Key Ideas and Details
Making Inferences
Readers are often required to understand a text that claims and suggests ideas without stating them directly. An *inference* is a piece of information that is implied but not written outright by the author. (For instance, consider the following sentence): *After the final out of the inning, the fans were filled with joy and rushed the field*. From this sentence, a reader can infer that the fans were watching a baseball game and their team won the game. Readers should take great care to avoid using information *beyond the provided passage* before making inferences. As you practice drawing inferences, you will find that they require concentration and attention.
Supporting Details
*Supporting details*, also called key points, provide *evidence* and backing for the main point. In order to show that a main idea is correct, or valid, the author needs to add details that prove their point. All texts contain details, but they are only classified as supporting details when they serve to reinforce some larger point. Supporting details are most commonly found in *informative* and *persuasive* texts. In some cases, they will be clearly indicated with words like *for example* or *for instance*, or they will be enumerated with words like *first, second, and last*. However, they may not be indicated with special words. As a reader, it is important to consider whether the author's supporting details really back up his or her *main point*. Supporting details can be factual and correct but still not relevant to the author's point. *Conversely, supporting details can seem pertinent but be ineffective because they are based on opinion or assertions that cannot be proven*.
Glossary
A glossary is a list of terms and their definitions that can be found at the back of certain types of books, such as textbooks or reference books. A glossary does not have the definitions of all words, like a dictionary, but instead gives the definitions of the important terms within that particular book which are either uncommon or newly introduced. One may use a glossary when reading a book about economics or a chapter in a science textbook, for example, to define some of the technical terms within the text.
Directly stated information
A reader should always be drawing conclusions from the text. Sometimes conclusions are *implied* from written information, and other times the information is *stated directly* within the passage. One should alwavs aim to draw conclusions from information stated within a passage, rather than to draw them from mere implications. At times an author may provide some information and then describe a counterargument. Readers should be alert for direct statements that are subsequently rejected or weakened by the author. Furthermore, you should always read through the entire passage before drawing conclusions. Many readers are trained to expect the author's conclusions at either the beginning or the end of the passage, but many texts do not adhere to this format.
Legend or Key of a Map
Almost all maps contain a *key*, or *legend*, that defines the *symbols* used on the map for various landmarks. This key is usually placed in a corner of the map. It should contain listings for all of the important symbols on the map. Of course, these symbols will vary depending on the nature of the map. A road map uses different colored lines to indicate roads, highways, and interstates. A legend might also show different dots and squares that are used to indicate towns of various sizes. The legend may contain information about the map's *scale*, though this may be elsewhere on the map. Many legends will contain special symbols, such as a picnic table indicating a campground.
Bold text and underlining
Authors will often incorporate text features like bold text and underlining to communicate meaning to the reader. When text is made *bold*, it is often because the author wants to emphasize the point that is being made. Bold text indicates *importance*. Also, many textbooks place key terms in bold. This not only draws the reader's attention, but also makes it easy to find these terms when reviewing before a test. *Underlining* serves a similar purpose. It is often used to suggest *emphasis*. However, underlining is also used on occasion beneath the *titles* of books, magazines, and works of art. This was more common when people used typewriters, which weren't able to create italics. Now that word processing software is nearly universal, italics are generally used for longer works.
Implications
Drawing conclusions from information implied within a passage requires confidence on the part of the reader. *Implications* are things that the author does not state directly, but readers can assume based on what the author does say. Consider the following passage: I stepped outside and opened my umbrella. By the time I got to work, the cuffs of my pants were soaked. The author never states that it is raining, but this fact is clearly implied. Conclusions based on implication must be well supported by the text. In order to draw a solid conclusion, readers should have *multiple pieces of evidence*. If readers have only one piece, they must be assured that there is no other possible explanation than their conclusion. A good reader will be able to draw many conclusions from information implied by the text, which will be a great help on the exam.
Both explicit and implicit evidence can be used to support a logical conclusion, as long as the evidence is clearly stated or reasonably implied in the text.
Explicit information is most commonly used as evidence to support a conclusion because it can be easily found in the text. Implicit information is more difficult to identify or verify in a text. Discerning implied information requires the reader to make a conclusion based on explicit evidence. Implicit evidence can help readers make more conclusions, but it must be sufficiently implied by the text to serve as appropriate evidence for a conclusion.
Footnotes and Endnotes
Footnotes and endnotes can also be used in word processing programs. A *footnote* is text that is listed at the bottom of a page which lists where facts and figures within that document page were obtained. An *endnote* is similar to a footnote, but differs in the fact that it is listed at the end of paragraphs and chapters of a document, instead of the bottom of each page of the document.
Drawing conclusions
It is important to understand the logical conclusion of the ideas presented in an informational text. *Identifying a logical conclusion* can help you determine whether you agree with the writer or not. Coming to this conclusion is much like making an inference: the approach requires you to combine the information given by the text with what you already know and make a logical conclusion. If the author intended for the reader to draw a certain conclusion, then you can expect the author s argumentation and detail to be leading in that direction.
Topics and Main ideas
In most nonfiction writing, the topic and the main idea will be stated directly, often in a sentence at the very beginning or end of the text. When being tested on an understanding of the author's topic, the reader can quickly skim the passage for the general idea, stopping to read only the first sentence of each paragraph. A paragraph's first sentence is often (but not always) the main topic sentence, and it gives the reader a summary of the content of the paragraph. However, there are cases in which the reader must figure out an *unstated* topic or main idea. In these instances, the reader must read every sentence of the text and try to come up with an overarching idea that is supported by each of those sentences.
Signal words in written directions
Instructional passages will often use many signal words to tell the reader when each step should be completed and whether the step is essential to the described procedure. Signal words that show the sequence of steps include words like first, next, then, and last. These words show the reader the relationship between each step and help the reader better understand the process as a whole. Other signal words describe whether a step is necessary or essential to the whole procedure. For example a recipe may include words like to taste or as desired to show which steps are suggested but not required to cook the dish.
Italics
Italics, like bold text and underlines, are used to *emphasize* important words, phrases, and sentences in a text. However, italics have other uses as well. A word is placed in italics when it is being discussed as a word; that is, when it is being *defined* or its use in a sentence is being *described*. For instance, it is appropriate to use italics when saying that esoteric is an unusual adjective. Italics are also used for the titles of long or large works, like books, magazines, long operas, and epic poems. Shorter works are typically placed within *quotation marks*. A reader should note how an author uses italics, as this is a marker of style and tone. Some authors use them frequently, creating a tone of high emotion, while others are more restrained in their use, suggesting calm and reason.
When approaching an informational text, readers often have a purpose for consulting the text. This purpose may be to find a solution, to answer a question, or simply to become more informed about a topic. To effectively use the text for his or her purpose, the reader must seek out information that is relevant within the text.
Many informational texts include tools like a table of contents. Readers can use the headings in a table of contents by identifying key words that are closely related to the information they are seeking and identify where in the text this information is located. When using online sources, users can use tools like search engines to find the information they need. Search engines and digital copies of texts often include search bars. To effectively use these tools, a user should first identify the information he or she is seeking. Next, the user should choose some key terms from this information. When the user enters these terms in the search bar, the search engine or digital text will provide links to sources or sections that are relevant to the key terms.
Headings and subheadings
Many informative texts, especially textbooks, use *headings* and *subheadings* for organization. Headings and subheadings are printed in larger and bolder fonts than the rest of the text. Sometimes, they are in a different color than the main body of the book. Headings are often larger than subheadings. Also, headings and subheadings are not always complete sentences. A heading gives the *topic* that will be addressed in the paragraphs below. Headings are meant to alert you about what is coming next. Subheadings give the *topics of smaller sections*. For example, the heading of a section in a science textbook might be AMPHIBIANS. Within that section, you may have subheadings for Frogs, Salamanders, and Newts. Pay close attention to headings and subheadings. They make it easy to go back and find specific details in a book.
Table of contents
Most books, magazines, and journals have a *table of contents* at the beginning. The table of contents lists the different *subjects* or *chapter titles* with a page number. This information allows you to find what you need with ease. Normally, the table of contents is found a page or two after the title page in a book or in the first few pages of a magazine. In a book, the table of contents will have the chapters listed on the left side. The page number for each chapter comes on the right side. Many books have a *preface* (i.e., a note that explains the background of the book) or introduction. The preface and introduction come with Roman numerals. The chapters are listed in order from the beginning to the end.
Missing information and contradictions in written directions
Occasionally, an instructional passage may leave out information or include details that are contradictory. When this occurs, the reader must first read carefully to ensure that he or she understands the text and that there is truly an error or inconsistency in the text. The reader should then consider the information provided, prior knowledge, and logic to determine the best response to the contradictory or missing information. The solution for responding to such errors is similar to making conclusions based on a text. The solution must be supported by the information in the text and be logical and compatible with that information.
Topics and Main ideas
One of the most important skills in reading comprehension is the identification of *topics* and *main ideas*. There is a subtle difference between these two features. The topic is the *subject* of a text, or what the text is about. The main idea, on the other hand, is the *most important point* being made by the author. The topic is usually expressed in a few words at the most, while the main idea often needs a full sentence to be completely defined. As an example, a short passage might have the topic of penguins and the main idea *Penguins are different from other birds in many ways*.
Drawing conclusions
One way to approach the task of drawing conclusions is to make brief *notes* of all the points made by the author. When the notes are arranged on paper, they may clarify the logical conclusion. Another way to approach conclusions is to consider whether the reasoning of the author raises any pertinent questions. Sometimes you will be able to draw several conclusions from a passage. On occasion these will be conclusions that were never imagined by the author. Therefore, be aware that these conclusions must be supported directly by the text.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is a strategy that can be used both to increase reading comprehension and to include information when writing. Paraphrasing involves putting a portion of a text into the reader's own words. This can be done post-reading as a way to encourage readers to actively engage with the text rather than passively receiving the information. Taking the time to put what they have read into their own words helps readers consider the information more fully and is a good check for understanding. Writers can use paraphrasing to include information from sources without adding a direct quote. Paraphrasing can be a useful tool for providing background a writer gained from their research before moving into the body of an essay or text. *An important note here is that even paraphrasing someone else's writing requires a citation to provide credit to the original writer*.
Summaries
Summarizing information you have read in a paragraph or passage format can be quite helpful. This process is similar to creating an effective outline. First, a summary should accurately define the main idea of the passage, though the summary does not need to explain this main idea in exhaustive detail. The summary should continue by laying out the most important supporting details or arguments from the passage. All of the significant supporting details should be included, and none of the details included should be irrelevant or insignificant to the text's overall meaning. Also, the summary should accurately report all of these details. Too often, the desire for brevity in a summary leads to the sacrifice of clarity or accuracy. Summaries are often difficult to read because they omit all of the graceful language, digressions, and asides that distinguish great writing However, an effective summary should communicate the same overall message as the original text.
Comprehending Written Directions
Technical passages often require the reader to *follow a set of directions*. For many people, especially those who are tactile or visual learners, this can be a difficult process. It is important to approach a set of directions differently than other texts. First, it is a good idea to *scan* the directions to determine whether special equipment or preparations are needed. Sometimes in a recipe, for instance, the author fails to mention that the oven should be preheated first, and then halfway. through the process, the cook is supposed to be baking. After briefly reading the directions, the reader should return to the first step. When following directions, it is appropriate to *complete each step* before moving on to the next. If this is not possible, it is useful at least to visualize each step before reading the next.
Topic and Summary Sentences
Topic and summary sentences are a convenient way to encapsulate the *main idea* of a text. In some textbooks and academic articles, the author will place a *topic* or *summary sentence* at the beginning of each section as a means of preparing the reader for what is to come. Research suggests that the brain is more receptive to new information when it has been prepared by the presentation of the main idea or some key words. The phenomenon is somewhat akin to the primer coat of paint that allows subsequent coats of paint to absorb more easily. A good topic sentence will be *clear* and not contain any *jargon*. When topic or summary sentences are not provided, good readers can jot down their own so that they can find their place in a text and refresh their memory.
Normally, a nonfiction book will have an *index* at the end. The index is for you to find information about specific topics. An index lists the topics in alphabetical order (i.e., a, b, c, d...). The names of people are listed by last name. For example, Adams, John would come before Washington, George. To the right of a topic, the page numbers are listed for that topic.
When a topic is spread over several pages, the index will connect these pages with a dash. For example, if a topic is said to be on pages 35 to 42 and again on 53, the topic will be labeled as 35-42, 53. Some topics will have *subtopics*. These subtopics are listed below the main topic, indented slightly, and placed in alphabetical order. This is common for subjects that are covered over several pages in the book. For example, if you have a book about Elizabethan drama, William Shakespeare is likely an important topic. Beneath Shakespeare's name in the index, you may find listings for death of, dramatic works of, life of, etc. These specific sub-topics help you narrow your search.
Explicit and implicit evidence
When informational text states something *explicitly*, the reader is told by the author exactly what is meant, which can include the author's interpretation or perspective of events. For example, a professor writes, "I have seen students go into an absolute panic just because they weren't able to complete the exam in the time they were allotted." This explicitly tells the reader that the students were afraid, and by using the words "just because," the writer indicates their fear was exaggerated out of proportion relative to what happened. However, another professor writes, "I have had students come to me, their faces drained of all color, saying 'We weren't able to finish the exam." This is an example of *implicit* meaning: the second writer did not state explicitly that the students were panicked. Instead, he wrote a description of their faces being "drained of all color." From this description, the reader can infer that the students were so frightened that their faces paled.
Making Inferences
While being tested on your ability to make correct inferences, you must look for *contextual clues*. An answer can be true but not correct. The contextual clues will help you find the answer that is the *best answer* out of the given choices. Be careful in your reading to understand the context in which a phrase is stated. When asked for the implied meaning of a statement made in the passage, you should immediately locate the statement and read the *context* in which the statement was made. Also, look for an answer choice that has a similar phrase to the statement in question.
