KINE 307: FINAL EXAM
Information processing view
-human/computer model -stage model -hardware/software motor programinning (general MP) -Schmidt's Schema Theory
Prenatal period
-immense physical change -begins with genetic transmission -continues through number of cellular and structural variations
Coincident timing ability
-improvement occurs from 6-12 years of age and later -commonly used in sports -aspect of tracking/intercepting objects -involves complex interplay between visual-perception proficiency and motor control -form of temporal accuracy that involves timing self movements with an object
Self-efficacy
-individual's judgement of his or her capabilities to complete courses of action -directly influenced by mental and physical health
Gibson's ecological perspective
-infants directly perceive and act on information -perceiving is exploratory (for invariant features) -perception is an active cognitive process -environment provides affordances
External (environmental) factors affecting growth and development
-infection and disease -drugs and chemical substances -radiation -cannabis (marijuana)
Prehension
-initial voluntary movement (basic) -pinching arrives
Product-oriented assessment
-interested in performance outcome or product of behavior -quantitative data
Sensory area of cerebral cortex
-interpret information received fro various sensory receptors -cutaneous receptors: touch, pressure, temperature, pain -proprioceptors: knowing where the body is in space
Reaction time (RT)
-interval of time between onset of stimulus and initiation of a response -does not include movement -improves with age into 20s; stable until 60s
Spatial awareness
-involves ability to draw inferences in relationship to self-space or position as well as object recognition -sense of location of one's body in space in relationship to the environment -described in terms of egocentric localization and allocentric (object) localization -internal awareness of the position (orientation) of objects and of the body in 3-D space
Carbon monoxide produced while smoking can _____________.
-kill red blood cells -cause oxygen deprivation
When does kinesthetic acuity and memory appear in children?
-kinesthetic acuity: by age 8 -kinesthetic memory: after age 12
Oculomotor cues
-kinesthetic in nature -derived from kinesthetic receptors located in muscles and joints
Cerebrum
-largest portion of brain -divided into L and R hemispheres -controls sensory and motor functions of the opposite side of the body
Germinal period
-last for 14 days after conception -23 chromosomes from the sperm unite with 23 chromosomes from the ovum producing 46 pairs -cell differentiation continues
Sport skill phase
-later childhood stage -6-12 years of age -developed from fundamental movement phase -influenced by sociocultural factors
Keeping time
-less sophisticated -develops from 2 to 5 to 12 years -needed for things like jumping rope and dancing
Divided attention
-limitations in the capacity to handle information from the environment -concentrating on more than one activity at the same time -interference
Regression: flexibility
-loss of joint mobility (ROM) -activity (not age) related -physical activity level -aging degenerative joint disease
Pituitary gland
-master gland -secretes growth hormone (muscle)
Internal (maternal) factors effecting growth and development
-maternal age -nutrition -genetic abnormalities -maternal stress
Sport skill movement patterns
-mature fundamental movement patterns that have been adapted to special requirements of a particular advanced movement activity -ex: pitching in baseball & running hurdles
Developmental stage 4
-mature pattern -by 7 years of age -proper opposition by transferring weight to foot opposite of throwing arm (contralateral) -greater trunk rotation and horizontal adduction of arm during forward swing allowing for maximum body leverage
Process-oriented assessment
-measurement and evaluation of characteristics of the process, or form -qualitative data
MEG
-measures magnetic fields produced by election activity in brain -uses super conducting coils fixed within a helmet to record tiny magnetic field generated by active cortex
Posture and Fine Motor Assessment of Infants (PFMAI)
-measures qualitative aspects of motor skill development by using systems that rate the dynamic quality of postural control and grasping/manipulation (fine-motor) patterns in infants fort he first year of postnatal life (2-12 months) -qualitative
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
-metabolic disorder -heredity defect in enzyme of liver that children need to metabolize phenylalanine (common protein food product) -symptoms: irritability, hyperactivity, seizures, and perceptual problems
What are the effects of physical activity on body mass?
-more lean body mass -less body fat
Long-term memory
-more permanent -unlimited capacity -unlimited duration
Midbrain
-most developed part of the brain at birth -reflexes
Developmental stage 3 of throwing
-most noticeable stage -5-6 years of age -appearance of step forward with delivery -preparatory phase: weight shifted onto rear foot while boy rotated to opposite side of rear foot -delivery phase: weight transferred onto foot on the same side as throwing arm (ipsilateral) and arm projects forward -body faces partially to left (for right handers) upon completion of follow through
Running
-natural extension of walking -demands more bodily control; less stable than walking -body is propelled into flight with no base of support from either leg
Visual-aduitory (VA) integration
-newborns turn to sound -quite functional by 4 months: film/soundtrack experiment
What are the effects of physical activity on skeletal growth and development?
-no apparent effect on stature -enhances bone mass (skeletal mineralization and density)
Bayley-III Motor Scale
-norm-referenced instrument to assess developmental functioning of infants and toddlers (1-42 months( -fine/gross-motor subtests -one of the best infant assessments available -accurate, reliable, and valid measurements -relatively expensive -quantitative
When is leaping normally evident by? And when is maximum height/distance normally accomplished?
-normally evident around age 2 -max height/distance(flight) accomplished around age 5
Bandura's Learning-Beahvioral view
-observation learning -environmental-conditioning -"role-modeling"
Alberta Infant Motor Scales (AIMS)
-observational assessment of infants motor development from 2 weeks until 18 months -qualitative
(Developmental Coordination Disorder) DCD
-occurs when a delay in the development of motor skills, or difficulty coordinating movements, results in a child being unable to perform common, everyday tasks -no identifiable medical or neurological condition that explains their coordination problems -motor clumsiness
Integration
-once cells have reached their target destination they send out axons that connect to other neurons via dendrites (synaptogenesis) -spontaneous bursts of electrical activity strengthened some of theses connections while other die
Disengagement theory
-opposite of activity theory -as we get older, we disengage ourselves from physically active things
Self-organizing properties
-our abilities to organize movements -we are not prewired for walking
Cerebral cortex
-outermost layer of cerebrum -responsible for higher brain functioning, brain processing, and critical thinking
Power grip
-palmar grasp: uses thumb and fingers to hold against palm -usually before age 3
Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ-3)
-parent friendly questionnaire to screen children 1 month to 5 1/2 years of age -fine and gross motor responses
Family influences
-parental beliefs/attitudes -first contact with motor activities -provide sport equipment -same-sex parental roles (father is primary influencing agent for boys and girls)
Striking
-part of the body or an implement is used to give impetus to an object -can be executed using a variety of body parts of implements -can be performed using various movement patterns: overhand, sidearm, & underhand
Adulthood stage
-peak performance phase -age 18-30
Product performance
-performance (outcome) values -changes in physical growth, body structure, and physiological development combine to produce greater performance
Biomechanics
-physics of human motion -study of the forces produced by an acting on the body
Alertness
-preparation of the perceptual-motor system -reaction time (RT)
Mature throwing pattern
-preparatory phase: body pivots to right with weight on right foot; throwing arm swings back and up -execution phase: left foot strides forward in direction of throw; hips (then spine and shoulders) rotate CCW as throwing arm is retracted to final point of reversal; upper arm is rotated medially and forearm extended with whipping action; ball is released at point just forward of head with arm extended at elbow -follow-through: movement continued until momentum is dissipated
Grasping
-primitive reflex -palmer, pseduo, and pincher grasp
Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) ecological model
-process: fused and dynamic reaction of person and context (what is happening to the person) -person: biological, cognitive, and emotional characteristics -context: nested levels or systems of the ecology -time: multiple dimensions of temporality
Variability in practice
-promotes general motor performance -space, time, force -leading way to teach: PRACTICE
Component approach
-proposes movement pattern changes must be divided into substages to gain more accurate developmental information -each body component is followed through the development process -provides more scientific information relative to studying changes
Visual cues
-provide good relative depth information -might also offer additional information about absolute distance -binocular and monocular cues
Regression: neural function
-psychomotor slowing -reduced brain cells -increased synaptic delay -~15% decrease in nerve conduction velocity -37% loss of spinal cord axons -reaction/movement time decides -due to biodegration: deterioration of BOTH central and peripheral -central: brain; processing; aging -peripheral: muscles; what you can work on -25-75% decrease in arm and hand movements (fine motor control)
Biomechanics analysis
-quantitative -analysis of time and spatial characteristics of particular movements
Affordances in the Home Environment for Motor Development (AHEMD)
-questionnaire to assess affordances in the home -3-18 months (IS=Infant Scale) -18-24 months
Postural reflex
-reaction to gravitational forces and changes in equilibrium -precursor to postural control -ex: sitting up
Maturation
-refers to when a specific biological event occurs -underlying timetable of developmental events
Long-term memory abilities
-rehearsal (formal strategies) -retrieval
What is the importance of perceptual constancy?
-represents perceptual stability -underlies ability to interpret environment consistently and accurately
Labyrinthine righting
-righting of the body -postural reflex
Thyroid gland
-secretes thyroxine (skeletal)
Self-esteem
-self-image -evaluative and personal judgement of one's self -more global (overall) evaluation -reflection of social support in the form of parents, peers, teachers, coaches, etc. -frequency encouragement -recognition -specific positive feedback
Sliding
-similar to galloping -movement direction is sideways -same foot always takes the lead -first step usually slow gliding movement -second step is quick closing step -foot contact normally on balls of feet -weight shifted from lead to follow-up foot -after follow-up foot catches lead food-->slight jump displayed (momentary suspension)
Social class
-socioeconomic status (SES) -grouping of people with similar economic, education, and occupational characteristics
Patron's categories of play
-solitary play -parallel play -associative play -cooperative play
Body awareness
-sometimes refereed to as body concept, body knowledge, or body schema -involves awareness of body parts by name and location, their relationship to each other, and their capabilities and limitations
Psychomotor slowing
-specific to speed -decline in processing (behavioral) speed
Which phase and stage is associated with children ages 6-12?
-sport skill phase -later childhood stage
Standing long jump
-standard fundamental jumping skill -slightly more difficult than vertical jump -2 foot takeoff and landing
Visual acuity
-static or dynamic -clearness of vision and capacity to detect both small stimuli and small details of large visual patterns
Skipping
-stepping forward on one foot, quickly hoping on the same foot duplicating the process on the opposite foot and so on -step-hop pattern performed in an uneven rhythm
Short-term (working) memory
-storage duration ~30 seconds -capacity of ~5-9 items (chunking) -determined using memory span technique
Individual constraints
-structural constraints: weight, heigh, and reach -functional constraints: speed, coordination, postural ability, and strength
Motor development
-study of change in motor behavior as influenced by biological and environmental factors -includes: growth, development, and motor behavior
Culture
-subset of society -collection of specific attitudes, behaviors, and products that characterize an identifiable group of people
Genetic (cellular clock) theory
-suggest that aging is under direction of DNA in humans -antiproliferation cells: can tae more damage and still able to live -one of the primary reasons why people die early or later
Task constraints
-task goal -task rules -equipment/materials used with the task
Finger opposition test
-test to evaluate finger differentiation -requires individual to touch each finger one at a time, in order on the hand, to the thumb
Senior Fitness Test
-tests actions used by ordinary everyday tasks -chair stand -arm curl -char sit and reach -back scratch -8 foot up and go -walk or step in place -ages of 60 and older
APGAR scale
-tests physical health of newborns -looks at: Appearance (skin color) Pulse Grimace (reflex) Activity Respiratory effort
Piaget's Cognitive Developmental view
-there are stages of cognitive development -we actively seek and explore via play -interaction between biology and the environment
What are some examples of manipulative skills?
-throwing -catching -striking -kicking
Vital capacity
-total volume of air that can be expired voluntarily following maximal inspiration -increases with age
Ossification
-transformation of cartilage to true bone -proceeds form center of shaft outward in both directions until the entire shaft is ossified
Galloping
-uneven rhythmical pattern -combines basic patterns of a walking step and the leap
Gender role stereotyping
-use of different methods to introduce boys and girls to physical activities and sports -established by about age 3
Bruininks Motor Ability Test (BMAT)
-used to assess whether adults age 40 and older can live independently or not -fine motor -coordination -gross motor composite
What are some examples of fundamental movement skills?
-walk -run -jump -throw
Low Birth Weight (LBW)
-weight less than 5.5 lbs -chief contributor to infant illness and mortality -deficits in physical growth and motor behavior (fine motor)
Critical period
-windows of opportunity -periods in neuronal development in which experience may be most effective in forging connections in the brain
Physical Performance Test (PPT)
-writing a sentence -simulated eating -lifting a book and putting it on a shelf -picking up a penny -walking 50 ft -climbing flight of stairs
After age 30, the regression rate is approximately ______ to _____ per year without innervation.
.75% to 1% per year
In general, does physical activity affect sexual maturation?
NO; but it can delay menarche
Self-concept
domain-specific evaluations of the self
What happens to boy's and girl's moderate to vigorous physical activity at age 12?
drops to 1/2 of previous amount
Age range for manipulation skills
early childhood period and shortly after (3-8 years of age)
Free radical view
highly unstable molecules that react with other molecules and damage cells and diminish bodily functions
Dynamic systems theory
provide an understanding of how movement and control emerge/unfold developmentally; constraints
Outcome expectations
the value older persons place on the outcome and the provision of incentives
When is the period of fastest growth?
through the first year
Which sport skill has the largest difference between boys and girls?
throwing
Which hormone is essential for CNS development and important for cell multiplication and growth in the fetus and young child?
thyroxine
Which hormone is produced by the thyroid gland and its greatest effect is pre-puberty?
thyroxine
Without ____________, growth hormone is relatively ineffective.
thyroxine
Movement time
time required to complete a motor response
What does the absence of insulin cause?
tissue hypertrophy
Secular trend
today's population is taller and heavier and matures earlier than the population of past generations
Transitional behaviors
transition from out of control to control movement
What is the single most important cause of growth retardation worldwide?
undernutrition
TMS
uses brief high intensity magnetic fields to stimulate corticospinal neurons
By what age do most children attain a reasonably skillful running form?
usually by age 5
When is hopping usually observed by?
usually not observed until after age 3
When is mastery of the standing long jump usually observed?
usually not observed until age 6
Only instruments that have an acceptable level of ________, ________, and ________ should be selected for proper assessment.
validity, reliability, and objectivity
What is the dominant perceptual modality?
vision
Which two perceptions provide the most relevance to the study of motor behavior?
vision & kinesthesis
Which 2 perceptual modalities are the most important?
visual and kinesthetic
Approximately 80% of all sensory information derived outside the body is channeled through the _________ system.
visual system
What is the trouble with long-term memory?
weak encoding
Mesomorph
well-defined muscularity and balanced body
Fitt's Law
when performers attempt to do something more quickly, they typically do it less accurately ex: typing, threading a needle. etc.
Hemoglobin
combines with oxygen to deliver oxygenated blood from lungs
Rate controller
comes in at maturation and advanced aging
Direct instruction
concepts and ieas conveyed through language
Microsystem
direct influence
Norm-refrenced standard
-hierarchical ordering of individuals -compares individuals to others -percentile norms
Environmental contexts (ecological systems)
-home -school -culture -social influences
Almost ____(a)____ of children are now overweight. Overall percentage has ___(b)__ in the last 30 years.
(a) 1/3 (b) tripled
Recognition memory processing abilities
-habituation: reaction to stimulus declines -dishabituation: renewed responsiveness to new stimuli
Myostatin
-helps growth from getting out of hand -stops growth
DEXA scan
-"Gold standard" -masures distribution and percentage of body fat, muscle mass, and bone tissue
Kinesthesis
-"to move"; "sensation" -ability to discriminate positions and movements of body parts based on information that derives from the individual's internal environment
Fundamental movement skills
-also referred to as a basic motor skill -common motor activity that has specific moment patterns -form foundation for more advanced and specific movement activities -ex: walk, run, jump, and throw
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
-2-3 days after birth/9-10 days at home -evaluates reflexes -interactive behavioral repertoire -attractiveness behavior -qualitative
Solitary independent play
-2-3 years -child plays alone or independently
Developmental stage 1 of throwing
-2-3 years of age -minimal trunk rotation -projection of ball primarily by elbow extension -all movements in anterior-posterior plane -both feet remain stationary -body faces toward direction of throw
Embryonic period
-2-8 weeks -embryo formed by 2 weeks; basic body parts can be identified by 8 weeks -cephalocaudal and proximodistal -CNS relatively developed -internal organs begin to function
Associative play
-3 1/2 to 5 years -play with little or no organization
Developmental stage 2 of throwing
-3 1/2 to 5 years of age -movements occur in horizontal plane -feet remain stationary -rotation of pelvis and spine evident -greater projection force
Dynamic tripod
-4 years of age and older -most efficient way to hold a pencil -pencil held between thumb and index finger with the pencil resting on the middle finger
Fetal period
-8th week prenatal until birth -cell differentiation: bone, muscle, and fat -3rd month: sex organs are developed enough to tell gender
Alveolar-capilary interface
-@ 6 months fetal -body is able to breathe on its own
Field of vision
-AKA peripheral vision -entire extent of the environment that can be seen without changing the fixation of the eye -lateral --> visual field of 180 degrees -vertical --> 47 degrees above midline and 65 degrees below midline
Neuroimaging of brain structures
-MRI -CT scan
Neuroimaging of brain function
-PET -fMRI -NIRS
Selective attention
-ability to attend to relevant information -"Cocktail Party Phenomenon"
Depth perception
-ability to judge the distance of an object to the self or another object -absolute vs. relative distance
Spatial orientation
-ability to recognize an object's orientation or position in 3-D space -matures by age 8
Intermodal perception
-ability to translate (perceive) information from 1 sensory modality to another -recognition of a stimulus as an equivalent (match) when they are presented to 2 different modalities
Growth & refinement phase
-adolescence stage -12-18 years -adolescent growth affects product performance -refinement influenced by sociocultural factors -levels off for females around age 14
Beery-Butenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI)
-ages 2 to older adults -assesses extent individuals can integrate their visual and motor abilities -visual perception and motor coordination tests -qualitative
Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2)
-ages 3 to 16 years -identify children who are significantly behind their peers in motor development -use with intervention -3 areas: manual dexterity, ball skills, static and dynamic balance -below 15th --> DCD (developmental coordination disorder) -qualitative and quantitative
Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2)
-ages 4 to 21 years -fine manual control -manual coordination -body coordination -strength and agility -total motor composite -best for research -quantitative
Wear-and-tear theory
-aging is result of longterm, accumulated damage to various vital bodily systems -our body is designed to go to sound 120 years but doesn't because of wear and tear
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
-amount of heat produced by the body during rest -decreases with age
Directional awareness
-an extension of body and spatial awareness -conscious internal awareness of 2 sides of the body (laterality) -ability to identify various dimensions of external space and project the body within those dimensions (directionality)
Associated areas of cerebral cortex
-analysis and interpretation of sensory information -new sensory information is associated with past experiences
Youth sports
-any athletic program that provides systematic sequence of practices and contents -over 50 million participates -ages 5-18 -females participation increased (45% of total) -greater accessibility to programs: rural to urban -changing lifestyles of adults: health and fitness -glorification of sport: media -children getting involved at earlier ages -increase in number of women in workforce -increased involvement by municipal recreation and community agencies in providing activity programs
Newell's constraints model
-applied model to study motor behavior -individual constraints (structural and functional) -task constraints -environmental constraints
Fovea
-area in eye which central visual images are formed -not distinct in newborns
When does selective attention reach maturation?
-around 12 years of age -between 2-5 years of age: focus on one thing & easily distracted
Cooperative or organized play
-around age 5 (evident at 7-8 years) -formal games, competitive group activities, and activities requiring children to work together
Peak motor performance
-associated with biological maturity -females: peak 22-25 years -males: peak 28-30 years
Movement pattern (motor pattern) (movement form)
-basic functional structure of a fundamental motor skill -series of movements organized in a particular time-space sequence
Stunted growth
-basic symptom of malnutrition -results in below average height, weight, bone mass, and brain development
Gessel's Maturation Theory
-behavior is tied to maturation -development is the result of inherited factors and requires little stimulate from the external environment
Regression
-biological decline -older adulthood stage -30+ years -processing speed and movement time decrease (Hick's Law) -global -psychmotor slowing -50% due to lifestyle; other 50% due to insult, genetics, etc.
Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2)
-birth to 5 years -quantitative and qualitative -universal
Cellular garbage/mutation theories
-body accumulates cellular garbage (waste products) which results in a decline in functioning -free radicals view -cross-linkning theory
Dynamic balance
-body's ability to maintain and control posture while animation -used in numerous motor skill activities
What does the kinesthetic modality provide?
-body-knowledge network -provides information about body's movement without reenroll to auditory or visual cues
Premature (preterm)
-born prior to 38 weeks -immature respiratory system, temperature control, and immune system
What are the benefits of breastfeeding?
-breast milk contains valuable antibodies from mother that may help baby rest infections -rich in DHA (necessary for neurodevelopment) -lower risk of: infections, gastroenteritis, type II diabetes, SIDS, overweight -less likely to have motor development delays
Determinants of aerobic power or VO2 max
-cardiac output: rate blood is pumped and quantity elected with each stroke -90% heredity -10% training
Process characteristics
-changes in "form" & "how" -qualitative measure
Product values
-changes in "performance" -quantitative measure of performance -ex: # of yards a ball is thrown, running velocity in seconds, and height of a jump in feet/inches
Neuronal group selection
-changes in brain activity which controls synergies (neural grouping/wiring) -combines maturation theory and dynamic systems
Parallel play
-child plays independently beside other children -older preschool children
Throwing
-complex manipulative skill -one or both arms thrust an object away from the body and into space -overarm, sidearm, and underhand throwing
Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2)
-composite approach (whole body approach) -3 to 11 years -assesses sequence and qualitative aspects of motor skill behavior -validated research tool -norm and criterion referenced
Mature fundamental movement pattern
-composite of common elements that skilled performers use -most children acquire by age 7 (with sufficient practice) -skill related rather than age related
Over-nutrition
-consuming too much or the wrong kinds of food -outcomes: overweight & obesity
What is the difference between continuous motor skills and discrete motor skills?
-continuous ex: swimming -discrete ex: shooting a free throw
Hypothalamus
-control center -turns on pituitary -responsible for hormones
Bimanual control
-controlled use of the two hands -symmetrical or asymmetrical function -required by several manipulative activities
Hopping
-coordinated one foot take off and landing on same foot repeatedly -requires greater leg strength and better balance -requires ability to perform controlled, rhythmical movement
Cerebellum
-coordination -balance -timing
Distance curve
-cumulative -plot growth from one year to the next
Somatic receptors can be subgrouped into _________ and ________.
-cutaneous receptors -proprioceptors
Criterion-referenced standards
-degree to which an individual achieves specific level of development, motor performance, or physical status -individuals are compared to criterion value and not to other of same sex and age
Auditory perception
-derives from complex system that involves ability to detect, discriminate, associate, and interpret auditory stimuli -aspects: auditory localization, auditory discrimination, and auditory figure-ground perception
Composite approach
-describes motor pattern changes through a series of discrete steps (or stages) in the developmental process -total (whole) body approach -attempt to break down movement pattern changes into a sequence of stages that covers all parts of the body
Cross-linking theory
-different molecules joined together permanently (cross-linked) -results in deterioration such as wrinkling and atherosclerosis
Advanced aging
-diminished capacity to regulate internal environment -results in reduced probability of survival -biological aging associated with regression
Person
-dynamic -self organizing -consists of several systems
ADHD
-easily distracted -have trouble focusing on any one thing -show impulsive behaviors -some cases overly distracted
Embodiment
-embodied cognition -cognition is largely influenced by bodily (sensorimotor) actions -cognitive processes develop when highly coupled system emerges from goal-directed interactions between organisms and the environment -A-not-B error phenomenon -finger counting strategies -role of motor behavior in higher cognition such as memory and decision making
When and what is the sensitive period?
-embryonic period (2-8 weeks) -susceptible to insult
What accounts for the mixed-footed phenomenon?
-environmental factors such as culture (right-sided world phenomenon) -experience may influence direction and/or degree of preference
Hormonal theories
-estrogen decline and bone loss in woman ages body big time -loss of growth hormone results in decline of muscle mass, bone, density, and increase in body fat
Developmental cognitive neuroscience
-examines relationships between the developing brain and cognitive ability -not prewired for skilled movements -"self organizing" properties that just for biological and environmental contexts
Bandura's social cognitive theory
-exercise motivation -3 factors: (1) self-efficacy (2) outcome expectations (3) self-evaluated dissatisfaction
Down Syndrome
-extra chromosome in 21st pair -zygote has 47 instead of 46 chromosomes -individuals have retarded mental and motor development, heart defects, short hands/feet, and abnormal facial features -NOT inherited -1 in 400 births at 35 yrs -1 in 100 births at 40 yrs
Visual-kinesthetic (VK) integration
-first indication: ~ 2-3 weeks of age (limitation) -nearly mature by age 5; recognize objects touched
Asymmetrical function
-form of bimanual control -more common to general manipulative behavior -the two hands make different movements in a coordinated and complimentary manner -ex: using scissors, tying shoelaces, and dealing cards
Symmetrical function
-form of bimanual control -two hands perform similar and simultaneous movements -ex: clapping
Leap
-form of jumping -when a child propels himself/herself forward and upward into flight with one foot and lands on the other foot
What is visual information used for? (3)
-formulate motor program -monitor movement activity -provide feedback for immediate correction
Early childhood stage
-from 2 to 6 years -development of fundamental motor skills -perceptual-movemnt awareness -ability to care for oneself
Regression: balance (postural stability)
-from 40 years of age--> deterioration of vestibular nerve cells in ear -loss of brain cells (cerebellum and brainstem) -visual perception declines by 60 years
Later childhood stage
-from 6 to 12 years -mastery of certain academic skills -fundamental motor skill refinement -physical growth slows substantially -thought processes usually more concrete than adolescent period
Infancy stage
-from birth to 2 years -neonate period -extensive dependency on adults -beginning of many motor psychological activities
Prenatal stage
-from conception to birth -where human development begins -prenatal period -embryonic period -fetal period
Catching
-fundamental gross motor manipulative skill -involves visually tracking an incoming object, stopping its momentum, and gaining control of it with the hands -requires coincident timing ability -proficiency normally follows throwing proficiency
Climbing
-fundamental locomotor skill -ascending and descending movement using the hands and feet -outgrowth of creeping -often performed before walking
Kicking
-fundamental manipulative skill -foot strikes an object -must be able to maintain upright posture while balancing momentarily on one foot imparting force to an object with the other foot
Lipofuscin
-granulated pigment which accumulates in nerve, cardiac, and skeletal cells that fill spaces and interfere with function -NOT cause of aging
Basal ganglia
-group of functionally related nuclei -initiation and control of subconscious gross body movements
Which phase and stage is associated with ages 12-18?
-growth & refinement phase -adolescence stage
Are youth sports harmful?
-growth not adversely affected by typical sports training of less than 18 hours/week -specialization vs. variety: variety is favored -individual differences/intensity
Biological characteristics
-heredity -maturation -self organizing properties
Critical period for vision
0-2 years
Critical period for vocabulary
0-4 years
When is the gross motor window of opportunity?
0-5 years of age
Critical period for fine motor
0-9 years
When is the fine motor window of opportunity?
0-9 years of age -longer to develop -quick to lose
General Information-Processing (Perceptual-Motor) Model
1) attention; stimuli --> SENSORY INPUT (light, touch, sound, smell, taste) 2) receptors; modalities (visual, auditory, tactual, kinesthetic, olfactory, gustatory); PERCEPTUAL PROCESSING; central nervous system processing; integration and memory bank 3) OUTPUT; motor response
Critical period for second language
1-10 years
Critical period for math logic
1-4 years
What are the 6 perceptual modalities?
1. VISUAL 2. auditory 3. KINESTHETIC 4. tactual 5. olfactory 6. gustatory
What three areas can be assessed with change?
1. biological growth 2. development (level of functioning) 3. motor behavior (performance)
5 Aspects of Kinesthetic Perception
1. body awareness 2. spatial awareness 3. directional awareness 4. vestibular awareness 5. rhythmic (temporal) awareness
Sequence of CNS development
1. cell proliferation and changes (number of neurons and muscle cells are set by birth) 2. migration 3. integration and differentiation (wire) 4. myelination 5. cell death; pruning
9 purposes for assessment
1. determine status (most commonly stated purpose) 2. placement 3. program content 4. program evaluation 5. research 6. prediction 7. diagnosis/screening 8. construction of norms and performance standards 9. motivation of individuals
Primary factors that affect visual acuity (5)
1. development of fovea 2. degree of myelination 3. # of neural connections in visual cortex 4. shape/structure of eye 5. strength of ciliary muscles
What are the characteristics of an ecological fit that action to affordances depend on? (4)
1. developmental level (maturation) 2. past experiences 3. present need 4. cognitive awareness of what the object might be used for
What are the three principal modes of socialization?
1. direct instruction 2. shaping 3. modeling
What are the two types of growth curves?
1. distance curve 2. velocity curve
What are the three types of balance?
1. dynamic 2. static 3. postural
Female Athlete Triad
1. energy availability 2. menstrual function 3. bone health
Three basic functions of/in visual perception course
1. eye receives light and generates messages through nerve impulses 2. visual pathways transmit messages through optic tract to visual centers in the brain 3. visual centers in the brain interpret the messages
5 determinants of motor behavior and development
1. heredity 2. maturation 3. self-organizing properties 4. affordances 5. ecological systems
Teratogenic effects (7)
1. interferes with basic biochemical processes 2. susceptibility varies with each developmental stage 3. acts in a specific way on specific tissue 4. affects differently (individual differences) 5. concentration/exposure related to risk 6. effect on mother 1 way and child another 7. temporary or delayed effects
What are the two basic physiological aspects of kinesthetic perception?
1. kinesthetic acuity 2. kinesthetic memory
Name 4 functions of insulin.
1. metabolizes sugars in diet 2. increases transport of glucose and AA across plasma membrane 3. enhances protein synthesis 4. increases synthesis of DNA and RNA in muscle/bone tissue
Brofenbrenner's Bioecological System Model
1. microsystem 2. mesosystem 3. exosystem 4. macrosystem 5. chronosystem
What are the three most influential factors in motor performance?
1. muscular strength 2. cardiorespiratory efficiency 3. processing speed (reaction/movement time)
What two types of cues does the perceptual system use to detect depth?
1. oculomotor cues 2. visual cues
What 4 things always need to be evaluated in infants?
1. reflexes 2. spontaneous movements 3. fine motor skills 4. gross motor skills
3 functional areas of cerebral cortex
1. sensory 2. motor 3. association
Primary functions of the nervous system
1. sensory input (what's going on around us) 2. integrative (memory and thought; make a plan) 3. motor output (tell muscles what to do)
Primary causes of LBW (5)
1. smoking ---> greater contributor (~25%) 2. nutrition 3. alcohol 4. drugs 5. low socioeconomic status
Striking skill basic sequence of 3 movements
1. the step 2. the turn 3. and the swing
________ of adults 65 years and older will fall.
1/3
What percent of states require physical education in every grade K-12?
12%
Only _______ states require fitness assessment.
14 states
Critical Weight Theory
17-22% of body fat is needed for menarche to occur and maintain regular cycles
Vertical jump
2 foot takeoff and landing with the primary purpose of achieving maximum height
Immature movement pattern stage
2-3 years old
Fundamental movement phase
2-6 years of age
What percent of children are obese?
20%
What ages are physiologically the best time to have a baby?
22-29 years
Overweight BMI
25-29.9
What percentage of parent's body fat is genetically contributed?
25-30%
Regression: muscular strength and mass
25-30% loss/decline between ages 30 and 70
Critical period for music
3-10 years
Males have ___________ more muscular strength than females.
30-50%
What percent of adults are obese?
36%
When is the heart beat strong during the fetal period?
4-5 months fetal
Elementary movement pattern stage
4-5 years old
Heart rate (pulmonary ventilation and stroke volume) and anaerobic capacity (fast twitch muscle, speed) regress about ______ percent.
40%
There is a _______ percent lost by 60-65 years of age in anaerobic power.
40%; loss of muscle mass and type II fibers
Aging men lose about _______ percent of GH secretion every 7 years after age 25.
50%
What percent of states allow exemptions or waivers from physical eduction?
55%
Body weight increases until _________ and then decreases
55-60 years of age
Mature movement pattern stage
6-7 years old
What percent of adults are overweight?
70%
What percentage of parent's bone mass is genetically contributed?
80%
Underweight BMI
<18.5 <5th percentile
Very Low Birth Weight (VLBW)
<3.3 lbs
Obesity BMI
>30 >95th percentile
What is one of the most common neurobehavioral disorders in childhood and adolescence?
ADHD
_______ harms the fetus and restricts blood flow.
Adrenaline
What is the #1 pediatric physical therapy test?
Alberta Infant Motor Scales (AIMS)
By age ______, majority of children exhibit mature climbing pattern characteristics.
By age 6
_________ receptors are located near the skin and perceive touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Cutaneous
What is the most potent environmental influence on growth and development?
DIET
Does regular physical activity have a significant effect on stature?
NO
T/F: Young females are inferior to males in hopping and skipping.
False; they are superior
_______ cells appear last in the fetus.
Fat cells
Classic experiment #2
Gibson and Walk -study of depth perception -visual cliff
Is there a direct link between perceptual-motor and cognitive functioning?
NO
Classic experiment #3
Karen Adolph's slopes experiment (crawlers/walkers) -ecological perspective
Classic experiment #1
Piaget's A not B error -infants will typically search for a hidden object where they first found it rather than where the last saw it
When is the greatest variation in human growth and development?
Prenatal development
Classic experiment #4
Rovee-Collier -infant (6 months) kicking experiment -evidence for contextual learning -associated with "cued" recall
Plasticity
lifelong ability of the brain to reorganize neural pathways based on trauma or new experiences
What is the most widely used test in the world for motor development?
Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-D)
T/F: Depth perception is absent at birth.
True
T/F: Males are superior to females in throwing.
True
Sensitive period
a time in the life span when individuals may be especially sensitive to specific influences (teratogens)
Visual motor coordination
ability to coordinate visual abilities with movements of the body
Visual-motor coordination
ability to coordinate visual abilities with movements of the body
Tactile perception
ability to detect and interpret sensory information cutaneously (touch)
Static visual acuity
ability to detect detail in a stationary object
Figure-ground perception
ability to distinguish an object from its surrounding background
Vestibular awareness
ability to establish and maintain equilibrium (balance)
Egocentric localization
ability to locate objects in space interference to the self
Allocentric (object) localization
ability to locate objects using something other than the self as a reference
Static balance
ability to maintain a desired posture when the body is relatively stationary
Perceptual constancy
ability to perceive an object you are familiar with as having a constant shape, size, and brightness despite the stimuli changes that occur
Dynamic visual acuity
ability to perceive detail in a moving object
Kinesthetic (discrimination) acuity
ability to proprioceptively detect differences or match qualities such as location, distance, weight, force, speed, acceleration
Muscular endurance
ability to sustain muscular work
Life-span perspective
based on the theory that the developmental process extends beyond puberty and young adulthood
Which stage is associated with most dramatic growth?
adolescence stage
Cerebral palsy
affects a person's ability to move and maintain balance and posture
After what age are visual fields equivalent to an adults?
after age 5
Adult performance of finger control/differentiation is exhibited around ________.
age 8
Shaping
allows for the individual to benefit from experience
Activity theory (vs. disengagement)
an active lifestyle during later adulthood increases the likelihood for life satisfaction
Teratogen
an environmental agent that can cause a birth defect or kill the fetus
Memory span technique
an individual is presented with a list of digits or words at a given rate and asked to repeat the list
When does an infants' visual cortex begin to process visual stimuli?
around 2 months of age
When does long-term memory emerge?
around 2 years of age
When does depth perception develop?
around 6 months of age
When does short-term memory emerge?
around 6 months of age & improves up to early adolescence
When do the first signs of overarm throwing appear?
around 6 months of age when a child executes crude throw involving limited arm use while he/she is in sitting position
What age is the mature pattern of one-handed dribbling in a stationary position usually mastered around?
around 6 years of age
When does the ability to kick a stationary ball with minimal form appear?
around age 2
Limited attention
attend to one thing at a time
Serial attention
attend to one thing then another; switching
Conception
begins with fertilization
Stage
behavior occurring within general time framework (discontinuous)
Functional (motor) asymmetries
behavioral manifestations of the phenomenon of the paired limbs and sensory organs are used in an asymmetric manner
Newborn's visual acuity
between 20/200 and 20/600
When does the most peak performance occur?
between 25 and 30 years
When does object permanence emerge?
between 8-12 months of age
When is skipping usually mastered?
between age 6 and 7
Figure-ground perception improves steadily between ages ____ and ____.
between ages 4 and 13.
Peak performance parallels ______________.
biological maturity
Jumping
body is projected into the air by a force generated by one or both legs and then lands on one or both feet
Cell proliferation
brain produces many more neurons than it needs and then eliminates extras
When is the maturity level of perceptual constancy reached?
by 11 years of age
When is binocular vision evident?
by 2 months of age
By what ages do children generally show deferential hand preference and hand skill of a kind comparable to adult characteristics?
by 3-4 years of age
When do most children display master of bimanual control?
by age 6 just after the hand preference is established
Majority of children master throwing by what age?
by age 7
When does handedness become evident?
by the middle of the first year of life
Axons
carry information away form the cell body (soma)
What is the most common cause of physical disability in childhood?
cerebral palsy
Catch-up growth
characterized by height and weight velocity above the limits of what would be expected for typically developed children for their age
Differences between _______ and ______ become increasingly evident with advanced aging.
chronological age and physiological age
Environmental contexts
circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded
Programming
cognitive processing that results in the formulation of a thought, cognitive expression, or motor program
Measurement
collection of information on which a decision is based
Readiness
combination of maturation and experience that prepares an individual to acquire a skill or understanding
Synergies
muscle groupings
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
conditioned suffered by some infants exposed to alcohol during prenatal period
Bronchi
conduct air
What type of learning is "cued" recall associated with?
contextual learning
Human development is a ________ and __________ process from conception through older adulthood.
continual and cumulative
Motor areas of cerebral cortex
coordinate and initiate voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
Most national fitness tests use _________-referenced standards.
criterion-referenced standards
Regression: cardiorespiratory (maximal oxygen consumption)
declines ~30% from ages 30-70 years
Does insulin secretion decrease, increase, or remain stable throughout the lifespan?
decreases
Objectivity
degree of agreement among examiners
Validity
degree to which an assessment item measures that which it is intended to measure
IntRAsensory development
description of developmental characteristics and improvements within an INDIVIDUAL sensory system
MRI
detection of radio frequency signals produced by displaced radio waves in a magnetic field
fMRI
detects changes in blood flow to particular areas of the brain
Developmental contextualism
development involves changing relations between the developing person and his/her changing environment//context
Epigenesis
development is result of ongoing bidirectional interchange between one's biological characteristics (including heredity) and the environment
Prefrontal cortex
emotional reactions and cognitive function (attentive, accurate judgments, planning, and motivation)
Processing strategies
encoding --> rehearsal --> retrieval
Aerobic activity enhances _________ and offsets _________.
enhances neurogenesis and offsets advanced aging
Relative distance
estimation of distance between one object and another or between different parts of a single object
Self-evaluated dissatisfaction
exhibited by individuals who are motivated to exercise because they are not satisfied with their current level of performance
Exosystem
extended family
Myelin sheath
fatty sheath around axons
Females have a _____ percent loss of body mass with aging, and males have a _____ percent loss.
females: 30% loss males: 10-15% loss
When is the pubescent height growth spurt for females and males?
females: age 12 males: age 14
Dendrites
fibers extending from cell body that receive information
Manipulative skills
fine motor manual movement and gross motor skills that involve the control of objects primarily with the hands and feet (ex: throwing, catching, kicking, and striking)
Neonate period
first month of infancy
Kinetics
forces that act upon motion (i.e., cause, modify, facility, or inhibit)
With short-term memory, memory span can increase from ______ digits to _______ digits.
from 2 digits to 7 1/2 digits
Out of galloping, sliding, and skipping, which is usually the first to emerge?
galloping
Multi-disciplinary approach
generally accepted that behavior in any domain is the product of many influences
Chunking
grouping separate items in some way to make larger collections/connections for memory
Which hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and is necessary for normal growth from birth to older adulthood?
growth hormone (GH)
What is the most important influences in the microsystem?
home/family
What is considered the most difficult form of basic jumping?
hopping
Mesosystem
how the microsystems work together
Developmental systems perspective
human development is the product of chaining relations between the developing person and his or her changing multilevel environmental contexts
Kyphosis
hunchback
Malnutrition
inadequate intake of energy because of lack of sufficient calories or quality protein
Regardless of smoking, BP, weight, and heredity, regular physical activity and moderate physical fitness results in ____________.
increased longevity; Blair study
Socializing agent
individual, group, or institution that interprets culture to the individual
Status
indvidual's position in society
Ball bouncing (dribbling)
propel a ball in downward direction
Rudimentary behavior
initial voluntary movements
Primary motor cortex
initiates skilled voluntary movements
What hormone is secreted from the pancreas and metabolizes sugars in the diet?
insulin
Non-goal orientated movements
involuntary grasping and spontaneous movements
Reflexes
involuntary movement reactions stimulated by a stimulus
Kinesthetic memory
involved if the stimulus is removed after presentation
Nonlocomotor (stability) skills
involves axial movements and movements of balance executed with minimal or no movement of the base of support (ex: bending, twisting, and swaying)
IntERsensory (perceptual integration)
involves simultaneous use of MORE THAN ONE system
Ectomorph
leanest body type
Modeling
learn from observing other who serve as models; Bandura's theory
Is there less loss with continuous motor skills or discrete motor skills? (long-term memory ability)
less loss with continuous motor skills (ex: swimming)
Determinant of anaerobic power
level of lactic acid in blood
Children encode __________ before ___________ information in short-term memory
location before distance
Is "cued" recall a short term or long term memory ability?
long-term
Phase
looking at a change in behavior across time
Regression: pulmonary ventilation
lose 40% of ventilation capacity
Title IX
mandates equal opportunities in sport at all levels for females
Goal orientated movement
manipulation
What is the first stage of manual control defined by skillful and refined use of the hands?
manipulation
Muscular strength
max force or tension generated by a muscle or muscle groups
When is the mature stage for hopping reached?
may not be reached until age 6 or older
Reliability
measure of the repeatability of assessment results
EEG
measures changes in brain function via electrodes to record electrical activity
Velocity curve
measures the rate of growth
What is the #1 predictor of a child's academic performance?
mother's education
Coordinative structures
motor programs control groupings of muscles with associated joints
Pulmonary ventilation
movement of air in and out of the pulmonary system
Initial fundamental movement pattern
movement pattern characteristics of children 2-3 years of age
Locomotor skills
movements that transport an individual through space from one place to another (ex: running, walking, and skipping)
Radiation can effect __________
neurogenesis.
Migration
neurons migrate to their final location
When is the matter pattern for kicking reached?
not reached until age 6
When do most children gain the ability to oppose more than one finger to the thumb?
not usually evident until ~ age 3
Recognition memory
noticing whether a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced
When is climbing observed in children?
observed in children as young as 2 years
Affordances
opportunities for action that objects, events, or places in the environment provide
Premotor cortex
organized learned coordinated movements
Sex glands
ovaries/testes
Females over the age of ______ and under the age of _______ have higher risks of infant defect, prematurity, and low birth weight babies.
over the age of 35 under the age of 16
Retina
part of eye that turns light into nerve signals to the brain
Social role
particular behavior an individual uses to fulfill a position of status
Kinesthesis (kinesthetic perception)
proprioceptors of the muscles (spindle receptors), joint, tendons (Golgi), and inner ear (vestibular apparatus) form this perception
Environmental constraints
physical environmental or sociocultural factors
When does the growth hormone have its greatest effect?
post puberty
Which stage is the period of greatest variation?
pre-natal stage
Critical period for gross motor
pre-natal through 5 years
Absolute distance
precise judgement of the space from the person to an object
Attention
prerequisite to the perception of information
Visual input
primary source of information from which motor behavior is organized/carried out.
Assessment
process that involves both measurement and evaluation
Perception
processes used to gather and interpret sensory information from the external and internal environment
Evaluation
processof decision making with regard to the value or worth of collected information
Saccadic eye movements
rapid eye movements between 1 point of visual fixation and another
Processing speed
rate of speed at which information is processed
Response time
reaction time + movement time
Hick's Law
reaction time increases linearly as information load increases; takes longer = ability goes down
Object permanence
realization that objects continue to exist when they are no longer in view
What is a more advanced form of memory that involves remembering a stimulus that is not present?
recall memory
Neural recruitment
recruitment of additional motor units to generate forces; gets stronger
Postural balance
relatively unconscious level of basic reflex functioning that enables one to maintain upright posture, hold head erect, sit, and stand
Does thyroxine secretion decrease, increase, or remain stable throughout the lifespan?
remains stable
Locomotor reflex
resembles voluntary locomotion -ex: climbing, walking
What is the result of an absence of thyroxine?
retarded/abnormal growth
Kinesiology
science of motion
Adrenal gland
secretes androgens (ex: testosterone (muscle))
Socialization
set of events and processes by which individuals acquire the beliefs and behaviors of the particular society or subgroup in which they live, and in most cases, are born into
Schema theory
set of general rules, concepts, and relationships to guide performance in keeping with the concepts (generalized motor program)
Heredity
set of qualities fixed at birth that account for may individual traits and characteristics
Undernutrition affects __________?
sexual and skeletal maturation
Is recall (conscious) memory a short term or long term memory ability?
short term
When is recognition memory present?
shortly after birth
When is "cued" recall shown?
shown in infants 3-6 months old
Out of galloping, sliding, and skipping, which is typically last to be mastered?
sliding
Gender roles
social expectations of how individuals should act and think as males and females
Macrosystem
society
Chronosystem
sociohistorical conditions
Endomorph
soft and round body type
The group of kinesthetic receptors are associated with the __________ system.
somatosensory system
What does the visual modality provide?
spatial-temporal information about the external environment
Power
speed + strength
What are two of the most influential developmental factors in motor skill development and refinement during childhood and adolescence?
sports and physical education
Spontaneous movements
stereotypic rhythmic (repetitive) motions that appear in the absence of any known stimuli
Sensation
stimulation of sensory receptors by physical energy received from the internal and external environment
Motor schema
storage of "movements" and the relationships of the elements together
Anthropometry
study of biological growth and body measurement (measure with a curve)
Physical anthroplogy
study of nature, distribution, and significance of biological variation in humans
Gerontology
study of oder people and the aging process
Primitive reflex
survival and protection
Synaptogenesis
synapse between neurons has formed (like a "new" track that has formed)
Study of development implies _______ and _______ changes over time.
systematic and succesive
Kinematics
temporal and spatial characteristics of motion
When does the pincer grip usually appear?
~ 9-10 months of age
When is short-term memory evident?
~2 years of age
At what age does handedness become stable in most children?
~6 years of age
Approximately what percent of adults prefer the right eye?
~70%
About how much of all sensory information derived from outside the body is channeled through the visual system?
~80%
Approximately what percent of the population establishes right-handed preference?
~90%
