KINS 3250 Bland Test 3

depth perception is refined to adultlike levels in...

adolescence

transposing right and left improves in...

adolescence -many 12 yr old children unable to transpose L and R from new perspective

amodal invariants

are patterns in space or time that do not differ across modalities -examples?

accuracy in discrimination in...

childhood -refinement of auditory discrimination until at least 13 yrs old

development of shape and orientation perception

children refine their ability to detect subtle changes in object orientation

older adults may have difficulty with speech perception due to

declines in sensitivity to pure tones

retinal disparity

difference received by the two eyes as a result of their different locations

intermodal perception

events are perceived through various modalities

Aspects of Observation

figure and ground (objects of interest seen as distinct from background)

development of space perception: infants

have the mechanics for retinal disparity and motion parallax

assaiante model

identifies four time periods -birth to standing -standing to age 6 years -age 7 throughout adolescence -adulthood

presbyopia

impaired vision as a result of aging -affects ability to see nearby images (can be corrected with lenses)

directionality improves...

in late childhood

development of space perception: 6 months

infants perceive depth

visual perception

involves perception od -space -objects -movement

posture and balance: perception-action ecosystem

it involves visual, auditory, and kinesthetic input from proprioceptive and vestibular receptors -posture and balance are specific to environmental and task constraints

ecological view of perception of affordance

it is the affordance that is perceived -affordances involve what the environment permits, given the capabilities of the performer -they are perceived directly, without cognitive analysis of object characteristics

perception

multistage process in the CNS -it includes: >>selecting, processing, organization, and integration of information received from the senses -identical sensations can

sensation

neural activity triggered by a stimulus activating a sensory receptor -sensory nerve impulses travel sensory nerve pathways to the brain

shape and orientation

object recognized even if its orientation changes

newborns are sensitive to...

object shape

hearing loss (presbycusis) is more frequent in

older adults

accuracy of performance is related to

order of presentation (easiest versions present visual information first)

with adequate visual perception...

perceived objects retain size even if retinal image size changes due to changes in distance from observer to object *newborns demonstrate perception of size constancy with varying distance

kinesthetic spatial orientation

perception of body's location and orientation in space, independent of vision -walk ib a line while blindfolded -improvement based on age

adulthood

refined control of freedom in the neck

affordances involve...

relationships between objects

gender refers to

socially determined masculine or feminine characteristics (sociocultural constraint)

Optic flow

the change in optical pattern as a viewer moves forward and backward in a stable environment

auditory development: sensation

three structures are involved in hearing -external ear -middle ear -cochlea of the inner ear

simple frequency patterns are discriminated...

under 6 months of age -more complex patterns are detected by 1 year -improvements are made throughout childhood in perceiving longer and more complex patterns

sensory development: summary

-sensory systems are functional at birth -improvement during infancy is rapid -the level of function is sufficient for the learning tasks facing infants and toddlers

sensory systems

-sensory systems function as individual structural constraints -here, focus is on visual, auditory, and kinesthetic senses -How might sensory disabilities act as rate limiters to development? of what skills?

kinesthetic perception involves perception of these elements

-single vs. multiple touch points -objects -body -limb movements -spatial orientation and direction

auditory changes with aging

-some loss might have a physiological source -some loss might result from lifelong exposure to environmental noise -absolute and differential thresholds generally increase -hearing amid a noisy nackground is more difficult

perception of motion

-some neurological mechanisms are dedicated to detecting motion -infants perceive motion -perception of direction and velocity of motion improves during infancy

kinesthetic changes with aging

-some sensitivity may be lost -some older adults show impairments in judging passive leg movements -accuracy in judging muscle tension is retained -more research is needed

Lockman (1984); McKenzie &Bigelow (1986)

-study challenged infants to move around barriers -spatial perception improved with increased locomotor experience

infants can discriminate basic speech sounds at...

1 to 4 months of age

temporal patterns are perceived by

1 year

infants can differentiate facial features at...

20 inches

newborns perceive...

faces -do they identify mother's face more readily than others?

boys' sport knowledge development...

is fostered

number of older adults who fail depth perception tests...

is greater than the number of younger adults

acuity

sharpness of sight

Title IX

"o person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance" -Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 -unfortunately... >>in an effort to "even the playing field" men's athletics have been cut significantly

kinesthetic receptors and their locations

**see table 10.1

role of action in perception

*Developmentalists suspect that movement is important to perceptual development. -Movement is necessary for the coupling, or linking, of perception and movement.

example: stairs affor climbing

-Warren (1984) related stair height to leg length -no single model has been found to apply over the life span

memory in adulthood

-adults, too, remember more when they know more about a topic and are motivated -fit older adults remember better than unfit older adults

What gender stereotypes for the following activities

-ballet -baseball -soccer -synchronized swimming -gymnastics

laterality (knowing sides of body are distinct)

-children show adultlike responses by aged 10 -labeling left and right improves in late childhood

laterality

-children with developmental delay often struggle to cross midline of body with hand and arm to complete a task on opposite side -what school, motor, or daily tasks require crossing the midline?

visual changes with aging

-declines in vision have implications for skill performance and everyday living tasks -presbyopia -older adults need more light in dim environments

procedural knowledge

-how to information -topic-specific

perceptual-motor theories of the 1960s

-identified perception as the precursor of movement and cognition -speculated that learning disabilities could be remediated through perceptual-motor programs -early evaluations were flawed -little evidence exists that perceptual-motor programs improved classroom skills

body awareness

-identifying body parts: children improve in labeling -knowing body's spatial dimensions: children master up and down, then front and back, and finally side to side

visual development: sensation

-infant have functionally useful vision -by 6 month of age, vision is adequate for locomotion throughout the environment

figure and ground

-infants can distinguish a sound from outside from ambient noise -little else is known -older adults have more difficulty in hearing conversations amid background noise

development of object perception

-infants may use depth and motion than edges -children refine figure-and-ground and whole-and-part perception, especially under difficult conditions -preadolescents reach adult levels (adult sensetivity goes beyond that needed to perceive objects in the everyday world)

perceptual development: summary

-infants possess basic perceptual ability -subtle discrimination and complex judgement improve in childhood -adults may have difficulty in perceiving if the senses are impaired

visual-kinesthetic internodal perception

-infants seem to relate objects they can see to objects that they have mouthed -recognition of an object across modalities is shown in the first year, but selecting items that match across modalities comes later -finer discrimination improve in childhood (visual-first presentation is easier)

lateral dominance (preferring one eye, ear, hand, or foot over the other)

-infants show preference -handedness is established around age 4 years -no evidence that pure dominance is necessary

audition in infancy

-infants' threshold for sound is higher than adults' but allows detection of normal speaking voice -rapid improvement is seen in the first week >>due to resorption of gelatinous material in inner ear -at 3 months, infants hear low-frequency sounds well >>still cannot hear high Hz sonds (+4000 Hz)

intermodal perception: summary

-intermodal coordination begins at birth -performance of matching tasks and subtle discrimination improves throughout childhood and adolescence

and individual with high self esteem makes the following casual attributes

-internal: individual responsible for own success and failures -stable: outcome-influencing factors consistent from one situation to next -controllable: individual in control of outcome-influencing factors

kinesthetic development: sensation

-kinesthesis arises from proprioceptors -two types of proprioceptors are >>somatosensors >>vestibular apparatus

symptoms of visual problems (any age)

-lack of eye-hand coordination -squinting -under-or overreaching objects -unusual head movements

auditory perception involves perception of

-location -differences in similar sounds -patterns -auditory figure and ground

Gibson et al. (1987)

-locomotor experience influenced perception of surfaces and shapes -with increased experience, infants showed more sensitivity to surfaces and sloped

Bertenthal, Campos, & Barret (1984); Kermoian & Campos (1988)

-locomotor experience was provided to pre-walkers by baby walkers -locomotor experience, rather than age, was associated with response to heights (perception of height and depth) >>perception of spatial relationships was enhanced by locomotor experience

tactile localization

-newborns can feel touches. for what activity in the first hours after birth is perception of touch important? -perception of touch location improves in early childhood -thresholds for discriminating between one touch and two nearby touches improve in childhood

location

-newborns turn in the direction of sound -by age 3 years, children can locate even distant sounds -little is known about infants' perception of the distance of sounds -older adults with presbycusis have difficulty locating sounds

auditory-visual intermodal perception

-newborns turn toward a sound -discrimination of patterns across these modalities improves in childhood -a task is easier if visual pattern is present -what does this say about how young children use their senses

perception of objects

-object attributes are size, shape, and motion -perception is based on information about edges >>edges are classified as either boundaries or not boundaries -boundaries ae assigned to objects

whole and part

-parts of a picture or object discriminated from whole, yet can be integrated -parts and whole perceived simultaneously

contemporary views: motor and cognitive development are intertwined

-parts of prefrontal cortex and contralateral neocerebellum are coactivated -prefrontal cortex might be involved in motor activity -caudate nucleus and neurotransmitter dopamine are involved in neural circuits (in turn involved in motor and cognitive functions)

recent research (perception and action in development)

-perception develops ahead of movement skills -movement skills are acquired with guidance with guidance from perceptual information -new actions make new information (perceptions) available -exercise stimulates brain activity that facilitates learning and memory

auditory-kinesthetic internodal perception

-perception in childhood understanding (knowledge of object names is relevant) -more research is needed

contemporary views: ecological views include the following

-perception of environment is ahead of purposeful movement -perception-action loops guide movement (there is little research evidence of thee loops)

Praget view

-reality is constructed by relating action to sensory information -children move through stages -perception and action are not well organized in infancy

kinesthesis in infacny

-receptors probably function prenatally -newborns respond to touch and can locate touches to the face -vestibular apparatus functions by age 2 months, if not earlier

perception of space

-requires perception of depth and distance -information can come from >>retinal disparity >>motion parallax >>optic flow -what daily living activities rely on perception of space? what sport and dance activities?

kinesthetic changes with aging

-research information is sparse -some older adults experience loss of sensitivity

significant others: coaches and teachers

-research is inconclusive regarding their role in socialization into physical activity -research suggests they act primarily to reinforce existing socialization patterns -teachers and coaches must avoid providing aversive socialization which discourages participation

self-esteem

-self evaluation of individual capability >>general >>specific (physical ability, appearance, social skills) -individual's belief in correctness of self-evaluation more important than accuracy of self-evaluation -specific domains (social, academic, physical)

contemporary views: perceptual-motor activities are important

-they give children experience in performing skills based on perceptual information -they reinforce concepts such as shapes and directions

three properties give rise to patterns

-time -intensity -frequency

spatial-temporal internodal perception

-we hypothesize that space and time are invariant across modalities -integrating two spatial stimuli is easiest, two temporal stimuli hardest -integrating spatial and temporal stimuli is intermediate in difficulty -ability to integrate subtle aspects continues to improve during adolescence

limb movement

-we must be able to reproduce a limb movement or relocate a limb position -perception of limb movement improves in late childhood

perception gives meaning

-what other illusions have you seen that can be perceived as different objects or pictures? -developmentalists have much to learn about the role of movement in perceptual development -some view perception and action, or movement, as inseparable

audition in infancy (continued)

-would infants listen more to speech or more to music? -would infants listen to their mother's voice over the voices of others?

balance changes with aging: younger adults

-younger adults on a moveable platform use ankle muscles to regain balance after small, slow perturbations -they use hip strategy to regain balance after larger, faster perturbations

two perspectives exist

1. infants must learn how unique sensations from different modalities are related to one another 2. infants must learn about the world from unified information coming through different modalities

acuity in the first month

20/400 (5%) of adult level

intensity changes are detected between

5 and 11 months

acuity at 5 years and 10 years

5- 20/30 10- 20/20

have you seen artwork where larger objects or pictures are composed of smaller ones unrelted to the larger picture?

Have you observed a young child's reaction to such a display? if so, describe it

motion parallax

The change in optical location for objects at different distances during viewer motion