Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange

How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period?

. The printing press was invented at the beginning of this period. This meant that books were less expensive and available to a wider section of the public, which majorly increased literacy. Many Christians learned to read so they could read the bible. As people got more interested in reading, people also got more interested in writing and there were more authors, poets, and playwrights.

What animals were deliberately transferred across the Atlantic as part of the Columbian Exchange?

Animals were also a large part of the Columbian Exchange. Prior to the Columbian exchange, the Americas had almost no domesticated livestock. As settlers came from Europe to the Americas, they brought horses, pigs, cows, sheep and cattle with them, as well as rodents like rabbits and rats. With wide open spaces and virtually no natural predators, these animals quickly multiplied across the Americas. The Old world got Turkeys and Guinea Pigs from the New World. Effect of the transfer of animals to the new world. • In North America, Indian tribes like the Navajo became sheepherders and began to produce woolen textiles. The abundance of cattle increased the amount of meat in New World diets and provided them with hides. • The introduction of horses had an even greater effect. They dramatically increased the efficiency of hunters and warriors, and Indian tribes grained greater success in hunting the buffalo herds on the plains of North America

How did the arts fare during this period?

As merchants' profits increased and governments collected more taxes, funding for the visual and performing arts, even for popular audiences, increased. The Renaissance was a blossoming revolution in the arts in Western Europe. More people broke away from the stiff figures of the middle Ages and started experimenting with Greco-Roman styles and other innovations like realism and perspective. They tried to paint things in a more lifelike way. Artists like Da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare were three great names of the Renaissance. Artists also experimented with more secular themes compared to the Medieval Period when subjects were almost exclusively religious. This demonstrated a shift from a focus on getting into the afterlife towards a greater focus on humanism. This period was the beginning of the humanist movement, started by Petrarch, which influenced art, architecture, and science. Renaissance artists started signing their work. There was an increase in the state sponsorship of the arts—funded by increasing tax revenues from prosperous trade. It happened first in Italy then in other parts of Europe, this spread was called the Northern Renaissance. Other developments included: • Griots, legends, and oral histories in Africa. The African Sundiata legend was passed down orally during these years. Sundiata, or the Lion Prince, was the brilliant founder of Mali who influenced culture. • Kabuki is a type Japanese theatre that prospered in the Pre-Modern period. • Shakespeare wrote his famous plays in England. • Cervantes the Spanish writer wrote Don Quixote, one of the first European novels. • Mesoamerican codices were created as a type of writing, and reveal a lot about Aztec culture and religious practices. • State sponsorship of the arts in Mughal India under Akbar the Great. There was a school of miniature painting in Mughal India, dedicated to the creation of small, meticulous paintings, which was state-sponsored. • Japanese woodblock moveable type of printing books.

Where did the "universal" religions of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam spread?

Between 1450 and 1750 Islam continued to advance, as it did, it blended with local cultures and practices. Examples of this blending was the Byzantine influence on Ottoman architecture after the Ottomans took Constantinople in 1453. The Muslims adopted the practice of marble masonry and mosaics and the domed shaped architecture from the Byzantines. The Ottomans improved these techniques to create greater special interiors and more expansive domes. Except for the Gunpowder Empires, especially the Ottoman Empire, which witnessed further conversion to Islam, Ex- conversion of the Janissaries, the rate of conversion to Islam was slowing Similarly, Buddhism didn't do much more spreading except within Asia. Buddhism spread more along the Silk Road during the Post Classical Period, centuries before 1470. But Christianity swelled dramatically in the Americas and Southeast Asia. In Americas, Brazil, missionaries organized people into villages, built schools for children, and created a writing system for the local languages. The 17th century saw an increase of Jesuit missionary activity across Latin America including Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia and Mexico.

What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness?

Changes in Trade, Technology, and Global Interactions - The Atlantic Ocean trade eventually led to the crossing of the Pacific Ocean. New maritime technologies made these interactions possible, and global trade patterns changed dramatically. The two areas that worked most actively to rebuild trade were China and Europe. • The Ming drove the Mongols out, they were intent on restoring the glory of Han China. In order to restore Chinese supremacy in Asia, the Chinese Emperor sponsored seven naval expeditions commanded by Zheng He. He traveled the Chinese seas to Southeast Asia, and on across the Indian Ocean to India, the Middle East, and Africa. • Profit from commercial operations, Advances in European ship design and navigation, Europeans desired to spread the Christian faith and Incentive to expand the Roman Catholic faith to spread the religion led Catholic nations in Europe such as Spain, Portugal, and France to take forefront in the effort of expanding global interactions. Major Maritime and Gunpowder Empires - • Major maritime powers include Portugal, Spain, France, and England, • Major Gunpowder Empires were the Ottoman, Ming and Qing China, the Mughal, Russia, Tokugawa, Songhay (Songhai), and Benin. Slave systems and slave trade - Slave trade, with the new European colonies in the Americas relying on slavery very heavily. The slave trade was an important link in the Atlantic Ocean trade. Demographic and environmental changes - The new trade patterns between the eastern and western hemisphere led to the circulation a wide variety of new crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Cultural and intellectual development - This era also was shaped by the European Renaissance, Protestant Reformation, and Enlightenment. Neo-Confucianism grew in influence in China, and new art forms developed in the Mughal Empire in India.

What were the major notable transoceanic voyages between 1450-1750 CE?

China: Official Chinese maritime activity expanded into the Indian Ocean region with the naval voyages led by Ming Admiral Zheng He which enhanced Chinese prestige. ● Portugal: Portuguese development of a school for navigation led to increased travel to and trade with West Africa and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire. The Portuguese accomplished many "firsts" in global exploration. In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz sailed his caravel around the southern tip of Africa, the first European to do so. Then Vasco da Gama became the first to sail all the way to India in 1498 ● Spain: Spanish sponsorship of the first Columbian and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade. Christopher Columbus discovered North America. ● North Atlantic crossings to North America increased as European explorers sought to exploit the wealth of the New World. The waters off the eastern coast of North America were swarming with fish and some men made fortunes shipping salt-cured cod to Europe and the Caribbean. Explorers such as Champlain from France earned huge profits by sending beaver pelts back to Europe. Other European searches for multiple routes to Asia.

What effects did American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians?

Crops such as potatoes, maize, and manioc from the New World went to the Old World and greatly enriched nutrition and led to population growth. • For ex- Potatoes were transplanted to places like Europe, Russia, and China. Because they produce heavier yields than grains, potatoes led to increased surpluses of food and led to population growth. The population growth in Afro-Eurasia and China can be attributed to the cultivation of potatoes.

How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions?

During the Columbian Exchange, the spread of religion was facilitated by the greater contact and communication between the two hemispheres. Europeans missionaries spread Christianity to the Americas. Jesuits would try to convert people with their top down policy. They tried to convert the leader first, figuring that it would trickle down to the general population. Catholics and Protestants completed for converts on the new frontiers of European exploration. Syncretism also aided the spread of religion because it allowed for greater tolerance for the customs and ideas of the native people to exist alongside the newer belief system. This made conversion easier. For Ex- Slaves also brought their customs and religion, too. Vodun and Candomble are two such African religions that adapted to conditions in the New World. Another example of how local beliefs were incorporated into Christianity as it spread was in Latin America with the cults of saints.

What technical developments made transoceanic European travel & trade possible?

European technological developments in cartography and navigation, innovations in ship designs, and improved understanding of global wind and ocean currents patterns made transoceanic European travel & trade possible. Europeans adapted, improved, and synthesized technologies and knowledge previously developed in the classical, Islamic and Asian worlds in their advancement in cartography and navigation. • For Ex- The astrolabe moved with Islam through North Africa into Spain (al-Andalus) where it was introduced to European culture through Christian monasteries in northern Spain. • The European usage of astrolabe became widespread in 13th and 14th centuries onwards. Borrowing the basic principles of the Islamic astrolabe, the Portuguese created the mariner's astrolabe which helped sailors determine their latitude by aligning the instrument with the sun or a known star. • Several interesting astrolabe variations known as universal astrolabes which make a single instrument usable in all latitudes were invented in the 15th and 16th centuries Similarly advancement in cartography made navigation for explorers much easier. • Europeans borrowed the knowledge of Classical Greek cartographer Ptolemy 's longitudinal calculations and incorporated it in developing new maps of the world which integrated math principles to accurately calculate distance and resemble the features of geography as they actually existed rather than making a theological statement about the world. The craft of this new quantitative method of map-making greatly revolutionized cartography. • Merchants could now use the revised maps to plot new routes to and from desired locations and their experiences and information was in turn applied to the latest maps. Innovations in Ship Design- the Portuguese invented a light, fast, and maneuverable ship called the caravel. • Due to its lighter weight and thus greater speed, the caravel was a boon to sailors. The caravel adopted the lateen sail, which made the ships highly maneuverable and had the ability to sail with the wind. • Base on the technology of the Caravel ship, the Spanish made the Spanish galleon, a large multi-deck ship with at least three or four masts. These ships were the primary vessels of the Spanish Treasure Fleet and were capable of carrying an enormous volume of cargo. An improved understanding of global wind and ocean currents patterns, all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible • The Portuguese developed a strategy known as the volta do mar, or turn of the sea, enabling the sailors understand the patterns of the trade winds and ocean currents and used them for sailing more efficiently, rather than going against them.

Describe the degree of global 'interconnection' after 1500 CE compared to before 1500.

In the previous era (600-1450 C.E.), sometimes called the post-classical period, witnessed the rise of new civilizations in both hemispheres, the spread of major religions that created cultural areas for exploration, and an expansion of long-distance trade to include European and African kingdoms. However, no sustained contact occurred between the eastern and western hemisphere. During the time period between 1450 and 1750 C.E., the two hemispheres were linked and for the first time in world history, long-distance trade became truly worldwide. Characteristics of the time between 1450 and 1750 include: 1) The globe was encompassed (integrated) - For the first time, the western hemisphere came into continued contact with the eastern hemisphere. Technological innovations, strengthened political organization, and economic prosperity all contributed to this change that completely altered world trade patterns. 2) Sea-based trade rose in proportion to land-based trade - Technological advancements and willingness of political leaders to invest in sea-based trade became much more important. As a result, old land-based empires lost relative power to the new sea-based powers. 3) European kingdoms emerged that gained world power - The relative power and prosperity of Europe increased dramatically during this time in comparison to empires in the longer-established civilization areas. However, Europe did not entirely eclipse powerful empires in Southwest Asia, Africa, and East Asia. 4) The relative power of nomadic groups declined - Nomads continued to play an important role in trade and cultural diffusion, and they continued to threaten the borders of the large land-based empires. However, their power dwindled as travel and trade by water became more important. 5) Labor systems were transformed - The acquisition of colonies in North and South America led to major changes in labor systems. After many Amerindians died from disease transmitted by contact with Europeans, a vigorous slave trade from Africa began and continued throughout most of the era. Slave labor became very important all over the Americas. Other labor systems, such as the mita and encomienda in South America, were adapted from previous native traditions by the Spanish and Portuguese. 6) "Gunpowder Empires" emerged in the Middle East and Asia - Empires in older civilization areas gained new strength from new technologies in weaponry. Basing their new power on "gunpowder," they still suffered from the old issues that had plagued land-based empires for centuries: defense of borders, communication within the empire, and maintenance of an army adequate to defend the large territory. By the end of the era, many were less powerful than the new sea-based kingdoms of Europe.

What new financial and monetary means made new scale(s) of trade possible?

Joint stock companies, invented by the Dutch, allowed the degree of financial risk taken in sponsoring a sea voyage to be lessened. It was essentially multiple investments for a sea voyage. This helped encourage trade and helped enable the volume of trade to increase. Joint stock companies were often given royal charters by the monarchy of their homeland for favorable trade conditions over specific regions. They had the right to coin money and raise armies in the areas they were designated. For Ex- The most famous of these, the British East India Company (EIC), began in 1600 when the British government gave 218 London investors a royal monopoly of all trade east of the Cape of Good Hope. Dutch East India Company, known as the VOC. Was formed following the British East India Company. Joint-stock companies proliferated. The Dutch West Indies Company traded in the New World and founded New Amsterdam, today New York City. And the Virginia Company of London was given a monopoly on the mid-Atlantic coast of North America.

How did the new global connections affect the peoples of Oceania and Polynesia?

Oceania and Polynesia, were not dramatically affected by the new global connections, because of infrequent European reconnaissance in the Pacific Ocean.

What foods were transferred to new geographic regions as part of the Columbian Exchange, and what were labor systems made this transfer possible?

One major feature of the Columbian Exchange was the transfer of foods the new and old world • Crops such as potatoes, maize, and manioc from the New World went to the Old World and greatly enriched nutrition and agriculture • Potatoes were transplanted to places like Europe, Russia, and China. Because they produce heavier yields than grains, potatoes led to increased surpluses of food and led to population growth. The population growth in Afro-Eurasia and China can be attributed to the cultivation of potatoes. • Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods like(okra and black-eyed peas. ) were brought by African slaves to the new world. While Tomatoes and hot chili peppers were also transplanted from South America to Afro-Eurasia Cash crops transfer- • Some New World plants were cultivated as cash crops and exported to the Old World ex tobacco. The Europeans learned about tobacco from the Native Americans. Tobacco use became widely popular with Europeans in the New World and back home. • Sugar cane indigenous to Southeast Asia was brought to the Caribbean by the Spanish early on. As the demand for sugar in Europe grew, the Portuguese introduced the plantation system in Brazil to grow sugarcane. The discovery of molasses, a byproduct of the production of sugar that was often discarded, could be distilled into alcohol led to the new product, Rum which became a popular item of export from the new world. The transfer of crops to the new world led to introduction of the plantation system, new labor system put in place by the Europeans to meet the need of the growing demand of the cash crop in the old world. The plantation system proliferated across the Caribbean and Americas. This in turn created a tremendous demand for slaves. The cash crops like sugar--and tobacco--increased the slave trade of the Atlantic system.

Why did Portugal begin longer maritime voyages ca. 1430 CE?

Portugal became the first European nation to embark on a program of exploration. • King John's son, Prince Henry, was motivated by a crusading zeal to convert people to Christianity and an economic zeal to gain access to West Africa's legendary sources of gold under took various voyages and expedition. Under the leadership of Prince Henry Portuguese established a school for navigation, which led to increased travel and trade with West Africa and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire. • Portuguese advancement in cartography and navigation technology like mariner's astrolabe made exploration and sailing much safer and accurate. • The Portuguese invented Caravel, a light, fast, and maneuverable ship was a boon for explores. • Equipped with new maritime instruments and knowledge, the Portuguese accomplished many "firsts" in global exploration

What role did silver play in facilitating a truly global scale of trade?

Silver played a significant role in facilitating the global trade. The Spanish peso de ocho, or "piece of eight," was the first currency in history to be used globally was made of silver. Silver was found in large amounts at Potosi in Argentina by the Spanish, as well as in other areas of the New World. Exploiting the natives for mining labor, the Spaniard minted silver coins and shipped off to the Old World where it became used as a currency. Gained acceptance around the world and promoted global trade on an extraordinary level. • Mughal India wanted Spanish silver for payment for its pepper sales, and this surge of silver funded Shah Jahan's construction of the Taj Mahal. • Much of the Spanish silver ended up the hands of the Chinese, who had no desire for European products but readily accepted silver as payment for its exports. • The peso do ocho was even accepted currency in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. • Silver also helped pull Japan into the global economy, since it had silver mines.

Describe the Atlantic trading system?

The Atlantic System connected the old and new worlds in a triangular pattern across the Atlantic Ocean. It was a truly global system of trade emerged between 1450 and 1750. In an effort to make trade as efficient as possible, ships in this triangular pattern never sailed empty. • From Africa, they sailed across the Atlantic to the New World with slaves. • After selling the slaves, they sailed to Europe with sugar, tobacco, and rum. • After loading their ships with alcohol, metal items, and guns, they said to Africa's west coast to trade these things for slaves and begin the circuit all over again.

What were the economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system?

The Atlantic system involved the movement of goods, wealth, and free and un-free laborers, and the mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples • Sugar, tobacco, and other cash crops were in high demand in Europe, led to the development of large plantations to mass produce these products. Sugar plantations were common in Brazil and the Caribbean Islands. • Since large amount of the Native American population had been wiped out by disease, there was not enough labor from the native population to keep these plantations running. Europeans used the labor of slaves which they obtained from Africa. • As the sugar industry and the industries of the other cash crops grew in importance so did the demand for labor. • Massive amounts of slaves were shipped to the Americas over the Atlantic Ocean in a horrific journey known as the Middle Passage. This forced migration was a major aspect of the Atlantic trading system, and specifically the Slave Trade . • In the Americas, new social designations and hierarchies based on race and ancestry formed. o Mestizos, who were half-Indian, o Mulattoes, who were half- African. Also, since there weren't as many female slaves brought over to the Americas, intermingling often occurred between male slaves and females from the native population. o Usually, the people with the "purest" European ancestry were on top of the hierarchy. o Creoles were people who were born in the Americas, but the children of Europeans. o Since there was often a higher proportion of women to men, it led to an increase in polygamy in some areas. • Also, on the coasts, as the slave trade kicked in, Africans were often intensely involved they were in charge of supplying slaves to Europeans. Slaves became a chief export in the region.

What were the unintentional biological effects of the Columbian Exchange?

The Columbian Exchange had an extremely long lasting impact on the world. One of the most prominent of these was the spread of disease, leading to demographic catastrophes. • European colonization of the Americas led to the spread of diseases— including smallpox, measles, — that were widespread. • These diseases killed a vast amount of the local population of the Americas, at times even 90%, since they had never encountered the disease before and had not developed any immune resistance to it. • In addition to smallpox and measles, Europeans also inadvertently spread cholera, malaria, influenza, and bubonic plague in the New World. • There was unintentional transfer of pests, including mosquitoes and rats to the new world by the Europeans.

What other syncretic religion developed during this period—why?

The spread of religion in this era led to rich syncretic blends of religious symbolism and beliefs. Ex- Sikhism developed in the northwestern region of India as a blend of Islam and Hinduism. It is a monotheistic religion that developed during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar who attempted to create the new faith by combining elements of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Zoroastrianism

How did the global trade network after 1500 CE affect the pre-existing regional trade networks? (Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, trans-Saharan, Silk Routes)

There was an intensification of trade in all existing regional trade networks. There was prosperity and economic disruption to the merchants and governments in the trading regions of the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Sahara, and overland Eurasia.

What originally motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic?

To find a western route to Asia.

How did settlers' action affect the Americas environmentally?

When European settlers came to the Americas, they started to impact the region environmentally. Their need for wood and farmland led them to cut down a large part of the native forests causing deforestations, and their methods of agriculture led to soil depletion. • Plantation farming and livestock took up massive amounts of land. Deforestation was wide spread as trees were cut down to make pastures for cattle and plantation • The exploitation of natural resources such as silver in mining also had degrading effects on the environment.

Where did Zheng He and the Chinese Treasure Fleets travel?

Zheng He's initial trip took him from the South China Sea through the Indian Ocean to Calicut, India, and back. Five more voyages followed; they included trips to Hormuz — the Arab port at the mouth of the Persian Gulf — and the coast of eastern Africa, from which He returned with giraffes, zebras, and other items unfamiliar to the Chinese. On his seventh and final voyage, from 1431 to 1433, Zheng He apparently died at sea and was likely buried off the coast of India

What effect did Columbus' travels have on Europeans?

• European explorers sought to exploit the wealth of the New World. • The waters off the eastern coast of North America were swarming with fish and some men made fortunes shipping salt-cured cod to Europe and the Caribbean. • Explorers such as Champlain from France earned huge profits by sending beaver pelts back to Europe. • Other European searches for multiple routes to Asia.

Describe European merchants overall trade role c. 1450-1750.

• European merchants didn't have many new goods of their own to contribute to the world market. • Their role in Asian trade was characterized mostly to be middlemen, transporting goods from one Asian country to another market in Asia or the Indian Ocean region. • They also established colonies at times and established joint stock companies.

What previously established scale(s) of trade continued?

• Intense trade continued in the Indian Ocean region. • Previously established trading markets also remained, including the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea

What new mercantilist financial means developed to facilitate global trade?

• Mercantilism developed as a dominant financial theory in this period. • The key idea of mercantilism was to import less and export more while sponsoring domestic productivity • It encouraged countries to acquire colonies for its economic sake, and encouraged trade to be regulated in these colonies to help develop monopolies on certain goods and block competing countries from getting any form of advantage. • This facilitated colonialism and imperialism. For EX- Joint Stock Companies such as the Dutch and British East India Companies regulated and facilitated trade in the regions they were responsible for, separate from the government. This helped the flow of the global economy.

Where did the technical developments originate?

• The European usage of astrolabe became widespread in 13th and 14th centuries onwards. Borrowing the basic principles of the Islamic astrolabe, the Portuguese created the mariner's astrolabe which helped sailors determine their latitude by aligning the instrument with the sun or a known star. • The Portuguese invented Caravel, a light, fast, and maneuverable ship. • Base on the technology of the Caravel ship, the Spanish made the Spanish galleon, a large multi-deck ship with at least three or four masts • The Portuguese developed the understanding of the global wind and ocean currents patterns came up with a strategy known as the volta do mar, or turn of the sea, enabling the sailors to use the global wind and ocean currents patterns for sailing more efficiently, rather than going against them.