Kin 3H03
Guidelines for Physical Activity: American college of Sport medicine-resistance
- 2 to 4 sets of 8 to 12 repetitions should be preformed of each exercise. Exerciser must have muscular fatigue upon completing each set. - 2 days/week - do not due same muscle group 2 or more days in succession
Stimulus- Response Theory: author year, summary
- B.F skinner 1953 - suggests an explanation for how people learn new behaviors - theory based on the principles of classical conditioning (Pavlov, 1928) and instrumental conditioning (Thorndike, 1898). SRT identifies events that can follow a behavior and the effects these events will have on future behavior
A social ecological model of the four domains of physical activity: Individual
- Biological - Psychological - skill Example: of these influences include a person's cardiovascular fitness, attitudes toward exercise, and skill at doing certain types of activities (e.g., riding a bike).
Classical conditioning
- Classical conditioning principles state that a reflexive behavior (e.g., salivating, eye blinking) can be elicited through repeated pairings of the behavior with an antecedent cue
Self-determination theory: Author, year
- Deci & Ryan, 1985
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Limitation Albert Bandura,
- Deeming a person to be in the maintenance stage after six months of regular exercise is completely arbitrary. There is no justification for choosing six months of exercise as a criterion rather than, say, five months or eight months of regular exercise. Furthermore, the passage of a six-month period, in and of itself, does not cause people to change. Getting people to move from the action stage to the maintenance stage is more complicated than the simple passage of time. - Most people do not exhibit a stable progression through the stages. Many skip stages or even regress backward through the stages. For example, a person in the contemplation stage could go from being completely sedentary to exercising three times per week. This person would have skipped the preparation stage and gone straight to action. In a similar vein, a beginner exerciser may make it to the preparation stage but decide that he absolutely hates exercising and regress backward to precontemplation. The TTM cannot predict or explain this phenomenon. - Human functioning is too complex to be categorized into just a few distinct stages. NOTE: some researchers have suggested that the model should be abandoned and no longer used in research or interventions. Others have suggested that it is premature to give up on the TTM, given that very few studies have provided rigorous tests of the model. Most studes only focous on one or two of the constructs not all of them
social ecological model:Limitation
- Environmental and policy changes can take a long time and a lot of money to implement. - social ecological approaches are not intended to be stand-alone interventions, with the idea that "if we build it, they will come." Simply building fitness facilities does not mean that people will automatically become more physically active. Need to include the focus of the importance of community-wide educational and incentive programs to motivate individuals to take advantage of activity-promoting environments and policies. BUT programs themselves can be very expensive and time-consuming.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Research Intervention studies
- Experiments have been conducted to determine the benefits of matching physical activity self-help materials and other motivational materials to a person's stage of change - Some studies have found that people who receive materials designed for their particular stage show greater increases in their activity levels than people who receive standard, generic materials - some studies have found no differences in the effectiveness of stage-matched and generic materials for increasing physical activity - conflicting findings may reflect between-study differences in the types of people who received the generic materials.generic exercise-promotion materials are typically written for people in the preparation, action, and maintenance stages. Generic information could thus be considered "stage matched" if it is given to people who are in one of these three stages. As a result, in a given study, if most of the participants who receive generic materials are in the preparation, action, or maintenance stages, the generic materials will likely be just as effective as the stage-matched materials. Conversely, if another study is conducted and most of the participants who receive generic materials are precontemplators or contemplators, the generic materials may be less effective than stage-matched materials. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of stage-matched materials has not yet been sufficiently tested to determine the feasibility of this explanation.
Examples of electronic devices
- Heart rate monitor - Pedometer - Accelerometer - Global positioning system (GPS) units
Self- Efficacy research - High school students
- In a study aimed at determining whether self-efficacy to overcome exercise barriers was associated with non-school-related moderate and vigorous physical exercise, Winters, Petosa, and Charlton (2003) obtained selfefficacy and typical leisure time exercise participation information from 248 male and female high school students enrolled in introductory physical education courses in three high schools located within the midwestern United States. - Results indicated that self-efficacy to overcome barriers to physical exercise was significantly associated with engagement in moderate and vigorous non-schoolrelated exercise bouts, even after accounting for the influence of gender. Despite this finding, vast differences in the relationship between self-efficacy and exercise behavior did exist between the two levels of intensity and between genders. - self-efficacy was more strongly related to vigorous exercise (r = .34) than to moderate intensity exercise (r = .15)
Stimulus- Response Theory: Theory to Application, intervention possibilites for all 4.
- In real-world exercise settings, trainers, therapists, and others often use the principles of SRT to develop interventions to increase people's exercise behavior. - Postive reinforcment: free stuff, trip to ice cream store, points system, rewarding ur self with new shoes - Negative reinforcment: One intervention approach is to make exercisers aware of decreases in negative symptoms (e.g., pain) and feelings (e.g., depression) over the course of their exercise program. - Punishment: is an intervention technique used only to decrease behaviors, by definition it cannot be applied to increase physical activity. Can be used to decrease sedentary activity, which may, in turn, cause people to increase their physical activity. Extintion: keep pointing out the benifits,
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Precontemplation
- In the precontemplation stage, people have no intention to start exercising in the foreseeable future (the next six months or so). People in this stage consider the cons of exercising to be greater than the pros -Precontemplators are often very defensive when other people try to convince them to change their ways, so it can be difficult to provide them with information regarding the benefits of exercise or strategies for starting an exercise program. - precontemplation stage is very stable, meaning that without intervention, people tend to stay there for long periods of time before moving on to the next stage
Barriers to physical activity : Convenience/availability
- Inaccessible transportation, lack (or inconvenient location) of facilities, and lack of equipment * Research shows that access to recreational facilities and programs, as well as the aesthetic qualities of neighborhoods, are related to levels of physical activit
A social ecological model of the four domains of physical activity: Rings
- Individual - Physical Activity Domans - Social/Cultrural Environment - Built Environment - Policy Environment
M-PAC: Reflective Processes
- Intention is formed though this process: - instrumental attitude/outcome expectation utility of behaciour - perceived capability (efficacy) - Affective Judgements (enjoyment of behavior) - Perceived control (ability under conditions) - Perceived opportunities (autonomy)
Social Ecological Models: mesoststem
- Interactions between the microsystems take place in the mesosystem. - An example of a physical activity mesosystem interaction occurs when parents (home microsystem) and teachers (classroom microsystem) coordinate their efforts to increase a child's physical activity levels.
recall of typical week vs specific time period
- Measures assessing activity performed during typical week: less accurate then recall of a specific and actual time period. Most popular time frame = 1 week
theory of reasoned action: exercise example
- New Years resolution - people have strong intent to be able to start exerciseing in jan - however their intentions in december will not predict his long-term exercise behavior
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Action stage interventions
- People in the action stage are engaged in physical activity, but they can benefit from information that will keep them in the action stage and prevent them from backsliding. Helpful interventions include providing tips on overcoming barriers to adherence and introducing strategies to help maintain their motivation, such as setting goals (see Chapter 6 for a discussion).
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Contemplation
- People in the contemplation stage have intentions to start Exercising within the next six months. At this stage, they are aware of the pros of exercising, but they are also equally aware of the cons. These are people who know that exercise is good for them and may feel that they should be exercising, but they are not yet ready to make a commitment to change. People in this stage have ambivalent feelings about exercise, so unless there is some form of intervention, they may remain in this stage for long periods of time.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Maintenance stage interventions:
- People in the maintenance stage have been exercising regularly for at least six months. Interventions that are most useful to maintainers are those that help prevent them from slipping back into a sedentary lifestyle. - For example, it is particularly valuable for maintainers to plan ahead and to identify situations that might cause them to lapse, such as going on vacation, getting bored with their exercise routine, or being busy at work or school.
Transtheoretical Model TTM Preparation stage interventions.
- People in the preparation stage are ready to change soon, but they are concerned about failing. - Thus, their self-efficacy for exercising is still relatively low. Interventionists can help these people progress through the preparation stage by encouraging them to get organized and start planning for a new physically active lifestyle (e.g., investigate the cost to join a fitness club, decide how exercise will be worked into a busy schedule, identify walking trails) and to seek out support from others (e.g., find an exercise buddy). These strategies provide people with some of the tools and information they will need to change their behavior, which, in turn, can decrease their doubts about their ability to change.
M-PAC: Regulatory processes
- Serves to help maintain intentions - include behaviors or cognitions that people enact to translate their intentions into physical activity behavior. - being strategic in order to implement intentions across the backdrop of compeeting forces for attention, affect, motivation and time - taking in to consideratio that the environment is changing constantly - goal setting - action planning.implementation intertion - self-monitoring - enlisting support
Vicarious experience intervention
- Show him a video of a former patient who underwent the same surgery and who is now engaging in exercise without incident.
theory of reasoned action: Improve concept of subjective norm
- Surrounding oneself with others (i.e., creating a reference group) who are physically active is a good start
Theory of Reasoned Action and Voting
- The behavior of voting is directly related to a person's intention to vote. - This intention is determined by two factors—attitude and a sense of subjective norm
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Increased self-efficacy construct
- The self-efficacy construct was borrowed from Bandura's self-efficacy theory - In the TTM, self-efficacy represents the situation-specific confidence people have in their ability to deal with high-risk situations that might tempt them to lapse into their old sedentary ways. - self-efficacy increases as people move through the five stages. Thus, we can tell whether people are moving through the stages by looking for an increase in their self-efficacy. - note trends on the graph
Stimulus- Response Theory: Child hood obesity study
- Thirty-four children who were obese and between the ages of 8 and 12 came to a laboratory that contained equipment for four physical activities (a stationary bicycle, a climbing machine, a speed-skating slide, and a crosscountry skiing machine) and four sedentary activities (a movie player with children's movies, a video game console, books, and coloring materials). Day 1 children were given free access to all of the activities for 45 minutes. Day 2-4: Randomized into 4 groups 1. Children in the reinforcement condition were told that they would earn one point for each minute that they did not spend doing their two favorite sedentary activities 2. Children in the punishment condition were instructed that they would lose a point for each minute they spent doing their two favorite sedentary activities. 3. In the restriction condition, the child's two favorite sedentary activities were removed from the lab. 4. In the control condition, children were given access to all activities Day 5: On the fifth day of the experiment, the contingencies (i.e., rewards, punishment, and restricted access) were removed, and children were given free access to all eight activities Results: Days 1 and 5, children in all four conditions engaged in similar amounts of physical activity On Days 2, 3, and 4 of the experiment children in the reinforcement and punishment conditions were significantly more physically active than children in the control condition Conclusion the stimulus- response principles of reinforcement and punishment are effective strategies for increasing physical activity in overweight children
A social ecological model of the four domains of physical activity: Physical Activity Domains
- Where people might be physically active: - recreation - transportation - occupation (including school) - household These different domains are affected by different policies and built environments, it is important to consider the four physical activity domains separately, rather than conceptualizing "physical activity" as a global, single activity.
Stimulus- Response Theory: Positive reinforcement
- adding something positive will increase exercise behaviour - a positive reinforcer is any intrinsic or extrinsic reward that increases the likelihood of a person exercising in the future.
Self-Efficacy Theory: vicarious experiences,
- also known as modeling, are those that involve one individual viewing the performance of a behavior by another individual (the model). - The greater the perceived similarity between the model and the viewer, the greater the model's influence.
Pedometer
- attached to either the waistband or shoe. Provide data on number of steps taken and distance covered over a period of time. Advanced models can "guesstimate" the number of calories the individual is burning, when body weight is entered, but the accuracy of such estimates is notoriously poor due to differences in body physiology and fitness levels. Because stride length increases as a person walks faster, the distance reported may be underestimated. Conversely, walking at a slower than normal pace may result in an overestimate of the distance.
Theory of Planned Behaviour: What influences behaviour more?
- both intention and PBC are hypothesized to be equally influential predictors of behavior.
Social ecological model: WHO, and the AMerican Heart association
- both like the model and have pointed out a need for social ecological approaches to promote physical activity. In response to this demand, social ecological research on physical activity has increased substantially over the past two decades
Levels of activity trends
- canada has a positive trend: 40% active in 1997 to 49 percent in 2005 - England: 32 percent to 39 percent 2009 - Australian= 5% increase from 1998-2007 - Us: 43.5 to 48.8 from 2008 to 2011
Barriers to physical activity (3)
- convenience/availability - environmental/ ecological factors - physical limitations.
Education level and PA conclusion
- data highlights a critical methodological limitation in physical activity prevalence studies, is that definitions and measures of physical activity vary tremendously. Thus, while less education (and, relatedly, low income) is associated with lower physical activity levels, these findings often reflect only planned (leisure time) forms of activity. This is unfortunate when one considers that individuals from lower education (and income) strata often engage in greater amounts of occupational, household, and commuting forms of physical activity
Accelerometer
- detects acceleration of a limb (e.g., leg, arm) to provide data related to the amount of activity performed over time. - price varies (100-1000s) - may overestimate energy expenditure during walking and underestimate energy expenditure in more intense activities and arm ergometry. - Traditionally, accelerometers have been far less user-friendly than pedometers, but this is beginning to change
Stimulus- Response Theory: Limitation
- does not consider cognition, hard to use punishment in real life, doesn't really predict or explain behaviors, does not provide information that can be used to develop interventions to change exercisers' perceptions of a particular outcome as reinforcing or punishing, limited in predicting future exercise behaviour, yet to tested in ex pysch contect - A major limitation of SRT is that it does not consider the important role of cognition. In SRT, the major role of cognition is to interpret exercise-related outcomes as either positive or negative. Although considerable research has demonstrated the importance of these cognitions in determining exercise behavior, they are not included in SRT. Consequently, SRT is limited in its ability to predict and explain exercise behavior. - another limitation although reinforcement has proven to be a useful principle in altering exercise behavior, the other three principles are difficult to manipulate in exercise interventions - SRT also fails to provide information that can be used to develop interventions to change exercisers' perceptions of a particular outcome as reinforcing or punishing. Deciding that sweeting can be used as a reinforcment not punishment SRT has limited use for predicting future exercise behavior and developing exercise interventions, because it ignores the important role of cognition.
Guidelines for Physical Activity: American college of Sport medicine- flexability
- each stretch preformed 2- 4 times to point of mild discomfort. Hold for 10-30 seconds. Each major muscle group should be stretched at least 2 to 3 times per a week (ideally daily)
Theory of Planned Behaviour: Dean, Farrell, Kelley Study
- examined the constructs of the theory to illuminate the factors that influence strength training participation in older adults. - Two hundred men and women 55 years of age and older were recruited from community sites frequented by older adults and asked to complete a questionnaire assessing components of the TPB as well as current physical activity participation - Results indicated that while attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control were all significantly. Most was subjective norm and PBC. - The intention was the best predictor of strength training participation. - NOTE: subjective norm over attitude in predicting intention to engage in strength training which is counter to other findings which find little/no subjective norm on intention. - because older adults often report social motives for exercising, the subjective norm may assume a more prominent role in their physical activity cognitions.
Stimulus- Response Theory: study Roemmich, Gurgol, & Epstein, 2004
- examined whether reinforcement could increase physical activity among children who watched television and played video games more than 15 hours per week - Eighteen children between the ages of 8 and 12 were randomly assigned to either a reinforcement or a control condition. wore PA monitors. - For children in the reinforcement condition, the amount of physical activity performed that week was used to determine the amount of time the child would be permitted to watch television during the following week. A child was allowed approximately one minute of television time for each minute spent on moderate or vigorous physical activity. In the control condition, children were given the goal of engaging in 60 minutes of moderate or vigorous activity per day. They had free access to television regardless of how much activity they performed. - children in the reinforcement condition increased their physical activity by 24 percent and engaged in 32 percent more physical activity and 22 percent less television watching than the control group. children who had the greatest reductions in television watching also showed reductions in their body mass index (BMI)
Usefulness of TRA and TPB
- exercise may not be seen by all participants to be a completely volitional activity. - so TRA may only be useful only for predicting behaviors that the individual perceives to be under his or her volitional control. - TPB may offer greater predictive utility given that the individual's perception of control is accounted for in the model by the perceived behavioral control construct. - perceived behavioral control may influence behavior by itself (not only via its influence on intention) in situations where the behavior is not perceived to be under the complete control of the individual.
Social Ecological Models: exosystem
- exosystem surround the mirosystem and mesosystem - systems that influemce the microsystem - example school boards could write policies that influence what physical activity takes place in the microsystem of a physical education classroom. - Health promotion agencies could provide informational materials that influence the physical activity that takes place in the microsystem social-ecological of the home
Theories and models rooted in the social cognitive approach
- expectancy- value - self-efficacy theory - Theory of reasoned action - Theory of planned behavior - self- determination theory Social cognitive theories and models assume that people's decisions to exercise are based on a rational decision-making process whereby their thoughts and feelings (e.g., attitudes, self-efficacy beliefs) factor in to their decisions.
Theory
- explain why a behavior or phenomenon occurs, have been proven, - replicated over time, has evidence - helps us understand and predict physical activity behavior - give us a scientifically validated blueprint from which to formulate effective behavioral interventions
A social ecological model of the four domains of physical activity: Social/Cultural Environment
- factors that can directly impact a person's physical activity behavior - Social norms - social support - medial models such as social support from others—as well as factors that can influence the built and policy environments
Subjective norm: What is it? Predicted by what factors
- focuses on the degree to which a person feels social pressure to perform the behavior, is also predicated on two factors 1. Perceptions about the expectations of significant others; will family, friends, and coworkers be voting? 2. Motivation to comply with the perceived expectations of others; will she be perceived as lazy or uninformed if she does not vote?
Barriers to physical activity : Environmental/ecological factors
- geographical location, climate, and neighborhood may all serve as genuine barriers to exercise - ex. cold weather, unsafe neighbourhoods
M-PAC: Reflective process identity
- identity is the conscious association of an individual with a particular role through the process of self-categorization and the expectations associated with that role - Social comparison - Behavioral practice - Behavioral substitution - Adding objects to the environment - Framing/reframing - incompatible beliefs - Valued self-identity - Identity associated with changed behavior
Self-Efficacy Theory: vicarious experiences using imagery
- imagery—a behavior performed in the mind using some or all of the body's senses—would be considered a vicarious source. For example, you might imagine yourself becoming healthier or improving your physical appearance. Alternatively, imagery could be used to rehearse mentally the movements required in an aerobic dance sequence.
Improved physiological health/ physical fitness
- improvements in cardiovascular endurance (fitness), muscle strength/ endurance, bone strength, flexibility, lean weight percentage, and resting heart rate. - increase sensations of vigor (energy), improve sleep patterns, or reduce levels of pain or fatigue.
theory of reasoned action: Improve attitude
- in crease awareness of the multiple benefits of exercise (physical, psychological, and social) . Individuals often have a narrow view of the benefits of exercise (e.g., they are aware only of the physical benefits). - If we can help potential exercisers recognize the myriad additional benefits they might experience (e.g., reduced fatigue), their intentions might be strengthened. This goal might be accomplished through public service announcements, news stories, research, and simply by word of mouth from significant others
Reasons for the appreance of exercise psychology?
- increase emphasis on the physical appearance of the body. Ideal body was reconstructed... Thin was in for women and masculine was more important than just being big. - Heightened levels of stress experienced by members of society men, women, and children facing more domestic, academic, occupational, and social pressures than ever before - a shift in society's perception of who is responsible for maintaining the population's health. Use to use traditional forms of medicine to improve physical or mental health, dominated health care. However in 1960s people began to recognize that health is largely under the control of the individual and that exercise is one strategy that can be undertaken to address health concerns. Also tied in with leisure time
Self-determination theory: what is more effective increase in intrinsic motivation or extrinsic?
- increase in intrinsic motivation is more likely to be effective in improving adherence than an increase in extrinsic motivation. Why? we can hypothesize that an individual who exercises for reasons reflective of low self-determination (such as the desire to improve appearance) would be less likely to adhere to the regimen than would someone who exercises for the inherent pleasure involved (high self-determination).
Strength of self-efficacy
- indicates the individual's degree of conviction that she will successfully accomplish each level of the task.
Barriers to physical activity : Physical limitations
- injury, disease, and fatigue,
Stimulus- Response Theory: Positive reinforcement - intrinsic reinforces
- intrinsic reinforcers are rewards that come from within the self, such as feeling good about one's body, feeling a sense of accomplishment at the end of a workout, or simply experiencing the physical and emotional sense of well-being that accompanies exercise.
Stimulus- Response Theory: Punishment
- involves presenting an unpleasant or uncomfortable stimulus after a behavior in order to decrease the probability of that behavior happening in the future. - example hurting after running.
Behavioural Economics
- involves the integration of stimulus-response theory with basic research on cognitive psychology and decisionmaking in order to explain how people allocate time and effort to various options.
Theory of Reasoned Action vs Self-efficacy
- it is different from self-efficacy theory in its predictive intent. - self-efficacy theory is capable of predicting both acute and chronic behavior
Measuring Physical activity
- it varies - can measure mode, frequency, intensity, duration
jobs today vs earlier on
- jobs today more mental as apposed to physical capacity, thus increasing mental stress and reducing occupational physical activity
Stimulus- Response Theory: Research exemplar
- little research has beed done, - exercise psychologists' think thoughts and feelings in determining exercise behavior are very important but SRT does not take these factors into account, so it tends not to be the theory of choice for many researchers.
Gender and Physical Activity
- males more PA than females - sendentary rates are simular but american men tend to engage in more vigorous-intensity activities, as well as muscular strength and muscular endurance activities, - England: proportion of men achieving recommended levels of physical activity exceeds the proportion of women achieving recommended levels by 11 percent (42 percent vs. 31 percent). - Australian: man engage in high levels of activity more than females while females engange in more low to moderate lv. - gender difference in amount and level of activity, also in type of activity. - walking, sport and exercise common for english men while for women its "heavly" housework. - for canada popular activites for M and W are the sam e
Special Populations misconceptions, PA levels and consequences
- misconception that people with a disability of chronic disease are insufficiently healthy to participate in the exercise, and that they do not reap any benefits from exercise. This fallacy has led to a lack of emphasis on exercise-promotion activities targeting people with disease and disabilities only 23 percent of people with disabilities are physically active 20 minutes per day, three days per week, compared to 33 percent of the general population consequence: people with chronic conditions are at an increased risk for secondary physical and psychological health problems that might be prevented through exercise Example: people with spinal cord injury (SCI) indicate that a physical activity program is the one service they most desire but is least available to them. SCI population is more susceptible to diseases linked to a sedentary lifestyle, such as diabetes and heart disease, and depression, anxiety, and a reduced quality of life.
theory of reasoned action: interventions
- must focus on increasing the strength of one's intention to exercise. techniques to use will: - serve to improve one's attitude toward exercise, - cause the individual to feel external pressure to engage in exercise. In order to improve
Shift in who responsible to health and leisure time
- new philosophy dictated that we could (and should) play an active role in maintaining or improving our health. This change in philosophy corresponded with an increase in the amount of leisure time availably. Specifically, available leisure time hit an all-time high during the 1980s, with people working fewer hours per week than ever before. Unfortunately, this increase in leisure time has not translated into appreciable increases in physical activity participation. Instead, many individuals in industrialized countries are now working more hours (thereby reducing available leisure time) in less active jobs (thanks to technological advances), and they have seen significant increases in their waistlines and overall sedentary rate.
Do intentions always lead to intended behavior?
- nope, even though intnetion is the single best predictor of behavior with in the TRA theory - especially when we attempt to apply this theory to a repeatable behavior or to a behavior that is not to be attempted in the immediate future but at some undetermined later time
What is Self efficiency
- not concerned with an individual's perception of her abilities; rather, it focuses on the extent to which the individual feels she will be successful in performing the desired behavior, given the abilities she possesses and the unique situation in which she finds herself. - is generally considered to be a situation-specific form of self-confidence
PA lvs during youth vs exercise lv in adult
- not related - highly active youngsters will not necessarily become physically active adults
Percentage of Canadian population engaged in Various Levels of Physical Activity by Age
- note level of high activty decreases - lv of moderate stays steady - level of low increases
Percentage of U.S. adults defined as sedentary by ethnicity and survey year.
- note white are least sedentary - not thing vary each year
Self-determination theory: Identified regulation
- occurs when behavior is motivated by personal goals. - Although the behavior is initiated autonomously, identified regulation is considered extrinsic because the decision is guided by an external outcome or product (e.g., improved appearance) as opposed to a feeling of enjoyment or sense of accomplishment. Clearly, this form of extrinsic motivation is one that is commonly employed in the exercise domain - Achieving personal goals
Self-Efficacy Theory: 4 primary sources of Self-efficacy
- past performance accomplishments, - viscarious experiences, - social persuasion, - physiological/affective states.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Action
- people are exercising at recommended levels for health and fitness - pros of exercise outweigh the cons, this is a very unstable stage.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Precontemplation stage interventions.
- people in the precontemplation stage underestimate the benefits of changing (the pros) and overestimate the costs (the cons) - To move to the next stage, precontemplators need to become more informed of the benefits of exercise. - This may be accomplished by providing them with factual information about the connection between exercise and well-being through media resources (e.g., pamphlets or videos) or through consultations with a health care professional
Future for subjective norm variable
- perhaps good idea to reforming it. - define it as a multidimensional manner. - This would require us to conceptualize subjective norm as a global construct composed of more specific subsets (e.g., descriptive, moral, or personal norms),
What are physiological state and affective states
- physiological= body, HR increase - affective= emotion both can have positive or negative effects - many different ones
More types of efficacy
- proxy efficacy, collective efficacy, tripartite efficacy, and coaching efficacy - these forms of efficacy address the individual's belief in others' capabilities to help the individual accomplish a task - Examples of such agents include wellness coaches, personal trainers, physical therapists, physical education teachers, and exercise group members
Assessing Physical Activity: Subjective/Self report
- questionnaire, interview (lots of info, little time and money) - Daily activity logs - recall measure: ask the respondent to indicate the mode, frequency, intensity, and duration of the activity(ies) performed for a specified period of time. Greater the chance of error due to memory limitations. - in general self-report techniques are subject to both intentional (social desirability bias) and involuntary (poor memory) manipulation, most are cost-effective and easy-to-use assessment tools.
Attitude: What is it? what influences it?
- refers to a person's positive or negative thoughts concerning the performance of the behavior - attitude has cognitive and affective components. - Two factors serve to influence attitude: 1. An individual's beliefs about the consequences of carrying out a specific action; does the person generally believe that voting is a worthy endeavor? 2. An individual's evaluation (positive or negative) of the consequences; does he feel that his vote is important? Does he care who's running or who wins? - if answers yes= he possesses a favorable attitude towards voting.
Level of self-efficacy
- refers to an individual's belief that she can successfully perform various elements of a task.
A social ecological model of the four domains of physical activity: Built environment
- refers to human-made settings in which people live, work, and play, including buildings, parks, neighborhoods, cities, and their supporting infrastructure (e.g., energy and water supplies - Within the context of the social ecological model, the built environment level represents the places where physical activity may occur, along with characteristics of those places that could affect physical activity participation. look at diagram for exampes
self-determination theory: situational motivation
- refers to motivation experienced in a particular activity at a specific point in time. For example, an individual might be highly motivated to engage in exercise today but poorly motivated tomorrow. Similarly, someone might be highly motivated to run but poorly motivated to lift weights
Theory of Planned Behaviour: PBC?
- refers to the degree of personal control the individual perceives he or she has over the behavior in question. This concept is significant in that it accounts for the many potential barriers to exercise (work, family, weather, facilities, etc.) that people often perceive. - Thus, a woman who believes that she has control over (i.e., the ability to overcome) these potential barriers to exercise will be more likely to perform that behavior than if she believes her exercise behavior is influenced by someone or something else.
Self-determination theory: integrated regulation
- refers to the process of engaging in a behavior in order to confirm one's sense of self (e.g., "I am an exerciser, and this is what I do"). - confirming sense of self
External regulation
- refers to the process of engaging in a behavior for the purpose of obtaining an external reward or avoiding an externally applied punishment (e.g., exercising to receive praise from others or because rehabilitation personnel are compelling you to do so). - Gain reward, avoid punishment
Income Level and Physical Activity
- reported relationship between income level and physical activity participation are relatively direct and linear one for CAnadda and the US. However, finding are not consistent across countries and appears to be more multifaceted than originally conceived. Examples: Sedentary rates, as well as rates of sufficient physical activity participation, in Australian adults support the notion of a direct and linear association, but Australian adults who are active at insufficient levels, however, no difference is observed in relation to income level.
M-PAC: Reflexive process
- represent impulsive, or less reasoned, constructs that influence action control most often through learned associations and are triggered through particular circumstances and stimuli - taking into account changing environments variable affective states, windows of opportunities - automatic associations (reflex)- habit, and identity
M-PAC: Reflective process Habbit
- represents routine behavioral action that is under lowered conscious awareness and executed from cues - Remove aversive stimulus - Associative learning - Behavioral practice - Habit formation
Self-efficacy as a multidimensional construct
- researchers have begun to differentiate between traditional notions of self-efficacy for a task (e.g., confidence in one's ability to jog progressively greater distances) and more contemporary (and arguably more cognitively complex) conceptualizations of efficacy focused on barriers to physical activity engagement - includes coping efficacy and scheduling efficacy
What are theories of exercise behaviour rooted in?
- rooted in theories of human motivated behaviour
A social ecological model of the four domains of physical activity: Policy environment
- rules, regulations, and practices that can impact physical activity through a variety of mechanisms, such as changing the built environment, providing incentives for exercising, or creating sports and recreation programs.
CDC and the ACSM (Pate, Pratt, Blair, et al., 1995) Paper
- said physically active people outlive their sedentary counterparts, as demonstrated by their lower overall all-cause mortality rates and by research indicating that a midlife increase in physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of mortality.
social ecological model: Research exemplar
- scientists do not have control over the built and policy environments, it is impossible conduct controlled, experimental studies of social ecological interventions - most research with the social ecological framework use descriptive, cross-sectional studies of the relationship between social ecological factors and people's physical activity habits. Studies have shown that living in an attractive neighborhood, feeling safe, and having stores within walking distance are associated with more recreational walking activity (Saelens & Handy, 2008). - A few studies have utilized quasi-experimental research designs to examine the effects of social ecological interventions on physical activity. A quasi-experimental design would be to compare physical activity levels within a community that experienced a change in policy to physical activity levels in a community with no policy change. The change comunity has more levels of PA
Stimulus- Response Theory: Extrinsic reinforces - problems
- should be used with caution, - thoes who are motiveated intrinsically adhere better over long term than those who are extrinsicalluy motivated - can prevent the individual from learning about the intrinsic rewards associated with exercise. The child who is given rewards may be so focused on attaining the extrinsic reinforcement that she never comes to realize the intrinsic rewards associated with being physically active, such as having fun, learning new skills, and making new friends. - if a parent extrinsically rewards a child every time she is physically active, then she may not choose to be active in situations when the parent is not around to give reinforcement - if the child becomes accustomed to receiving some type of reward in return for being active, she may start to think of physical activity as work or a chore—
Theory of Planned Behaviour: interventions
- since PBCaffect both behavior directly and indirectly (via intention) it is important - a strong sense of personal control over one's exercise behavior is essential for adherence - Allowing exercisers some input when designing their physical activity program should increase feelings of personal control. - If person says she busy physical activity should be scheduled for those times when one is less busy - Inexpensive and portable resistance bands could be purchased for the home when expensive and inconvenient exercise facilities emerge as limiting factors. - Purchasing appropriate clothing to permit exercise in inclement weather or joining a facility with aerobic equipment or an indoor track may also reduce barriers to exercise - if time is a barrier, having reminders (alarms, or adding it to a planner
Social Ecological Models: macrosystem
- society - macrosystem encompasses the micro, meso and exo. - The macrosystem is the larger sociocultural context in which a person resides; it includes cultural values, political philosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. - example: for physical activity, the macrosystem includes societal values regarding physical activity and safe neighborhoods in which one can be physically active
How can regulatory process effect the reflective process
- someone who believes that the benefits of exercise and intends to adopt exercise will begin planning a regular exercise schedule (regulatory). However when planing finds how little time they have and reduced and intention may even falter. - individual may find that the scheduling of exercise boosts anticipation of the behavior and increases affective judgments toward exercise. In this case, reflective motivation is strengthened by regulatory processes.
Limitation of Theory of Theory of Planned Behaviour:
- strength of the intention and behaviour relationship weakens as time goes on - not good for repeated behaviours - social support maybe more important than subjective norms in exercise contexts. - need to consider different types of attittude (instrumental vs affective)
Social Ecological Models: summary
- take the approach that individual-level factors are only one of multiple levels of influence on behavior. - Individual level factors= ( how individual thinks and feels about PA and how they choose to respond to exercise consequences and antecednets) - recognize that individuals bear responsibility for engaging in healthful behaviors, but the models also recognize other levels of influence on health behavior, including the physical environment, the community, society, and the government
Stimulus- Response Theory: Negative reinforcement -
- taking away something negative will increase exercise - are generally unpleasant or aversive stimuli that, when withdrawn after a behavior, will increase the frequency of that behavior in the future. - example: exercise helps reduce ones back pain.. taking away the pain increase their likely hood to exercise
Social Ecological Models: centre of the model
- the center of the model is the individual who is surrounded by Microsystems
Motivation
- the degree of determination, drive, or desire with which an individual approaches (or avoids) a behavior - direction and intensity of one's effort
Social Ecological Models: microsystem
- the immediate system in which people interact - For physical activity microsystem are environments where people might be physically active or where they might receive support for being physically active, such as physical education classrooms, parks, workplaces, and homes.
Limitations of the Self-Efficacy Theory
- the theory is predictive of behavior only when the behavior is challenging or novel. - the influence of the efficacy construct is greatly reduced (or eliminated) as exercise behavior becomes well learned and habitual., can not generalize to other behaviors
why are theories essential for exercise psychology?
- theories allow us to better understand and predict physical activity behavior. - theories give us a scientifically validated blueprint from which to formulate effective behavioral interventions.
expectancy-value
- theorists proposed that motivation (and thus behavior) was predicated on the individual's expected behavioral outcome and on the value (importance) the individual placed on that predicted outcome.
self-determination theory: specific versus general nature of motivation.
- three levels of motivation are propsed, with the three motivation types (intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation) represented within each level - Three levels are: global motivation, contextual motivation and situational motivation.
Stimulus- Response Theory: + and - reinforcements strength/effectiveness
- together increase likelihood - best effect when people are able to see the relationship between their behavior and the reinforcing outcome - most effective when it is delivered frequently and immediately after exercise
Theory of Planned Behaviour: Cancer study
- try to understand factors that might influence exercise behavior after cancer treatment, used the TPB. - They administered measures of the TPB constructs (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intention to exercise) to 66 men and women who had undergone surgery for colorectal cancer. For the next four months, the researchers monitored their patients' exercise behavior. The data were then analyzed to determine whether the TPB variables could predict exercise intentions and behavior over the four-month study period. - results indicated that intention to exercise was determined solely by attitudes toward exercise—neither subjective norms nor perceived behavioral control were influential constructs. - findings suggest that among cancer patients, the most important determinant of their exercise intentions is the extent to which they hold positive beliefs about the value of exercise - With regard to the prediction of exercise behavior, exercise was jointly determined by intention and perceived behavioral control.
Assessing Physical Activity: Objective/technological
- use mechanical and electronic devices used to monitor and record physical activity behavior benefit: - provide direct measures of intensity and duration (e.g., exercise heart rate, number of minutes walked), - provide indirect estimates of energy expenditure (e.g., calories burned, metabolic units). - not subjected to falsified feedback or memory fade Cons: - money, complex to use, do not provide information to all aspects of the activity
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Theory to application
- used full for guiding exercise interventions - provides framework for identifying the interventions that are most appropriate for a person at a particular stage
social ecological model: usefulness
- useful becuase it recognize multiple levels of influence on physical activity, and multiple levels of intervention opportunities for increasing physical activity. - this model knows an individual's physical activity participation is not solely influenced by that person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Their participation can also be influenced by environmental and policy-related factors beyond the individual's control - this means do not just focus on individual and their attitude and their self-efficacy but also forcus on the the social/cultural environment (e.g., providing social support for exercise), the built environment (e.g., removing environmental barriers to activity, such as unsafe streets), and the policy environment (e.g., pressuring city planners to build designated traffic lanes for cyclists).
model
- visual representation of a phenomenon or behavior, demonstration of what something is suppose it be - they do not always indicate why the behavior or phenomenon occurs.
Self-determination theory: Thøgersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis (2006)
- wanted to examine the role of self-determined forms of motivation in physical activity behaviors, cognitions, and self-evaluations - recruited 375 male and female exercisers from 10 fitness clubs and asked them to complete a battery of measures, including level of exercise behavior based on a stages of change model - Self-determination was assessed via the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire - results of the investigation indicated that exercisers reporting higher levels of self-determined motivation (defined as intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) were also more likely to report stronger intentions to exercise, higher self-efficacy to overcome barriers to exercise, greater physical self-worth, and lower social physique anxiety than those reporting lower levels of self-determined motivation (defined as higher scores on external regulation and amotivation) - as so found that exercisers in the maintenance stage displayed significantly more self-determined motivation to exercise than those in the preparation and action stages of exercise behavior.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Decisional balance construct
- was borrowed from Janis and Mann's (1977) model of decision making - It reflects how people perceive the pros and cons of changing their behavior. - We can tell if people are moving through the stages by looking for differences in the number of pros versus cons that they list for exercise. In the precontemplation stage, the cons of exercising will far outweigh the pros. In the contemplation stage, pros and cons will be more equal. In the advanced stages, the pros will outweigh the cons. - note trends on the graph
Self-determination theory: What is it
- was designed to better explain affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses within an achievement domain (e.g., academics). - This theory begins with the basic assumption that individuals possess three primary psychosocial needs, namely: 1. a need for self-determination (autonomy, self-dependent behavior) 2. a need to demonstrate competence (experience mastery) 3. a need for relatedness (social interactions) - individuals seek challenges that serve to satisfy one or more of these needs.
Self-determination theory: introjected regulation
- which is said to exist when a behavior is dictated by a self-imposed source of pressure (e.g., exercising in order to avoid feelings of guilt). - Sense of obligation
How does time effect intention?
-- intention is stronger over short periods of time, gets weaker over long periods of time
Race/Ethnicity and Physical Activity how do we compare?
-Because countries differ dramatically in terms of the ethnic makeup of their populations, comparisons are impossible
Social ecological model: What factors does this model consider to influences PA participation
-our thoughts, feeling and beliefs - social environment (e.g., the media, social norms for physical activity) - physical environment (e.g., presence of sidewalks, parks, and trails) - policies and regulations (e.g., physical education requirements, taxes on sports equipment).
Number of death overweight/obersity are responsible for?
1 in 10 in the Us * WHo says unhealthy diets and inactivity = 2 of the prinary risk factors for the major noncommunicable diseases (CVD, chronic respiratory disease, type 2 diabetes and certain types of cancer.
What are the testable assumptions in M-PAC?
1. Action control should be linked more to reflective processes of affective judgments and perceived opportunity than instrumental attitudes/outcome expectations and perceived capability. Intention formation could be linked to any of these four reflective motivational constructs. 2. Action control in the initiation of physical activity should be linked to reflective motivational constructs and regulation behaviors more than reflexive constructs. By contrast, long-term physical activity patterns should be linked to reflexive constructs and include reflective motivational constructs and regulatory behaviors. 3. Reflective motivational constructs should precede regulatory behaviors, although these are likely to have reciprocal deterministic relationships across time. 4. Reflective and regulatory processes should precede reflexive processes (due to the time needed to form these associations), although these are expected to have reciprocal deterministic relationships across time.
social ecological model: ways PA can be increased,
1. Increase the access to recreational environments 2. Support active transportation
Summary of TRA and TPB: Symons Downs and Hausenblas (2005
1. The influence of attitude on intention is slightly greater than the influence of perceived behavioral control on intention. The effects of both relationships are large. The influence of subjective norm on intention is considerably less than that of either attitude or perceived behavioral control. 2. The effect of intention on behavior (large) is greater than the effect of perceived behavioral control on behavior (moderate). 3. Taken together, the results indicate that attitude most strongly influences intention (followed closely by perceived behavioral control), while intention is the strongest determinant of exercise behavior. 4. The intention-behavior association was greater in studies that measured intention and behavior within a one-month period compared to studies with a time interval greater than one month. This finding supports the notion that the predictive power of intention decreases as the time between the measurement of intention and behavior increases.
Mental health stat
1/5 adults and 1/8 children are diagnosed with a mental disorder. Most do not receive any treatment. Annual expenditures on mental health= over 100 billion. note: why important to promto physical activity with more traditional mental health interventions.
Children Overweight
15-20% of children and adolescents (boys and girls under 18) are obese'
Fitness craze
1970-1980 This period was characterized by the emerging popularity of "aerobics," weight training, jogging, and racket sports. In addition, fitness/health clubs and dance studios began popping up in every community, and fashionable exercise attire was introduced.
First issue in Journal of Sport Psychology,
1988 a scientific publication for sport and exercise psychology researchers, appropriately renamed Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.
How to assess Physical activity
3 main ways: - subjective/self-report, Objective/technological, and observation
Perceived barriers to exercise: Boredom/lack of enjoyment
A prominent barrier for many people is the mentality that "physical activity" means running or spinning—highly vigorous activities they find unappealing. This barrier may be best overcome by exposing people to other forms of leisure activity, such as dancing, hiking, gardening, or swimming.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: summary? stages?
According to the TTM, behavior change is not a quick process—people donot suddenly decide to quit smoking or to start exercising and then immediately change their behavior. Rather, behavior change is a gradual process whereby the individual progresses through a series of stages. - considered a stage model, referred to as the "Stages of Change Model"
Theory of Planned Behavior: Author and year
Ajzen (1985)
Self- Efficacy Theory: Author and year
Albert Bandura 1977
Psychology and exercise pyschology
Although it is quite rare to find a course focused on exercise psychology in a psychology department, one is even less likely to find a program of study here. Some psychology departments offer a health psychology or behavioral medicine program. These multidisciplinary programs focus on the interrelationships among mental, physical, and behavioral factors in health, disease, and disability.
Self-determination theory: amotivation
Amotivation: relative absence of motivation or lack of intention to engage in a behavior. They might lack the ability to adhere to an exercise regimen, They may also believe that exercise is unimportant or unnecessary (e.g., "I'm perfectly healthy and have no need for exercise"), or that exercise will not produce a desired outcome. - None
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Self-reevaluation
Assessing how one thinks and feels about oneself as an inactive person Consider whether being inactive is truly in line with one's values EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES
Theory of Reasoned Action: What is it based on? Intended for
Based on social cognitive approach, and intended to predict voting behavior
Scientific Journals Associated with Exercise Psychology: Types
Basic science journals are highly technical in nature and are generally written by scientists for fellow scientists in the field. Examples include Journal of Sport andExercise Psychology and Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. Applied science journals, are often written for the practitioner (e.g., rehabilitation specialist, exercise leader) and generally include useful (and less technical) information, often based on research. Examples include The Sport Psychologist and Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: What are Behavioral processes
Behavioral processes generally consist of behaviors that a person undertakes in order to change aspects of the environment that may affect exercise participation. Behavioral processes includes: Self-liberation countercondiitoning, stimulus control, reinforcement management, helping relationships
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Research
Can be classified into one of the following: 1. Descriptive studies—studies that describe differences between people in the different TTM stages 2. Predictive studies—studies that use the TTM constructs to attempt to predict future exercise behavior 3. Intervention studies—studies that use the TTM to develop exercise interventions
% of adults in active
Canada 45-50% England 60-70% General: 50-79% of industrialized countries residence do not achieve the recommended amount of regular physcial acitivity
Guidelines for Physical Activity: American college of Sport medicine- Cardiovascular training
Cardiovascular training: - moderate (brisk walking) 5 days/wk each session = mini 30 minutes. - Time can be reduced to 10 minutes if chosen to encage in multiple bouts of exercise in a given day. - or do vigorously intense activity 3 day/wk, each session = 30 minutes ... rapid breathing and increased heart rate
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Research Descriptive studies.
Considerable research has shown that people in the various stages of the TTM differ in reliable ways in terms of: - exercise self-efficacy - attitudes toward exercise - the use of the processes of change - exercise behavior For example, a study of 819 Canadian high school students found that those who were in the action and maintenance stages of physical activity had greater exercise self-efficacy, perceived more benefits of exercise, and were more likely to use processes of change than were students in any other stage
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Environmental reevaluation
Considering how inactivity affects the physical and social environment Find out the costs of inactivity to the health care system EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES
self-determination theory: Contextual motivation
Contextual motivation is defined as a relatively stable pattern of motivation experienced in a particular context. Here, we might proclaim an individual to be highly motivated to engage in physical activity but poorly motivated to engage in occupational or academic activities. - This is important in light of research that suggests that contextual motivation for exercise can significantly influence feeling states experienced following a single bout of activity. For example, self-determined (intrinsic) motivation has been linked with a more positive affect following exercise
Global positioning system (GPS) units
Continuous microwave signals are transmitted to the earth via satellites and are picked up by a GPS receiver that tracks the wearer's speed, the slope of the terrain, and the duration of physical activity (similar to a heart rate monitor), and, based on these data, estimates the wearer's energy expenditure. * can be used for Geocaching
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Stimulus control
Controlling situations and cues that trigger inactivity and skipped workouts Plan ahead for a busy period at work/school and schedule exercise on a calendar BEHAVIORIAL PROCESSES
Morbidity rates in US
Coronary heat disease: declining but are at 6% and each year more than 1 million experience a heart attack. Adult onset diabetes: 12 percent High blood pressure: 32 percent 70 Percent: overweight or obese.
Physiological and affective states intervention
Educate the patient in terms of what is a normal physiological response to exercise, so that he does not interpret common exercise symptoms (e.g., heavy breathing, rapid pulse, sweating) as an impending heart attack. This should reduce his anxiety about engaging in physical activity.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Self-liberation
Engaging in activities that strengthen one's commitment to change and the belief that one can change Announce one's commitment to exercise to family and friends; stay positive and remind oneself "I can do it!" BEHAVIORIAL PROCESSES
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Research Predictive studies.
Evidence is mixed regarding the TTM's ability to predict exercise stage transition. - TTM does a reasonable job of predicting whether people will progress, regress, or show no movement across the stages. For example, studies of both high school students and adults with diabetes have shown that measures of the processes of change, selfefficacy, and decision balance can predict whether, in general, people have moved forward through the stages, backward, or not at all over a six-month period However - TTM has difficulty predicting which specific stage a person will move to. In a study of Canadian high school students ( found that the TTM variables could not predict students' stage of exercise over a three-year period. It seems that the TTM constructs may be more useful for predicting the direction of stage movement than the precise stage that a person will move to.
Improved social relations
Exercisers representing all ages and both genders report engaging in physical activity for reasons of social support and camaraderie Mall walkers, pregnant walkers
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Dramatic relief
Experiencing and expressing feelings about becoming more active or remaining inactive through exercise Imagine the feelings of regret and loss for not having prevented the loss of health EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES
Transtheoretical Model TTM: What are Experimential processes?
Experimential processes are directed toward increasing people's awareness of, and changing their thoughts and feelings about, both themselves and their exercise behavior Experimential processes includes: Consciousness raising, Se;f- reevaluation, Enviromental reevaluation, dramatic relief, social liberation
Stimulus- Response Theory: Positive reinforcement - Extrinsic reinforces
Extrinsic reinforcers are rewards that come from other people, such as verbal praise from a fitness instructor, t-shirts awarded for perfect attendance at an exercise class, or compliments from friends and family about one's improved physique
Theory of Reasoned Action: Author and year
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975)
Transtheoretical Model TTM: When do people use what processes?
For smoking studies show that experiential processes are used more during the earlier stages of smoking cessation, and behavioral processes are used more in the later stages. For exercise there does not seem to be a shift, behavioral process tend to be used just as often as experimental process across all the stages of PA behavior change
International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP
Founded in 1965, this society promotes research, practice, and development in the discipline of sport and exercise psychology throughout the world, focusing on the study of human behavior within sport, physical activity, and health settings
North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity
Founded in 1967, this society aims to develop and advance the scientific study of human behavior in the sport and physical activity arenas. The association is composed of three interest areas: sport and exercise psychology, developmental perspectives, and motor learning/control.
Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology (SCAPPS),
Founded in 1977, this society aims to promote the study of motor control, motor learning, motor development, and sport/exercise psychology in Canada and to encourage the exchange of views and scientific information in the fields related to psychomotor learning and sport/exercise psychology.
Society of Behavioral Medicine (SBM
Founded in 1978, this is a multidisciplinary organization of clinicians, educators, and scientists dedicated to promoting the study of the interactions of behavior with biology and the environment, and the application of that knowledge to improve the health and well-being of individuals, families, communities, and populations.
APA Division 47 (Exercise and Sport Psychology),
Founded in 1986, this division of the American Psychological Association (APA) aims to further the scientific, educational, and clinical foundations of exercise and sport psychology.
Social cognitive approach
From a physical activity standpoint, theories based on a social cognitive approach view exercise behavior as being influenced by both human cognition (e.g., expectations, intentions, beliefs, attitudes) and external stimuli (e.g., social pressures/experiences).
Attitude affective
I love hockey
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Preparation
In the preparation stage, people intend to start exercising in the immediate future (i.e., the next month). People in this stage consider the pros of exercising to be greater than the cons. During this stage, people are performing tasks that will prepare them to start an exercise program, such as getting medical clearance to exercise, obtaining information about local exercise facilities and programs, or buying exercise equipment. They may also be making small changes to their current level of physical activity, such as taking the stairs in a building instead of the elevator.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Social liberation
Increasing awareness of the social and environmental factors that support physical activty Seek out information about exercise groups and resources in the community, workplace, etc EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES
Instrumental conditioning
Instrumental conditioning principles state that a voluntary (i.e., non-reflexive) behavior can be learned by pairing the behavior with consequent reinforcement (i.e., a reward that follows the behavior). - For example, a dog can learn to sit on command if he is given a cookie every time he responds successfully to the command.
Self-determination theory: Types of motivation
Intrinsic motivation Intergrated regulation* Identified regulation* Introjected regulation* External regulation* Amotivation *Extrinsic motivation
Self-determination theory: Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation : intrinsic motivation refers to the mentality of engaging in a behavior for reasons of inherent pleasure, satisfaction, or personal challenge (e.g., "I exercise because it's fun"). - Pleasure, satisfaction
Theory of Planned Behaviour: Created because?
It has been suggested that intention may not be an ideal construct for predicting behaviors that are continuing or repeatable, due to the fact that such behaviors pose significant challenges and barriers. So Ajzen extended the theory by by adding the construct of perceived behavioral control (PBC).
Theory of Planned Behaviour: Example
Let us assume that a woman exhibits a favorable attitude toward exercise and perceives a high degree of social pressure to exercise. According to the TRA, we estimate that her intentions would be relatively strong and, therefore, the likelihood of her engaging in exercise would be relatively high. If she feels she has little control over her exercise behavior (due to a number of potential barriers), however, her behavior will be doubly affected in a negative manner. First, low PBC will weaken her intention to exercise, which in turn will reduce perceived behavioral control the likelihood that she will engage in exercise. Second, low PBC may present itself, for example, as low confidence (self-efficacy) to overcome barriers, thereby further reducing the likelihood that she will engage in exercise (see self-efficacy theory).
Mastery
Mastery refers to the process of accomplishing a goal or the thorough learning and performance of a skill, technique, or behavior
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Limitation
Measures of the TTM constructs (e.g., processes of change, self-efficacy, decision balance) are very useful for describing differences between people in different stages (Marshall & Biddle, 2001), but the constructs cannot reliably predict which stage a person will move to and when. As a result, the model fails to explain fully the mechanisms by which people change their activity behavior and move across the stages
Transtheoretical Model TTM: How do people move through the stages?
Movement through the stages involves changing: - how people think about exercise - how people think about themselves - aspects of the environment that influence exercise behavior These changes occur through a combination of 10 basic experiential and behavioral processes
Guidelines for Physical Activity: American college of Sport medicine- Neuromotor training
Neuromotor training is also referred to as functional fitness training. Exercises should involve motors skills (e.g., balance, coordination, gait) and proprioceptive training and should include numerous activities. The exercises should be performed for at least 20 minutes, two or three times per week.
Percentage of U.S. children who view television/videos or play video games more than two hours per day by age
Note the trends: Decline from 6-8 due to starting school Decline at 18-18 when they start driving
Past performance accomplishment interventions
Obtain the patient's exercise history in an attempt to increase his sense of mastery based on previous exercise experiences.
Overweight children to parent link
Overweight children aged 10 to 14, with at least one overweight or obese parent, were reported to have a 79 percent likelihood of overweight persisting into adulthood
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Contemplation stage interventions.
People in the contemplation stage are not yet fully convinced of the pros of exercise. In addition to providing more information about the advantages of regular physical activity, another useful intervention is to have contemplators ponder how they feel about themselves as stereotypical lazy "couch potatoes" and whether they can really feel good about themselves if they continue to be sedentary. These questions can spur the contemplator to identify more pros for becoming physically active.
M-PAC: 3 Key processes
Reflective, Regulatory, Reflective
Transtheoretical Model TTM:Reinforcement Management
Rewarding oneself for being active Establish goals and reward oneself for achieving them BEHAVIORIAL PROCESSES
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Consciousness raising
Seeking new information and a better understanding of exercise Read pamphlets; talk to a health care professional about the benefits of exercise EXPERIENTIAL PROCESSES
Social Ecological Models: integration
Social ecological models can be considered integrative approaches because they pull together a variety of models and theories at each level of influence (e.g., the individual level, the microsystem, the macrosystem), different models and theories may be used to explain physical activity behavior and to bring about change in physical activity
M-PAC: Reflective Processes What are stable?
Stable: - instrumental attitude/outcome expectation utility of behaciour - perceived capability (efficacy) Unstable: - Affective Judgements (enjoyment of behavior) - Perceived control (ability under conditions) - Perceived opportunities (autonomy)
Social persuasion intervention
Strive to be positive and supporting in conversations with the man, and enlist the help of his spouse or family in persuading him to begin and maintain the rehabilitation regimen.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Counterconditioning
Substituting physical activities for sedentary activities Go for a walk after dinner rather than watch television BEHAVIORIAL PROCESSES
social ecological model: point
The key premise underlying the model is that more supportive social, built, and policy environments will lead to greater physical activity participation.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Maintenance
The maintenance stage is achieved when people have been exercising at recommended levels for six months. Of course, for maintainers, the pros of exercising continue to outweigh the cons. Maintainers still must work to prevent lapsing into a sedentary lifestyle, but they don't find exercise as difficult to maintain as they did during the action stage. Overall, they are less tempted to relapse and are highly confident that they can continue their exercise program.
APA Division 38 (Health Psychology),
The mission of this division of the American Psychological Association is to facilitate collaboration among psychologists and other health science and health care professionals interested in the psychological and behavioral aspects of physical and mental health.
Self-Efficacy Theory: Model requirments for viscarious experiences,
The model need not be a person known to the viewer, although this is preferable.
social ecological model: Support Active Transportation
The social ecological model predicts that physical activity will increase if policies are developed that provide supportive environments for active forms of transportation. - there are tones of ideas....
European Federation of Sport Psychology
This federation, founded in 1969, is composed of over two dozen national societies in Europe dealing with sport and exercise psychology.
Kinesiology and exercise pyschology
This is clearly the most likely department in which to find an exercise psychology course or program. A program would be found only at the graduate level, while courses may be found at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. At the undergraduate level, the fields of sport and exercise psychology may be covered within the same course. Related departments include Physical Education, Movement Studies, Exercise Science, Human Performance, Sport Studies, and many others.
Education level and PA
US and CAN : physical activity rates vary tremendously by education level. The most extreme example may be found in the sedentary rates, which decline precipitously with increased education level the relationship is just the opposite regarding participation in regular moderate or vigorous physical activity, in that activity levels increase with higher education levels Also impactsaldolescents not just adults: the proportions of American adolescents who engage in vigorous physical activity that promotes cardiorespiratory fitness are as follows: if their parents have less than a high school education—50 percent; if their parents are high school graduates—54 percent; if their parents have at least some college education—68 percent. Thus, education level may exert a multigenerational influence on activity patterns. Australia: different trends a considerably higher percentage of those with a college degree engage in low levels of activity compared to those without a degree, the data reflect the opposite relationship for high levels of activity (i.e., a substantially higher percentage of those without a college degree engage in high levels of activity compared to those with a degree). Little to no differences exist in moderate levels of activity based on education level.
Chronic disease percent and $
United States alone, nearly 45 percent of the population has at least one chronic disease or disability (e.g., hypertension, arthritis, respiratory diseases, chronic mental conditions). Furthermore, almost 75 percent of health care dollars are spent on people with chronic conditions (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013)
Social Ecological Models Author and year
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1977, 1989) It is build on his ecological theory that explain human development. According to Bronfenbrenner each person is significantly affected by interactions among a number of overlapping ecosystems—systems formed by the interaction of a community of living things with one another and with their physical environment.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: Helping relationships
Using support from others during attempts to change Buddy up with a friend who is also trying to start an exercise regimen BEHAVIORIAL PROCESSES
Self-Efficacy Theory: vicarious experiences example
Vicarious experience might be employed as an intervention in an instance where a post-myocardial infarction patient who has undergone surgery is prescribed exercise but is fearful of engaging in strenuous physical activity. Introducing him to an individual who has undergone the same procedure and who has successfully completed cardiac rehabilitation without further incidents might serve to increase self-efficacy.
Race/Ethnicity and Physical Activity:: US Teens gr 9-12
a slightly higher proportion of Native American adolescents (21 percent) meets the federal guidelines for recommended levels of physical activity than do Whites (19 percent), African Americans (17 percent), Asians (16percent), and Hispanics (16 percent) a significantly lower proportion of Caucasian and Asian high school-aged students (26 percent each) reports watching television for more than two hours per school day, as compared to Hispanic (38 percent), Native American (39 percent), and African American students (54 percent).
Heart rate monitor
a transmitter, attached to a chest band emits a signal that is displayed on a special wristwatch. It provides constant pulse readings and, depending on the model, a recording of heart rate at regular intervals, a stopwatch function, and the ability to program a desired intensity range, with accompanying auditory feedback.
Enhanced physical appearances
aerobic types of exercise are assicated with body fat reduction long-term resistance training is associated with increased muscle mass. Taken together, reduced body fat and increased lean muscle tissue produce a "toned" body, which is currently portrayed in the media as "ideal" and, more important, attractive for both men and women Enhancing one's physical appearance may also serve to improve elements of psychological health, such as self-concept and self-esteem
Do nodes include a theoretical explanation?
although theories can be graphically represented (modeled) to aid in conceptualization, many models do not include a theoretical explanation.
expected opportunity
appraisal of whether one has the time and access to perform physical activity under the assumption that one wants to perform it - reconstruct the phsyical and socail environment
Self-Efficacy Theory: past performance
are activities similar to the current behavior that the individual has previously engaged in with some degree of success.
Social Ecological Models: Example
at the individual level, self-efficacy theory might be used to explain, in part, why so many people have difficulty being physically active. Interventions can then be developed to increase self-efficacy as a means of ultimately increasing physical activity. At higher levels, theories of community organization and public policy making can be used to understand some of the barriers people have to becoming more physically active (e.g., a lack of affordable exercise facilities). These community- and policy-level theories can then be applied to bring about environmental and policy changes at the macrosystem level that will help to remove barriers and ultimately increase physical activity
Theory of Planned Behaviour: What combines into influence intention? What influences behaviour?
attitude, subjective norm, and PBC combine to influence intention. -attitude and subjective norm serve to influence behavior only through their impact on intention, - PBC is proposed to influence behavior independently as well as through its effect on intention
Transtheoretical Model TTM: How can we deterine whether people are moving through stages/
by looking for shifts in their decisional balance and an increase in their self-efficacy to overcome the temptation to skip exercise sessions
Self-Efficacy Theory: Social persuasion
concerns verbal and nonverbal tactics used by others in an attempt to increase a person's self-efficacy.
Scheduling efficacy
confidence in one's abilities to schedule and manage exercise behavior
Consequences vs antecedents
consequences have a greater impact on behavior than do antecedents.
All cause mortailty rates
death by any cause
Self-Efficacy Theory: What is it
describe how individuals form perceptions about their ability to engage in a specific behavior. This "perceived capability," known commonly as self-efficacy,
Transtheoretical Model TTM: year, author
developed at the University of Rhode Island Cancer Prevention Research Center, was the result of years of studying and observing how people quit smoking 1983, 1992, 1997
Assessing Physical activity: Observation
direct (viewing exercise behavior "live" or "in person") or indirect (viewing a recorded behavior). Observation allows for documentation of the specific activities engaged in and eliminates the issue of memory recall and self-report biases - Con: - cost, and time - people changing behaviour since being watched - requires that other people make difficult subjective judgments about some aspects of the activity, such as intensity level.
Morbidity
disease
Improved psychological/emotional health and cognitive function
exercise may play a primary role in reducing negative psychological (e.g., poor body image) and emotional (e.g., depression) states.. also induce positive psychological (e.g., self-esteem) and emotional (e.g., positive mood) responses. physical activity has been shown to exert a positive influence on cognitive function across the lifespan, including reaction time, response accuracy, attention control, and ability to process information. Can help stop brain deterioration and decline cognitive function due to aging
affective judgments
expected feelings that will occur during physical activity - give social support and infomration about emotional consequences, remove aversive stimulus, adding objects to the environment
Epidemiology
field of study devoted to the five "W's": who exercises; where, when, and why they do so; and what they do. allows health care professionals to target specific populations of people for intervention, determine the impact of the intervention, and highlight public health consequences of current behavioral trends
Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP)
founded in 1986, is to promote the development of science and ethical practice in the field of sport psychology. The organization offers certification to qualified professionals in the fields of sport, exercise, and health psychology.
How far back do we have documented cases of physical acitivty?
from 3,000 years ago... ancient greece
self-determination theory: global motivation
global motivation, which, similar to a personality trait, refers to the degree of motivation normally experienced by an individual across most behavioral domains. Thus, we might describe someone as being a highly motivated individual based on our observation that she is highly motivated to engage in most day-to-day behaviors (e.g., school, work, exercise).
Birth of exercise pyschology
happened closely after the fitness frenzy during the 1980s.
Cooper Institute in the United States
has documented the relationship between physical fitness and risk of all-cause and disease-specific mortality in more than 100,000 men and women since 1970 show strong support for the notion that those with higher levels of fitness display mortality risk rates substantially lower than those with lower levels of fitness. individuals who improve their physical fitness levels experience a dramatic reduction in mortality risk.
Bassett, Pucher, Buehler, et al. transportation and obesity with contries
have documented inverse relationships between the prevalence of obesity and the amount of "active transportation" (walking, biking, and public transportation) found in various countries in North America, Europe, and Australia.
Attitude instrumental
hockey is good for my health
social ecological model: increase the access to reactional environment
if people have more access to built environment that promote PA they are more likly to be active - proven in research adult study (Kruger, Carlson, & Kohl, 2007) and yputh study (Cohen, Ashwood, Scott, et al., 2006), shows that those who are more physically active have more facilities for exercise or play near their homes than do those who are less active - ideas: more government funding, workplaces include gyms, churches can hold programs
Benefits if physical activity 4 categories
improved physiological health/ physical fitness; enhanced physical appearance; improved psychological/emotional health and cognitive function; improved social relations
Types of motivation?
intrinsic: motivation that emanates from within Extrinsic: motivation driven by a force outside the individual is labeled extrinsic.
San Francisco longshoremen Paffenbarger, Hale, Brand, & Hyde, 1977)
involved thousands of longshore workers and a 22-year follow-up assessment in which physical work activity (i.e., energy expenditure), coronary heart disease records, and mortality data were obtained. During the 22-year period (1951 to 1972), 11 percent of the longshoremen died of CHD. Men who expended at least 8,500 kilocalories per week on the job, however, were found to possess a significantly lower CHD mortality risk (at any age) than men who were less physically active on the job.
Stimulus- Response Theory: Extinction
involves the withdrawal of a reinforcing stimulus after a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior happening in the future - According to the principle of extinction, people will decrease their exercise behavior if they stop attaining the reinforcers that they previously received from exercise (e.g., losing weight, feeling better physically and psychologically, a reduction in pain).
Transtheoretical Model TTM: what is it
it integrates elements from across a variety of theories and models of behavior, some of which are socialcognitive in nature and some of which are not.
Two of the most frequently cited perceived barriers to exercise?
lack of time and boredom/lack
expectancy-value example
man desires to begin a regimen of exercise but finds that his motivation, although high, is not high enough to entice him to begin the training. From an expectancy-value standpoint, the man's failure to adopt an exercise regimen may have three explanations 1. although the man may value his prospective exercise habit very highly, he might not believe that he can actually begin and maintain a regular regimen of exercise (expected outcome = inability to maintain exercise) because he failed in a previous attempt (or in multiple attempts) 2. although the man may believe that he can adopt and adhere to his exercise program (expected outcome = ability to maintain exercise), he may decide that he simply does not value (i.e., place enough importance on) physical fitness. 3. combination of the . first two. In other words, the man may not value physical fitness and, furthermore, may not believe that he can successfully maintain a physical activity regimen.
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM),
multidisciplinary organization, founded in 1954, promotes and integrates scientific research, education, and practical applications of sports medicine and exercise science to maintain and enhance physical performance, fitness, health, and quality of life. ACSM is the largest, most respected sports medicine and exercise science organization in the world.
Are psychological and emotional health improvements condsidered secondary benefits of physical activity
not anymore
When was fitness first recognized
not until the Industrial Revolution (late 1700s through the early twentieth century) that the notion of fitness (and its value to the individual and employer) was first recognized.
Perceived barriers to exercise: lack of time
numerous studies have documented the positive consequences of short, high-intensity bouts of exercise in a wide range of populations. In some instances, the perception that one lacks the time to exercise may, in fact, be a matter of poor time management skills
Health-based applications,
one in five smartphone owners uses health-based applications, with nearly 40 percent of these individuals using at least one fitness-based app in an effort to kickstart a health goal.
Challenge
one of the most significant challenges for researchers and practitioners is to determine how to transfer the enjoyment youngsters appear to experience in sport to the "lifetime" physical activities (e.g., tennis, golf, swimming, biking, hiking, dancing) in which active adults typically engage.
perceived capability
perceptions of physical and mental ability, capacity, or competence to perform a specific circumscribed behavior independent of motivation to perform the behavior) - intruct or demonstrate on how to prefor behaviour - make socal compairson - persuase them verbally about the capacility - grade the task
Stimulus- Response Theory: 4 types of events
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction —can follow a behavior and will alter the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.
Transtheoretical Model TTM: 5 stages
precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance.
Integrative Approaches
pull together concepts from a variety of theories and models in order to explain exercise behavior. These approaches include the transtheoretical model and social ecological models.
Adherence
refers to maintaining an exercise regimen for a prolonged period of time following the initial adoption phase. Adherence is generally regarded as a largely psychological issue
Adoption
refers to the beginning stage of an exercise regimen
Relative risk of death in Canadian adults could be reduced
relative risk of death in Canadian adults could be reduced by 20 to 35 percent with increased levels of physical activity and fitness * Data for US says the same pattern in several disease-specific mortality rates, including those resulting from ischemic stroke and heart disease, breast and colon cancers, and diabetes
Race/Ethnicity and Physical Activity: US
relatively low levels of physical activity participation in non-Caucasian ethnic groups in the United State the sedentary rate of Caucasian Americans is lower than that of Asians, Native Americans, African Americans, and Hispanics
Confusion with income level PA and gender
reported in English men with incomes in the top four quintiles, while men in the lowest income quintile are least likely to meet the recommended amount of activity. For women, the proportion meeting the targets is highest in the top quintile, and there is little variation in the lowest four
Race/Ethnicity and Physical Activity: Canada
sedentary rates for individuals aged 12 and older for White (47 percent), Black (53 percent), and Southeast/East Asian populations (56 percent). WBA A greater percentage of Whites are moderately active (26 percent) than are Blacks (19 percent) and Asians (22 percent). WAB However, a greater percentage of Blacks are highly active (29 percent) compared to Whites (27 percent) and Asians (22 percent). BWA
coping efficacy
self-efficacy for overcoming barriers or challenges to exercise
Self-Efficacy Theory: Social persuasion is most effective when?
social persuasion is most effective when a knowledgeable or significant other (e.g., spouse, physician, personal trainer, famous athlete) does the persuading.
Self-Efficacy Theory: Social persuasion example
the National Football League (NFL), in collaboration with the American Heart Association, launched "Play 60," a national youth program that promotes physical fitness and good health to an increasingly inactive generation of children. The public service anexhibit nouncements feature various NFL superstars encouraging kids to be physically active for at least 60 minutes per day.
biopsychosocial approach
the belief that the body, mind, and social environment influence one another and, ultimately, behavior
Summary of Physical Activity Participation Patterns Across the Globe
the estimate is that at least 50 percent of the population in each of the countries reviewed fail to meet this objective. At least 25 percent do not exercise at all. the amount of time spent engaged in physical activity declines linearly across the life span. Conversely, the amount of time spent in sedentary activities increases linearly across the life span. Although males are more likely to participate in vigorous forms of physical activity, women tend to engage in as much, if not more, moderate-intensity physical activity. Although the differences are relatively small, it appears that low-income groups and ethnic minority groups tend to participate in less physical activity than does the overall population. Generally speaking, education level is directly related to physical activity levels (i.e., the more education, the greater the participation in physical activity). Although it is not as strong or consistent, a similar relationship exists between income level and physical activity.
Instrumental attitude
the expected long-term utility of performing physical activity - give info about heath, social and environmental consequences
Stronger the intention to vote
the more positive the attitude, and the greater the perceived social pressure (subjective norm), the stronger the intention to vote.
What had to happen Before exercise could be acknowledged as an effective strategy for reducing stress?
the scientific community first had to embrace the intimate relationship that exists between the mind and body
Action control
the translation of intention into physical activity, is partially determined by regulatory proceess during the initial adoption of the behavior along with a continued influence from affective judgments and expected opportunity as these represent the ongoing expectations faced during a day
M-Pac future
there is still considerable research needed in most areas of the schematic. - more refinement for the connection between adoption and maintenance - gaps in the understanding of perceived opportunity, whether at the person level, or the environmental level of access and policy
The Harvard study (Paffenbarger, Hyde, Wing, & Hseih, 1986)
tracked almost 17,000 alumni from 1962 to 1978. researchers obtained CHD and mortality data. Unlike the longshoremen study, however, self-reported leisure time physical activity was the focus of the investigation. Results indicated a 53 percent reduction in all-cause mortality among men who participated in at least three hours of sport activity per week as compared with those who engaged in less than one hour of sport activity per week. Additionally, for those engaged in moderate levels of physical activity (at least 10 miles/16 kilometers walked per week), mortality rates were 33 percent lower than among those who walked fewer than three miles/five kilometers per week. Generally speaking, active individuals lived more than two years longer than inactive individuals.
Age and Physical Activity
trends toward increased overweight/obesity and diabetes, increased sedentary behaviors, and reduced physical activity behaviors in the youth English children: 3 yrs 10 hours of sedentary behavior and PA Teens: sit 17-18 hr, PA for 4-8. Pa and inactivity in 4 -7 yrs, increases linearly till 12-15. Canada: Children 1-4 spend 28 hr PA Teens 13-17 yr, - 14 hrs. .. more than half are sedentary ( 51% for 12-13 yrs, 59% for 15-19 years Interesting adults participating in mod lv of PA remains relatively stable over the life span America: only 27% from grade 9 -12 engange in sufficent levels of moderate-intensity physical activity Only 30% from gr 9-12 participate in daily physical education at school. -
Self-determination theory: how to improve intrinsic motivation/ what types of interventions?
use interventions that are aimed at: - enhancing an individual's sense of competence and autonomy and that are conducted in a positive, mutually supportive environment wherein satisfying social interactions can take place (ie group exercise classes) - Promoting a sense of ownership or control over the workout routine should serve to enhance a sense of responsibility and autonomy in regard to exercise behavior. (allow the exerciser to choose among several activities, all of which are capable of producing the desired result.) - designing a program that leads the individual to feel successful in mastering the activity should help to develop feelings of competence. ( ie: ask novice exercisers to engage in relatively simple, low-intensity, short-duration movements early in the initiation of their exercise program so that they can experience a sense of accomplishment and concomitant feelings of satisfaction and pride.)
medical model
use of traditional forms of medicine (e.g., pharmacology)
Transtheoretical Model TTM: useful for
useful framework for counselors trying to help people adopt a more physically active lifestyle. In general, people who receive TTM-based physical activity counseling show greater increases in activity than do those who receive no counseling whatsoever. training programs for physical activity counselors are often designed around the principles of the TTM. - TTM is often favored by interventionists working in the public health domain, because it provides an intuitive framework for subdividing large segments of the population
IS THE M-PAC TESTABLE?
yes?