits (by promoting better survival in offspring)
Nonverbal Communication
refers to how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words Ex: Facial expressions, tone of voices, gestures, body position and movement, touches, and eye positioning These type of cues serve a number of functions in communication, including expression of emotions, conveyance of attitudes and personality traits, and facilitation of verbal communication Nonverbal communication often dictated by culture Ex: In US culture, people can be suspicious of someone who does not make eye contact, as this is widely considered to be a sign of lying. However, in many Asian cultures, direct eye contact is used far less often than in the United States. For example, children in Thailand are taught not to make eye contact with teachers and adults in order to show respect.
Syntax
refers to how words are put together to form sentences Child must notice effects of word order on meaning: "Nathan has only three pieces of candy" is very different than "Only Nathan has three pieces of candy"
individual discrimination
refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group Considered to be conscious and obvious Can be eliminated by removing the person who is displaying the behavior
Ethnic Identity
refers to one's ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language Largely an identity into which we are born Experiment Conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark: Experimenter showed each child a black doll and a white doll and asked the child a series of questions about how the child felt about the dolls. The majority of both white and black children preferred the white doll. This was conducted in 1947. More recent experiments with improved research methodology (like randomizing the ethnicity of the experimenter) has demonstrated that black children hold more positive views of their own ethnicity
Impression Management
refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us Done through the regulation or controlling of information in social interactions Often used synonymously with self-presentation When describing this, theorists describe three "selves" 1. The Authentic Self - describes who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes 2. The Ideal Self - refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances 3. The Tactical Self - refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us (similar to ought self described in Chapter 6)
Informational Support
refers to providing information that will help someone You will spend much of your career providing informational support to patients as you explain their diagnoses, potential treatment options, and risks and benefits of those treatment options
Class
refers to socioeconomic status
phonemes
refers to speech sounds
Power
refers to the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles, and their ability to control resources
Semantics
refers to the association of meaning with a word Child must learn that certain combinations of phonemes represent certain physical objects or event, and that words may refer to entire categories, such as women, while others refer to specific members of categories, such as mommy One can see this skill developing in young children as they may refer to all women as mommy
Fertility rate
refers to the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population In many parts of the world, fertility rate is the primary driver of population expansion Ex: In many parts of Africa, the average fertility rate is between four and eight children per woman In the United States, fertility rates have trended downward over time; in 2013, the rate was still above two, indicating that fertility rates were still contributing to population growth
Racialization
refers to the definition or establishment of a group as a particular race; for example, while Judaism was historically viewed only as a religion, the concept of a Jewish race has become more prevalent over the last century. Even then, the definition features of a given race are not static
Pragmatics
refers to the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge Manner in which we speak may differ depending on the audience and our relationship to that audience Imagine asking to share a seat with a friend or with a stranger on a bus, would talk differently Friend: "'Hey, move over!" Stranger: "Pardon me, may I sit here?" also affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
institutional discrimination
refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution discrimination built into the structure of society Far more covert and harder to extricate. Because it is part of society, it is perpetuated by simply maintaining the status quo.
Affect
refers to the experience and display of emotion
Reciprocal Determinism
refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. People choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and react to events in those environments.
Approach-Approach Conflict
refers to the need to choose between two desirable options
Class consciousness
refers to the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action
target
refers to the person about which the perception is made Knowledge of the target can include past experiences or specific information that affect perception When little information is available, there is a need for greater observation and interpretation by the perceiver
Ethnocentrism
refers to the practice of making judgements about other cultures based on values and beliefs of one's own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religion Can manifest in many ways, from innocent displays of ethnic pride to violent supremacy groups
Demographics
refers to the statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology Can be gathered informally, such as a professor asking how many freshmen, sophomore, juniors, and seniors are in a given course, or maybe gathered formally. Ex: The United States Census Bureau is a formal method of gathering full demographic data about every individual in the country every ten years
Social Loafing
refers to the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually May apply in many contexts: physical effort, such as carrying a heavy object; mental effort, such as working on a group project; or initiative, such as coming up with a solution to a problem
affective component of attitude
refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude "Snakes scare me" , "I love my family"
Locus of Control
refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives Internal and external
looking-glass self
reflecting our selves back to ourselves through the reactions of others to us
maintenence rehearsal
rehearsal that keeps information active in the forefront of consciousness [does not necessarily cause learning]
Fixed ratio (FR) Schedules
reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior Ex: researchers might reward a rat with a food pellet every third time it presses a bar in its cage
Variable ratio (VR) Schedules
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant Ex: Researchers might reward a rat first after two button presses, then eight, then four, then finally six
Variable interval (VI) Schedules
reinforce a behavior the first time that a behavior is performed after a varying interval of time. Instead of waiting exactly 60 seconds, for example, our rat might have to wait 90 seconds, then 30 seconds, then three minutes. In each case, once the interval elapses, the next press gets the rat a pellet
Fixed interval (FI) Schedules
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed Ex: Once our rat gets a pellet, it has to wait 60 sec before it can get another pellet. The first lever press after 60 sec gets a pellet , but subsequent presses during those 60 sec accomplish nothing
consensus cues
relate to the extent to which a person's behavior differs from others. If a person deviates from socially expected behavior, we are likely to form a dispositional attribution about the person's behavior.
Groupthink
related to group conformity and occurs when members begin to focus solely on ideas generated within the group, while ignoring outside ideas Can lead to groups not exploring all sides of an issue and may limit the group's options or views Further, group members may self-censor by not expressing their beliefs
autolysis
release of hydrolytic enzymes from a lysosome in an cell, resulting in apoptosis (released enzymes directly lead to the degradation of cellular components)
event based prospective memory
remembering to buy milk when walking past the grocery store (does not decline with age)
prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point the future
time based prospective memory
remembering to take a medication every day at 7:00 am (declines with age)
Echolalia
repeating another's words
Mere exposure effect / familiarity effect
says that some people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently May have observed this in your everyday life: Have you disliked a song the first time you hear it, only to find yourself singing along and saying, "I like this song!" after hearing it many more times? Principle also used in marketing: the more people hear the name of a product, the more likely they are to be attracted to and purchase the product
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experiences of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning
seeks to create a theory via generalizations; starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them
domestic violence
seen across all social classes and can include not only physical violence, but sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and financial abuse Domestic violence is the #1 cause of injury to American women, and is most common in families with drug abuse, especially alcoholism Victims of domestic violence may find it challenging to leave the abusive relationship for a variety of reasons, including lack of a safe haven to escape to, financial restrictions, and psychological disorders (consider the connection to learned helplessness)
Elder Abuse
seen across all socioeconomic classes, and most commonly manifests as neglect of an older relative -although physical, psychological, and financial abuse occur as well Caretaker of the individual is most commonly the source of the abuse
Elaboration likelihood model
separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information At one extreme are those who elaborate extensively, that is, those who think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought (central route processing) At other extreme are those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility (peripheral route processing) Ex: Consider two voters watching a political campaign: while one may be swayed by the cogent arguments made by one candidate (high elaboration, central route processing), the other may be swayed by the perception that the other candidate is more personable (low elaboration, peripheral route processing). Most individuals fall in the middle of this continuum, and the degree to which we elaborate on information can vary depending on the specific situation.
alcohol myopia
short sighted view of the world / inability to recognize consequences of actions as a result of alcohol
Heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions, "rules of thumb"
Proximity
simply being physically close to someone Plays a factor in our attraction to a person Studies have shown that we are more likely to form friendships with people in the same dorm as us or with the people who sit closest to us in class Part of this is convenience; it is easier to have conversations and make plans with people in the same area
melatonin
sleepiness can partially be attributed to blood levels of this hormone; serotonin derived hormone from the pineal gland
viruses
small structures that contain genetic material, but are unable to reproduce on their own Violates the third and fourth tenets of the cell theory because virions can only replicate by invading other organisms and because they may use ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic information Therefore, considered nonliving
proactive social movements
social movements that promote social change Ex: civil rights movement, women's rights movement, gay rights movement, animal rights movement, and environmentalism movement National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Human Rights Campaign (HRC), The Humane Society, and Greenpeace are some organizations associated with the proactive movements listed above
norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior NORMS ARE NOT LAWS, but they do govern the behavior of society and provide a sense of social control These are what provide us with a sense of what is appropriate, what we should do, and what we should not do Norms exists for behavior, speech, dress, home life, and more
Norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior Not laws, provide a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individual sand groups and thereby serve as a means of social control Exist for behavior, speech, dress, home life, and more, and can differ between groups within a society, and also between different cultures Ex: Americans tend to be extraverted and talkative, even among strangers, while Japanese culture teaches that showing too much of oneself in a public setting is a sign of weakness. Thus, a very quiet person who does not make eye contact could seem odd in America, while she may fit in perfectly in Japan.
material culture
sociologists explore the meaning of objects of a given society through this Includes physical items one associates with a given group, such as artwork, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings, and tools Ex: the American flag in the US, this item is used to reinforce a sense of belonging via shared American citizenship. Other symbols considered traditionally American include barbecue, baseball, apple pie, and rock and roll Often most visible during ceremonies, such as birthdays, weddings, and funerals
recognition-primed decision model
sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern
intermembrane space
space between the inner and outer membranes of the mitochondria
matrix
space inside the inner membrane; pumping of protons from this area to the intermembrane space establishes the proton motive force; ultimately, these protons flow through ATP synthase to generate ATP during oxidative phosphorylation
Broca's (expressive) aphasia
speech comprehension is intact, but the patient will have a reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language. These patients are often very frustrated because they are stuck with the sensation of having every word on the tip of their tongue.
hypnotic induction
start of hypnosis; hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration.
deductive (top-down) reasoning
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given For example, in a logic puzzle, one has to synthesize a list of logical rules to come up with the single possible solution to the problem
alertness
state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think Able to perceive, process, access, and verbalize information Cortisol levels tend to be higher, and EEG waves indicate a brain in the waking state Maintained by neurological circuits at the prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain. Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation to keep the cortex in this state. Brain injury that results in disruption of these connections results in coma.
Arousal Theory
states taht people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimal level
functional attitudes theory
states that attitudes serve four functions: Knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense
iron law of oligarchy
states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group; has been cause for criticism of bureaucracies Shift due to a number of factors, including the necessity fo a core body of individuals to carry out the day to day activities of the organization, increased need for specialization, and leadership characteristics of certain members of the group. Thus, even a group established with democratic principles and complete egalitarianism will ultimately centralize, placing power in the hands of a few key leaders.
Expectancy-value theory
states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal
cognitive neoassociation model
states that we are morel likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain Can also bee seen on a large scale: riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cool ones; drivers without air conditioning are more likely to honk at other drivers than those with air conditioning
cortisol
steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
studded with ribosomes, which permit the translation of proteins destined for secretion directly into its lumen
nucleolus
subsection of the nucleus ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized here actually takes approximately 25 percent of the volume of the entire nucleus and can often be identified as a darker spot in the nucleus
stroma
support structure
connective tissue
supports the body and provides a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their functions Whereas epithelial cells contribute to the parenchyma of an organ, this type of tissue is the main contributor to the stroma or support structure Examples include bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, and blood (blood is an interesting example) Most cells in this tissue produce and secrete materials such as collagen and elastin to form the extracellular matrix
Acute distress disorder
symptoms of PTSD last for less than one month, but more than three days (if last more than one month, classified as PTSD)
correspondent inference theory
takes the concept of cues one step further by focusing on the intentionality of others' behaviors When an individual unexpectedly performs a behavior that helps or hurts us, we tend to explain the behavior by dispositional attribution Thus, we may correlate these unexpected actions with the person's personality
overconfidence
tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
confirmation bias
tendency to focus on information that fits and individual's beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them
primacy effect
tendency to remember early items on a list
recency effect
tendency to remember late items on a list
`intuition
the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence, often developed by experience Ex: An emergency room physician, over the course of seeing thousands of patients with chest pain, may develop a keen sense of which patients are actually having a heart attack without even looking at an electrocardiogram (EKG) or a patient's vital signs. Over time, the doctor has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness.
Communication
the ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals, or behavior The foundation of social interaction and is often used to elicit changes, generate actions, create understanding, share a point of view, or inform Effective _________________ occurs when the desired message is received by the recipient
social mobility
the ability to move up or down from one class to another; typically is the result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements In the US, our class system encourages this type of ambition through dedication and hard work Often captured in the phrase "The American Dream"
Empathy
the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another, and it is thought by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior
inappropriate affect
the affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual's speech Ex: A patient may begin to laugh hysterically while describing a parent's death
elaborative rehearsal
the association of the information to knowledge already in long term memory closely tied to self reference effect (remember self reference effect is those ideas that we are able to relate to our own lives are more likely to find their way into our long term memory)
Thought Insertion
the belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head
Culture
the beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people Learned by living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them Passed down from generation to generation This is universal throughout humanity, while many animals by contrast exhibit purely instinctual behavior, while humans show variable behaviors based on the ________________ in which they reside. Ex: While all wolf mothers care for their pups in the same manner, human mothers show vast differences in their care taking. In some cultures, children are breastfed for years, while in other snot at all. Differences in this include everything from typical jobs, common dwellings, and diet to what time of day one eats and where one travels on vacation, if at all.
morbidity
the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
Role Performance
the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role Individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role Ex: Part of a doctor's role is to translate medical information into language their patients can understand; however, some doctors are far better at this skill than others Role performance can also change depending on the social situation and context of the interaction Ex: When doctors interact with each other, the pertinent parts of their roles are quite different than when interacting with patients. Behaviors and expectations thus change as a result of the role partner - the person with whom one is acting
representational thought
the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
intersectrionality
the compounding of disadvantage seen in individuals who belong to more than one oppressed group
associative learning
the creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
Sexual Orientation
the direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes Generally divided into three cateogires 1. Heterosexual: attraction to individuals of the opposite sex 2. Bisexual: attraction to members of both sexes 3. Homosexual: attraction to individuals of the same sex Involves a person's sexual feelings and may or may not be a significant contributor to that person's sense of identity; may or may not be evident in the person's appearance or behavior. Disclosure of minority sexual orientations, sometimes called coming out of the closet, is a major milestone in the absorption of sexuality into one's identity. This has also been shown to have therapeutic effects: coming out is associated with decreases in depressive and anxious symptoms that can even by measured physiologically as cortisol levels drop during this time.
Role Exit
the dropping of one identity for another
Social Reproduction
the idea of social inequality, especially poverty, being reproduced or passed on from one generation to the next The lifestyle of poverty, powerlessness, isolation, and even apathy is handed down from one generation to another as a feature of the society However, there are many other factors that contribute to poverty, including where one lives and an emphasis on present orientation, in which people do not plan for the future
functional fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner Think of problem of not letting candle wax hit floor. Given candle, box of matches, and tick tacks. Way to do it is to use candle box to put candle on, which most people do not think of. Must think outside the box
identity
the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups in which we belong
Gender Inequality
the intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of the other
Prestige
the level of respect shown to a person by others
spacing effect
the longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on
cultural transmission / cultural learning
the manner in which a society socializes its members
suburbanization
the migration pattern of the middle classes to suburban communities Over greater concentration of poor individuals in urban center helps to explain this The suburbs have become more attractive as they are generally cleaner and less crowded, have lower crime rates, and often have better school systems. Unlike the middle or upper classes, members of the lower class are often less able to relocate to areas that might offer them better opportunities. Many disadvantaged groups therefore remain in urban centers under poor living conditions. To make matters worse, this type of environment can easily expose low-income groups to illness and disease. Suburbanization can also lead to *urban decay* - a previously functional portion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit over time. Interestingly, this process can spontaneously revers in the process of *urban renewal* - city land is reclaimed and renovated for public or private use Urban renewal is often fueled by *gentrification* when upper- and middle-class populations begin to purchase and renovate neighborhoods in deteriorated areas, displacing the low-SES population
phobia
the most common type of anxiety disorder
Language
the most highly developed and complex symbol system used by cultures Consists of spoken, written, or signed symbols, which are regulated according to certain rules of grammar and syntax Enables us to share our ideas, thoughts, experiences, discoveries, fears, plans, and desires with others Written language extends our capacity to communicate across both spatial and temporal boundaries. Without language, it would be difficult to transmit culture. Understanding a group's language is critical to understanding its culture
recency effect
the most recent information we have about an individual is the most important in forming our impressions
Incidence
the number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time; new cases / population at risk / time Ex: The number of new cases of lung cancer per 1000 at-risk people per year
"Me"
the part of self that is a response to the environment Ex: Going to school and studying hard would be part of "me" since this is a societal expectation
Social Support
the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network Can be divided into many different categories: emotional, esteem, material, informational, and network support While this is necessary at all times, it is often most pronounced - and necessary - when someone suffers a personal or family tragedy
dissociative disorders
the person avoids stress by escaping from their identity Person otherwise still has an intact sense of reality Ex: dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder), and depersonalization/derealization disorder
Reciprocal liking
the phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them Researchers have shown that even if we disagree with someone on important issues, we will have increased interest in them if we have indications that they like us
Malthusian Catastrophe
the prediction that as third-world nations industrialize and undergo demographic transition, the pace at which the world population will grow is much faster than the ability to generate food and mass starvation will occur. This is similar to the death phase of bacterial growth, when resources in the environment have been depleted
assimilation
the process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. Can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one. Integrates new aspects of a society and culture with old ones, transforming the culture itself. While one society melds into another, typically not an even blend. One group will typically have more power and influence than the other, resulting in more traits of that culture being displayed after transformation. In terms of immigrant assimilation, there are four primary factors that can be used to assess the completeness of assimilation: socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage Can be slowed by the creation of ethnic enclaves, which are locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity, ex: Chinatown or Little Italy "Melting Pot"
aquisition
the process of classical conditionging
confabulation
the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill gaps in missing memories
socialization
the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs Individuals gain the knowledge, skills, habits, and behaviors that are necessary for inclusion in society Views of society become the accepted viewpoints and are generally adopted by the individuals within it
Self-presentation / impression management
the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors Implication of this is that people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them
Reinforcement
the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
Globalization
the process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets This is a relatively recent phenomenon spurred on by improvements in global communication technology and economic interdependence Leads to a decrease in the geographical constraints on social and cultural exchanges and can lead to both positive and negative effects Ex: The availability of foods (especially produce) from around the world during the entire calendar year can only be accomplished through trade with an extremely large number of world markets. However, significant worldwide unemployment, rising prices, increased pollution, civil unrest (particularly in unindustrialized or undemocratic nations), and global terrorism are negative effects of globalization Traditionally, the health sector has been organized at the national, state, or local level, but this is beginning to change. Groups such as World Health Organization (WHO), the American Red Cross, and Doctors Without Borders supply aid to populations in need around the globe. Many medical schools are also increasing opportunities for medical students to complete rotations in other countries.
Secondary Socialization
the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society Occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments Ex: The behavior necessary to thrive in school is different from that in the home setting, and also from that which is acceptable on a sports field or in a church Typically associated with adolescents and adults and includes smaller changes and refinements to behavior that were established in primary socialization Can also occur when moving to a new region or changing schools or professions
classical conditioning
the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
Arousal
the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli
Motivation
the purpose, or driving force, behind our actions
dishabituation
the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
maintenance rehearsal
the repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short term memory and eventually long term memory
lowball technique
the requester will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment. It is important to note that cost need not only include money, but can also include effort and time. Ex: You are asked by your boss to head a committee with a time commitment of five hours per month of meetings. You agree to head the committee, but discover afterward that the commitment also includes written reports from each meeting and a quarterly presentation.
recall
the retrieval and statement of previously learned information
prosody
the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
escape learning
the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists, like a headache
Mate choice / intersexual selection
the selection of a mate based on attraction
Gender Segregation
the separation of individuals based on perceived gender Includes division into male, female, and gender-neutral bathrooms; separating male and female sports teams; and establishment of single-sex schools
Peer Pressure
the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual Exists at all ages, not just adolescence Can come in many forms, including religious ideals, appearance, values, drug use, and sexual behavior Can be positive or negative: certain types of this can benefit the individual experiencing the influence In children, social acceptance is associated with being most like the social norm of the group, regardless of positive or negative connotations
cultural diffusion
the spread of norms, customs, and beliefs (especially new ones) throughout the culture
Androgyny
the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine While masculinity and femininity were long thought to be two extremes on a single continuum, theorists have reasoned that they must be two separate dimensions because individuals can achieve high scores on both scales like in the case of androgyny.
Master Status
the status by which a person is most identified; this status is typically the most important status the individual holds and affects all aspects of that person's life - Master statuses can also cause pigeonholing: we may view an individual only through the lens of his or her master status, without regard to any other personal characteristics (such as with a president or any other major political figure)
Sociology
the study of society: how we create society, how we interact within it, and how we define what is normal and abnormal in society, and how we institutionalize these ideas
Functionalism / Functional Analysis
the study of the structure and function of each part of society Early functionalists viewed society as a living organism. Like an organism, if society is to function smoothly, its parts and systems must work together in harmony. when all the parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state. If they do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathologic state Functions help keep society in balance Dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium
Symbolic Interactionism
the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols Central idea is that symbols - that is, things to which we attach meaning - are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another These symbols include everything from how we codify concepts in language to hand gestures and body language to the role of certain behaviors These symbols do not always match across cultures (ex thumbs up in America is a positive thing but insult in Middle East); thus, part of acculturation is learning the appropriate symbols and their use in a given culture
Cognitive Appraisal
the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress Consists of primary appraisal - the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat, can be identified as irrelevant, positive, or stressful If primary appraisal reveals a threat, secondary appraisal occurs - directed at evaluating wheterh the organism can cope with the stress
Cognitive Appraisal
the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress. Stage 1: Primary Appraisal - the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat Can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful Stage 2: Secondary Appraisal - If primary appraisal reveals a treat, this stage beings; Directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. Involves the evaluation of three things a. Harm or damage caused by the event b. Threat, or the potential for future damage caused by the event c. Challenge, or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event
cytoplasmic / extranuclear inheritance
the transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus (mitochondria do this)
Verbal Communication
the transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written, or signed Tied to nonverbal communication and is often dependent on nonverbal cues for the receiver to understand the sender's full meaning While face-to-face conversations are rich with nonverbal communication, even phone conversations include nonverbal means of communication such as pauses and changes in tone
Network Support
the type of social support that gives a person a sense of belonging Can be shown physically, or can be accomplished through gestures, group activities, and shared experiences
Social Inequaity
the uneven distribution of power, resources, money, or prestige, can result in the grouping of "haves" and "have-nots" "Have-nots" may develop a negative attitude towards "haves" based on jealousy "Haves" may develop a negative attitude toward "have-nots" as a defense mechanism to justify the fact that they have more
behavioral component of attitude
the way a person acts with respect to something Ex: Avoiding snakes and spending time with one's family would reflect this component of attitude
cognitive component of attitude
the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components Ex: Knowing that snakes can be dangerous (and sometimes poisonous) provides a reason to be afraid of snakes and to avoid them
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality
theories of personality that have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
structural poverty
theory based on the concept of "holes" in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of the individual Proponents of this theory argue that some individuals do not by necessity occupy these "holes" from year to year, but the percentage of a society that falls under the poverty line stays relatively constant due to their existence
Strain theory
theory that attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure Ex: The American dream, which refers to acquiring wealth and personal stability through achievement and hard work, is considered a desirable social goal, but the structure of society is unable to guarantee the education and opportunity needed to achieve this goal to all citizens. Therefore, deviant behavior such as theft may arise as an attempt to achieve the social goal outside of the limiting social structure
Differential Association Theory
theory that posits that deviance can be learned through interactions with others Intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him/herself This individual will also come into contact with norm-abiding individuals, so differential association, therefore, is the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs ideals that go against them In this theory, when associations with others engaging in deviant behavior are more numerous or intense than those engaging in normative behavior, the individual beings to gravitate toward deviant behavior him/herself In common language, we might say that someone has "fallen into the wrong group"
labeling theory
theory that posits that the labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self-image Can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity Ex: If members of society label a woman as promiscuous, this could either lead to further promiscuity or to a change in behavior toward something more in line with what is accepted in that society In many instances, we resist being labeled, particularly with labels we perceive as negative However, groups may embrace deviant labels. Ex: Biker gangs utilize labeling to enhance the perception of their own subgroup
biomedical approach for psychological disorder classification
therapy that includes interventions that rally around symptom reduction of psychological disorders In other words, this approach assumes that any disorder has roots in biomedical disturbances, and thus the solution should also be of a biomedical nature Thought of as narrower than other approaches because it fails to take into account many of the other sources of disorders, such as lifestyle and socioeconomic status Ex: Heart disease clearly has roots within the mechanisms of the cardiac muscle, but the cause of these malfunctions have as much to do with biomedical causes (such as genetics) as they do with lifestyle causes (such as a diet rich in salty, fatty foods; smoking; and alcohol use) This approach can miss some underlying sources of psychological disorders and is often more effective when supplemented with a broader approach to diagnosis and treatment
implicit personality theory
there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related Making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed is known as stereotyping
mandated reporter
these people are legally required to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse (domestic abuse does not fall under mandated reporting laws, but counseling and information about shelters for victims of intimate partner violence should be provided) Doctors are this
What can the middle class be divided into?
three levels: upper, middle, and lower upper-middle: successful business and professional people middle-middle: those who have been unable to achieve the upper-middle lifestyle because of educational and economic shortcomings lower-middle: those who are skilled and semiskilled workers with fewer luxuries
the perceiver, the target, and the situation
three primary components of social perception
Antisocial Personality Disorder (Cluster B)
three times more common in males than in females Essential feature of the disorder is a pattern of disregard for and violations of the rights of others Evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or a lack of remorse for said actions Many serial killers and career criminals who show no guilt for their actions have this disorder People with this disorder comprise about 20 to 40 precent of prison populations
Self
to Jung, this was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind Strives for unity Jung symbolized this as a "mandala" or "circle" in Sanskrit Jung saw the mandala, a symbol of the universe in Buddhism and Hinduism, as the mythic expression of this: the reconciler of opposites and the promoter of harmony
endosomes
transport, package, and sort cell material traveling to and from the membrane capable of transporting materials to the trans-golgi, to the cell membrane, or to the lysosomal pathway for degradation
direct therapy
treatment that acts directly on the individual, such as medication or periodic meetings with a psychologist
socialist economies
treats large industries as collective, shared businesses, and compensation is provided based on the work contribution of each individual into the system. Profit, then, is distributed equally to the workforce.
Borderline Personality Disorder (Cluster B)
two times more common in females than in males In this disorder, there is pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self image Interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable May be profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values. Often intense fear of ABANDONMENT) Individuals with this disorder may use splitting as a defense mechanism, in which they view others as either all good or all bad (angel vs devil mentality) Suicide attempts and self mutilation are common
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information; without effort
object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
latent functions
unintended positive consequences on parts of society caused by manifest functions Ex: Annual meetings of medical societies have the manifest function of educating a group of physicians, sharing research findings, and settings goals for next year. Latently, they create stronger interpersonal bonds between physicians and provide a sense of identity for the group.
vertical mobility
upward and downward mobility refer to patterns of this, also described as movement from one social class to another
five ethnicities model
used by the US Census Bureau and the NIH white, black, Asian, Latino, and Native American Some consider intersectionality (the compounding of disadvantage seen in individuals who belong to more than one oppressed group) to be a result of the oversimplification of racial categories or over-reliance on this model This argument promotes a model that recognizes this state of hyper-diversity, which reimagines our dynamic population as a complex, multicultural, mosaic-like mix of national origin, ethnicity, race, and immigration
Network
used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups Patterns of relationship can be determined by mapping the interactions between individual units, the nature of which can be highly variable Ex: A sociologist may look at the patterns in the interactions between friends, family members, or societal institutions Individuals in these face the demands and expectations of other members, constraining what they are able to do, also may have access to resources through the network Ex: A university's alumni association: the members are held to certain standards and commitments, but also may reap the benefits of the network when searching for a job A genetic pedigree can be thought of as a specific type of network map, in which geneticists can track genetic patterns.
availability heuristic
used when we try to decide how likely something is; when using this, we make our decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined Ex: "Are there more words in the English language that start with the letter "K" or that have "K" as their third letter?" Most people respond that there are more words that begin with the letter "K" than have "K" as their third letter. But, there are actually at least twice as many words in English that have "K" as the third letter. Most people approach this question by trying to think of words that fit into each category. Because we're so used to classifying words by their first letter, it is easier to think of words beginning with "K." Thus, in this case, the availability heuristic tends to lead to an incorrect answer.
punishment
uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information Ex: Consider a standard coin that is flipped ten times in a row and lands on heads every time. Mathematically, the probability of landing on heads next time is 50%, but most individuals will either overestimate the probability based on the pattern that has been established, or underestimate the probability with the logic that the number of heads and tails must "even out"
cues
variety of these are used to understand the behavior of others
Flat Affect (emotional flattening)
virtually no signs of emotional expression
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
disconfirmation principle
when a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded; the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
when it comes to health and illness among racial and ethnic minorities, these groups have some of the best health profiles Compared to white Americans, these groups have a lower rate of death associated with cancer. heart disease, diabetes, and infant mortality
Network Redundancy
when there are overlapping connections with the same individual in a network
Demographic transition
while demographic shift is a general term referring to changes in population makeup over time, this term is a specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system This transition has been seen in the US since the Industrial Revolution. Demographic transition can be divided into four stages. Stage 1. Preindustrial society; birth and death rates are both high Stage 2: Improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages cause death rates to drop Stage 3: Improvements in contraception, women's rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause *birth rates* (births per 1000 individuals per year) to develop. Further, with an industrializing society, children must go to school for many years to be productive in society and may need to be supported by parents for a longer period of time than was formerly the case; families thus have fewer children Stage 4: An industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low
Howard Waitzkin
who described *second sickness*, an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
mores
widely observed social norms
