KNH 184 Information Processing
Pendulum example
Assuming there is no friction or fluid resistance, the pendulum will remain in a regular state of motion I.E., The pendulum's motion can self- organize
Because rapid movements cannot use conscious feedback loops, and reflexive loops are only somewhat helpful, how are rapid movements thought to be coordinated?
*Motor program (pre-planning)- the key to an open-loop system -example: snapping is a pre-planned movement
7.) Cutaneous receptors
*located in the skin *provide information about... ~pain ~pressure ~temperature ~vibration
Scientific law
"statement of stable relationship between two variables" -allow us to PREDICT -these in behavioral sciences (i.e. predictive capability) are rare
SOA
"stimulus onset asynchrony": time interval between the prime onset and the target onset
Decerebrate cat on treadmill
(decerebrated means the cerebellum has been removed) -the cat will walk when hooked up to electrical stimulation -if the cat has no cerebellum and yet is walking, it proves that CPGs must reside in the spinal cord and NOT the brain -Central pattern generators can change the gait pattern all on their own
Response selection stage
*DECISION MAKING the activities of this stage begin after the stimulus identification stage provides information about the nature of input; this stage has the task of deciding what response to make, given the nature of the situation and environment -studied by manipulating the number of possible response alternatives and measuring RT driving example: the choice from available responses might be to go around another vehicle, to slow the car, or to make an avoidance maneuver. Thus, this stage requires the key process of determining what to do and how it should be done.
Beneficial effects of the psychological refractory period
*It may be protective -it ensures that a response to a dangerous stimulus is produced without interference from other conflicting signals
Triggered Reaction
-80-120 ms (slowest out of all of them) -Brain IS involved! -Wine glass effect
Is the ventral stream conscious or unconscious? What is its speed?
-Conscious -Slower due to it being conscious
Hick's Law
-Describes a linear relationship between Log2 of the # of stimulus-response alternatives (N) and RT -In other words, every time the number of stimulus-response alternatives doubles, RT increases by a constant amount
How are sprinters in track discouraged from using temporal anticipation?
-Disqualified for false start -starter varies length of fore-period -Electric monitoring of RT (RT < 100 ms results in DQ)
Consequences of interference (distraction)- distracted driving
-Distracted driving killed 3142 people and injured nearly 424,000 in 2019 (U.S.) -9 deaths per day 1-161 injuries per day -92% of distractions are avoidable and preventable -Most are self inflicted distractions like cell phones
Ian Waterman
-From the neck down, he gets NO information from joint receptors, muscle spindles, tendon organs, and most cutaneous receptors -He maintained temperature and pain sensation
Parameters of the GMP
-Mobilize features of a generalized motor program -Parts of the program YOU CAN CHANGE 1. Movement time: do it fast or do it slow 2. Movement amplitude (force): how much force you use (think about throwing a ball but now you will likely use a larger movement to someone further away to get it to go further) 3. Effector (muscle): what actually affects the movement is the muscle
Why is reaction time (RT) important
-RT is an important component of skilled motor performance -RT can be used to better understand information processing (RT= the duration of information processing)
Is the dorsal stream conscious or unconscious? What is its speed?
-Unconscious- our eyes need to be open and there needs to be enough light but we don't have to pay attention in order to use it -Fast because we don't have to pass through the stages of information processing
cocktail party effect
-ability to attend to only one voice among many -not all information is blocked in a conversation within a large crowd. You can be engaged in an ongoing conversation and suddenly hear your name being spoken in which you are not involved at all. Even though you have effectively shut out that background noise, some of it must have been processed in parallel in the stimulus identification stage in order that you could hear your own name. -like the Stroop effect, the cocktail-party effect illustrates that even some unattended features of sensory processing are processed in parallel with other attended information in the very early stages of sensory processing
Attention during info processing: actions are emitted in a _________ fashion at a maximum rate of about _____ per second
-actions are emitted in a SERIAL fashion -rate of about 3 per second
Movements controlled by Open-Loop Systems
-batting -snapping fingers -punch in boxing they are open loop because they are too fast and there isn't enough time to process feedback
Various examples of closed loop
-braking a car for a stop sign -filling a circle with scantron form -balancing on one foot -tying a shoe lace -moving a cursor to the 'close' button
pattern recognition
-complex examples: -knowing who to pass to in soccer -merging into traffic
Two visual systems
1.) Dorsal Stream 2.) Ventral Stream
Sources of feedback information
1.) Vision 2.) Audition 3.) Vestibular apparatus 4.) Joint receptors 5.) (Golgi) tendon organs 6.) Muscle spindles 7.) Cutaneous receptors think: VAVJGM
Evidence of Invariant Relative Timing
-divided whole gait cycle into 4 segments -walking and running at different speeds -divided each of gait cycles to see how much time they spent in each segment -looked at the rhythm between running and walking -add E1, E2, E3, and F and you will get 100% -walking spends 50% time in E3, running spends 30% time in E3 -walking spends 50% of time in F1, running spends 30% time in F -DIFFERENT RHYTHMS FOR BOTH -when walking or running velocity changes, the rhythm doesn't -no matter how fast you run or walk you don't change the rhythm -using the same movement, just changing the parameter -but going from walking to running changes the parameter
6.) Muscle spindles
-embedded within the belly of the skeletal muscle and oriented in parallel with the muscle fibers -because muscles change length when the joints they span are moved, the spindle lengths are changed as well -provide information about muscle length and the rate of change of length (stretch) -can elicit an excitatory response
Various examples of open loop
-golf swing (drive) -splitting wood with an axe -striking a nail with hammer -clicking mouse button -boxing (punch)
The vestibular apparatus provides us information about
-head position relative to gravity, and rotary and linear acceleration of the head -contributes to balance and visual tracking
Bipedal robots
-illustrate the complexity of human locomotion -uses feedback to program a whole sequence -exemplifies how complex human locomotion (the ability to move) is
Feedforward
-information you provide before sending your primary message -used to distinguish it from feedback; anticipated sensory consequences of the movement that should be received if the movement is correct, so that the error signal would be 0 -the process of replacing positive or negative feedback with future-oriented solutions -simple terms: it means focusing on the future instead of the past
Expanded human information processing model
-input ~stimulus identification ~response selection ~movement programming -output
Movements Controlled by Closed-Loop Systems
-inserting a contact lens -picking up a glass of water
5.) (Golgi) tendon organs
-located at the junction between a muscle and tendon -provide information about tendon/muscle tension (very sensitive to muscle tension and serve to regulate the levels of force produced in the attached muscle) *tendon organs can elicit and inhibitory response
4.) Joint receptors
-located in the joint capsule -provide information about joint position (most sensitive near extremes of range of motion) -application: at the extremes, they fire rapidly which is a protective mechanism to prevent you from over-flexing which keeps you safe from injuries
Invariant features
-order -relative timing (phasing) -relative force
"Controlled processing" is thought to be:
-quite slow -organized in a serial fashion -attention demanding
Examples of the use of the ventral stream include
-recognizing someone -reading -identifying an obstacle
Dynamical Perspective
-regularity in movement patterns (invariance) is not represented in a program, rather it occurs naturally due to the interaction of system components; physics (ex: physical properties of the system)
Main idea of central pattern generators (CPGs)
-said to be genetically defined -we come into the world with basic patterns of movement and they reside mainly in the spinal cord (not simply a pathway, but also contain some mechanisms that allow your body to move)
stimulus detection
-simple examples: -seeing a ball thrown at your face -hearing someone call your name
Monosynaptic (reflex arc)
-single synapse between sensory neuron that received and motor neuron responds -e.g. knee jerk
Types of anticipation
-spatial anticipation -temporal anticipation -both types can speed RT, but in different ways
What must be specified in the programming process in order to execute a skilled rapid movement?
-the duration of muscle contractions -the overall force of muscle activation -the muscles involved ~the order of muscle activation ~the relative timing of muscle contraction *rhythm ~the relative force of muscle activation
Criticisms of the motor program perspective
-the motor program notion assumes that programs residing in the brain or spinal cord are the origin of all movement characteristics -an alternative approach is called the Dynamical Perspective
3 structures of vestibular apparatus
1.) saccule aka otolith organs 2.) utricle 3.) semi-circular canals filled with fluid *these structures are positioned to detect the head's orientation with respect to gravity
How do we know that motor programs or something like them exist? I.e. What are the 3 lines of scientific evidence for motor programs?
1) Henry and Rogers experiment 1960 -suggested as movement complexity increased, RT increased -IV=movement complexity; DV=RT -suggest motor programs exist because planning takes more time 2) Deafferentation experiments -a surgical technique involving severing an animal's afferent (sensory) nerve bundles where they enter the spinal cord so the central nervous system (CNS) can no longer receive information from some portion of the periphery -demonstrated that sensory information from a limb is not necessary for movement production because the limbs still moved with no sensory nerve bundles which proves there must be something else telling the muscles to move 3) Mechanically blocking a limb (Wadman et al. 1979) -subjects in experiment had to do an elbow extension as rapidly as possible and looked at EMG in blocked contraction versus normal -some of the participants unknowingly had the lever blocked mechanically by the experimenter so no movement was possible -most important findings were that the antagonist muscle (bicep) still contracted even when all movement was blocked and it that it contracted at the same time as in normal movements -the timing of triceps and biceps activity during elbow extension was very similar between blocked and unblocked conditions -proves that since we still get all 3 bursts of the 3 verse reaction. as in normal movements, it must have been planned by your brain; hence a motor program exists -at least for 100-200ms your muscle activity is planned ahead of time and sent to your musclesmov
Types of feedback information for motor control
1) Proprioception 2) Exteroception 3) Exproprioception
Besides the ability to control rapid movements, what is the major advantage of using a motor program to execute a movement?
1) motor programs allow you do do rapid movements 2) the other advantage of motor programming is that it frees up attention -example: child learning to dribble a basketball just looks at the ball at first, but once they practice you notice they don't look at the floor anymore as they can turn some of this to open-loop control, the motor program allows the child to allocate attention to other areas and therefore allows performance to improve
Types of Optic Flow
1. Global 2. Local a. Expansion b. Convergence i. Lamellar ii. Non-Flow
Reflexive Closed-Loop Control: Three Reflexive Compensations
1. M1- Monosynaptic stretch reflex 2. M2- Polysynaptic stretch reflex (aka long-loop reflex) 3. Triggered reaction
If information processing cannot be observed directly, how can it be studied?
1. Reaction Time (RT) Method 2. Using RT as a dependent variable to study the duration and nature of information processing
Information Processing is often associated with a computer metaphor as they both...
1. Receive input 2. Process information 3. Produce output
Distinct stages of information processing
1. Stimulus Identification 2. Response Selection 3. Movement Programming
Problems with the Motor Program Notion
1. Storage problem: separate motor program to control every movement that one makes; you have a countless a countless number of programs you'd have to store 2. Novelty problem: how do humans produce new movements every day if the action is not represented in memory?
What happens during the knee-jerk reflex?
1. Tapping the knee pulls on the tendon of the quadriceps femoris 2. Causes muscle (the muscle spindles on top of it) to stretch 3. Information regarding this change in the muscle goes to the spinal cord via afferent (sensory) neurons 4. In the spinal cord, sensory neurons synapse (connect) with efferent (motor) neurons that contract the quadriceps 5. They also act indirectly to inhibit motor neurons that contract the antagonistic muscle, the hamstring
2 ways to reduce the amount of information to process
1. anticipation method 2. becoming skilled
stimulus identification is BOTH...
1. inherited (relex) 2. learned
If humans could not use an open-loop system to produce movement, how would we be disadvantaged?
2 main takeaways: no open-loop= 1) slower 2) more attention demanding -We'd have to use a closed-loop system for everything which would be a problem because you'd have to use feedback for everything which would make you slower
Movements completed in less than ______ ms are considered _________, and primarily under ________ loop control
200 rapid open
The average reaction time in humans is...
200 miliseconds
A movement is considered to be rapid if it is under _______
200 ms
Movements less than 200ms are considered _______, and primarily under ________________ control
200 ms open-loop
Anything slower than _______ is considered to be a _______ movement
200 ms slow
Automan Duck (1739)- Jaxques de Vaucanson
3D machine that operated like a duck POINT: -we still study movement from 3D model of humans and engineer something that works like them and by doing so you might be able to understand how the real world actually works
Central Pattern Generator
A mechanism that is similar to the motor program is said to control certain types of movements like sucking, locomotion (walking), chewing, and even breathing -central pattern generators reside in the spinal cord
Generalized Motor Programs (GMP)
A motor program that defines a GENERAL pattern of movement rather than a specific movement -example: jumping different distances or heights
What is a motor program?
A pre-structured set of movement (plans) commands that defines and shapes the movement -all you have to do is send that plan to the muscles -we know this exists because there isn't enough time to use feedback
reflex arc
A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement
Double stimulation paradigm
A research design requiring separate reactions to two different stimuli presented together closely in time -explains attention during movement programming
parallel processing
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision -demonstrated by the Stroop Effect
How does accurate temporal anticipation speed RT?
Allows performer to begin movement programming in advance of stimulus -you skip stimulus identification and response selection
How does ACCURATE spatial anticipation speed RT?
Allows us to skip the response selection stage
How are GMPs represented in memory?
As the relative timing or other invariant features
Which components must be deleted in the information processing model to leave a purely open-loop system?
COMPARATOR ? -key part of the open-loop model is the motor program
Serial processing
CONTROLLED PROCESSING -occurs when the brain computes information step-by-step in sequential order
Central pattern generators (CPGs) are said to be genetically defined and reside in the spinal cord. What does genetically defined mean?
CPGs are inherited and often functional at birth (ex: sucking and breathing) -another example is that some animals stand up 10 minutes after they're born and end up running 20 minutes after that; they don't learn to do that, but rather they're born with the pattern of movement -humans have less developed CPGs than some animals which is why we can't get up and walk right after birth, but we can breathe and suck
How is it known that CPGs reside in the spinal cord, rather than the cerebrum?
Chickens run with their heads off; therefore the chicken is running without a brain which is where the cerebrum resides, therefore, the chickens are evidence that the mechanisms that control locomotion reside in the spinal cord
What is the biggest disadvantage of a closed-loop control system?
Closed-loop control systems are slow
Once a motor program is ready for execution, how are the details of the program communicated to the muscles?
Communicated via the spinal cord as action potentials sent and peripheral motor nerves
What component do closed loop systems have that closed don't?
Comparator- open loop systems can't correct errors?
extrafusal fibers
Contractile skeletal muscle fibers outside of the muscle spindle
takeaway from the moving room experiments
Demonstrates that we are connected to our environment through our visual system -toddler perceives the wall and ceiling movement as their own movement, if the walls and ceilings change on your own retina you perceive it as your own motion (this is the dorsal system in play)
Henry and Rogers Experiment (1960)
Dependent variable= reaction time (RT) Independent variable= movement complexity Found that increases in movement complexity caused increases in RT (slowing)
Example when the cost of anticipating incorrectly always outweighs the benefit of anticipating correctly
Driving: approaching an intersection (red light)
Wine glass effect
Dropping wine glass and you try to catch it or hold on to it before falls, before you are consciously aware you are already unconsciously fixing the problem
3.) Vestibular apparatus
Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear that provide information related to head movements and body orientation (like if you're upside down) in the environment; STRONGLY IMPLICATED IN POSTURE AND BALANCE CONTROL
Where are the stages of information processing in the open/closed-loop models?
Executive
Which component of a closed-loop system is responsible for making decisions about how to deal with errors?
Executive
Closed-Loop Control System Parts
Executive Effector Comparator Feedback
Stroop effect
Explains the decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors -the conflict comes in delay and response selection stage; must mean that we are perceiving the color and meaning of the word at the SAME time *primary purpose: demonstrates that parallel processing is possible during the stimulus identification stage
What's the primary difference in how movements are controlled in open vs. closed?
FEEDBACK
True or False? Research evidence suggests that during a Stroop task, the color of the ink and the word that the ink spells are initially processed in serial.
False
True or False? Research on distracted driving indicates that using a hands-free phone while driving is much less distracting than using a handheld phone while driving.
False
_________ is how we execute slower movements
Feedback
The dynamical perspective suggests that human movement can also self-organize
For example, perhaps the invariant relative timing observed in running does not arise because of a program, but because of the physical properties of a human moving bipedally (inverted pendulum?)
ventral stream clarity/conditions
HIGH CLARITY BUT NEEDS LOTS OF LIGHT -usually needs information in well-lit visual conditions in order to identify object information, which can then be used for conscious, decision-making processes for action
Example of closed loop system
Heating system; uses feedback to achieve a particular goal
What characteristic of movement primarily determines whether a movement will be under open-loop or closed-loop?
How quick it is and the duration of the movement
The human information processing model
INPUT-> Human ->OUTPUT
Convergence
INWARD; BACKWARD
Cost to anticipating incorrectly
If you anticipate incorrectly, you'll be worse off than if you had not anticipated at all
Exproprioception
Information about body position and movement, relative to the environment example:
Exteroception
Information about the external environment example: where is the eraser on the tabletop? -answer: in the northeast corner -layout or terrain ?: WHAT is happening around me? (sound, sight, touch, smells, taste; seeing the outside)
Human performance can be conceptualized and studied in several ways; one of which is the...
Information processing approach
The human component of the model is sometimes referred to as a black box (input-black box-output). Why?
Information processing cannot be observed directly
Beneficial effects of the psychological refractory period
It may be protected ~it ensures that a response to a dangerous stimulus is produced without interference from other conflicting signals
In the moving room experiments, why are people oblivious to why they fell over?
Its unconscious and still using feedback, but outside of conscious awareness, still closed loop
Reflex mechanism that operates below our level of consciousness example/description
KNEE-JERK (aka patellar) reflex -one sits on a table with knee bent and lower leg freely hanging and then a small tap is applied to the patellar tendon (usually with a small rubber hammer, as done by a neurologist), the response to the tap is a brief contraction of the quadriceps muscle (agonist) (the hamstrings would be the antagonist) resulting in a small extension (straightening) of the knee. The time from the tap until the quadriceps is activated is only 30 to 50 ms. This reflexive response occurs without any active, voluntary control and occurs far too quickly to have come via the stages of information processing
How do we know stimulus identification exists?
Lab on finger test to measure reaction time; we gain the knowledge that we respond to auditory stimuli quicker and therefore that tells us that the stimulus has an effect on reaction time
Why is external focus superior?
Leading explanation is called the Constrained Action Hypothesis: -internal focus might cause one to try to control movement, which could interfere with automatic/unconscious contol
discovery of dorsal system: moving room experiment
Lee & Aronson (1974) participants stood in a room in which the walls moved toward or away from them but the floor did not move. The situation created a conflict between vision and proprioception. When the walls moved, people adjusted their posture to not fall, even though they weren't moving off balance
population stereotype
Likely learned societal associations meaning we sometimes act habitually due to specific cultural learning example: the color red is often associated with stop or danger and green is go or safety
Looming and the Looming Effect
Looming: when an object coming towards you appears to be getting bigger and bigger Looming effect: person flinches as an object is moved closer to their face
M1
MONOSYNAPTIC STRETCH REFLEX -30-50 ms -Spinal cord only -Brain NOT involved
Expansion
MOVING FORWARD; OUTWARD FLOW -can be global or local
Using anticipation is one method to reduce the amount of information to process; give example
Most baseball batters know that a pitcher is likely to throw a fastball on a 3-0 count, because the pitcher needs a strike and usually the pitcher's most accurate pitch is the fastball. Also, because the pitcher needs a strike, he is likely to throw the ball near the center of the strike zone. In this case, the batter has been able to reduce the uncertainty about the upcoming pitch in terms of both its type (fastball) and its location (center of strike zone). Of course, there is no guarantee that the anticipation will be correct, but the reduction in the amount of information to process will make for an easier and faster decision to swing at the pitch or not.
Order and Relative Timing
Movement 2 is longer than movement 1...
Lamellar flow
PARALLEL/moving LATERALLY -moving side-to-side horizontally to the environment
M2
POLYSYNAPTIC STRETCH REFLEX -50-80 ms -Brain involved!
CPGs in spinal cord injury rehabilitation
People with incomplete spinal cord injuries often have some connection between their minds and their muscles -increase the amount of walking exercise and the theory is that after lots of exercise, they continue to send to the muscles to contract in a stepping-like fashion -Good example that humans indeed have the same central pattern generators -humans are like chickens and cats
Mechanically blocking a limb (Wadman et al. 1979)
Probably the most importance piece of scientific evidence that motor programs exist -the EMG 3 verse pattern occurs in both normal and mechanically blocked movements which proves that it must have been planned by your brain ahead of time
Hicks Law
RT is linearly related to the amount of information that must be processed to resolve the uncertainty about the various possible stimulus-response alternatives. Doubling the amount of information to be processed by doubling N (possible choices) therefore increases RT by a constant amount. This constant amount is equal to the slope (b) in the equation of Hick's Law.
Anticipation
Refers to expecting or predicting something to happen -can influence information processing
Stepping reflex and how its important to the existence in CPGs
Reflex present in all infants that causes newborn babies to make little stepping motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface -it's evidence for human locomotion; meaning that we come into the world with a pattern of walking in our nervous system that reside in our spinal cord *this reflex isn't seen in babies after 3 months because the reflex gets inhibited due to them growing so fast; meaning the weight to strength ratio in their limbs is no longer able to display that reflex; it doesn't go away but rather is inhibited by the growth
Choking under pressure
Scenario in which a performer changes a normal routine or fails to adapt to a changing situation, resulting in a failed performance
Variations to the Inverted-U Principal
Simple task representation= graph C -peak level for arousal is at the higher end -generally gross motor tasks -example: lifting a weight and being all pumped up Complex task representation= graph A -the peak arousal is at the lower end -generally fine motor tasks -example: you wouldn't want a surgeon slicing into you all excited B is the average
Example when the benefit of anticipating correctly always outweighs the cost of anticipating incorrectly
Soccer Goalkeeper (penalty kick) -76% failure rate
What characteristic of movement primarily determines whether a movement will be controlled by open or closed?
Speed
How did the Generalized Motor Program solve the storage and novelty problems?
Storage problem: you only need one program, you just need to modify it -example: 10,000 ways to jump, if the program for each action, that's 10,000 programs, if you just have one to modify differently, that's still easier to store Novelty problem: you don't need a whole new program, you just take one you already have
Centipede Example of self-organization
Systematic amputation of pairs of legs caused new locomotion patterns to emerge
As the number of S-R increases...
The RT will increase
Miracle Mike (the headless chicken)
The chicken who lived for 2 years after its head was cut off because the brainstem was still intact (connects to spinal cord) -brainstem controls respiratory functions, heart rate, etc. -if the brainstem is still connected to the spinal cord, then these functions are still intact, therefore the chicken can run PROOF THAT CPGS RESIDE IN THE SPINAL CORD
Psychological refractory period (PRP)
The delay in responding to the second of two closely spaced stimuli compared with the person's reaction time to the second stimulus presented alone
Foreperiod
The interval between warning and go-stimulus
Movement Time
The interval of time between the initiation of a movement and the completion of the movement
In what component of the open-loop system is the motor program prepared for execution?
The movement program stage: where the program is prepared -you have a stimulus presented -then you select response; you either retrieve is from memory or write a program -then you prepare it for execution (which is motor programming)
Interpretation of Henry-Rogers experiment results
The results supported the idea that we organize (plan) movements in advance, which is consistent with the motor program concept
2.) Audition
The sense of hearing example: when you're running and hitting the ground you can HEAR your footsteps and detect how fast your feet are hitting the ground (that ex would be exteroception?) -people who are visually impaired are better at using auditory information than people who aren't visually impaired
stimulus identification
The stimulus is identified example: tap on shoulder is stimulus
Perceptual narrowing
The tendency for the perceptual field to shrink under stress with high arousal -represents changes to information processing with increasing arousal
Reaction Time
The time elapsing between the beginning of the application of a stimulus and the beginning of an organism's reaction to it -INCLUDES NO MOVEMENT OR MUSCLE ACTIVITY
If two movements have the same relative timing, what does this suggest about the generalized motor programs that control these movements?
The two movements are controlled by the same GMP
_________________ is located in the inner ear and is sensitive to movement of the head
The vestibular apparatus
Why are rapid movements not primarily controlled by a closed-loop system?
There isn't enough time to use conscious feedback loops -the movement could be over by the time you even complete one conscious feedback loop
Why do the toddler and the models fall down in the moving room experiments?
They mistook the room movement for their own movement, then they overcompensated for the perceived movement and the compensation is what knocked them over
True or False? If two tasks interfere with each other, they both require attention
True
True or False? The authors of your textbook consider attention to be a limited resource.
True
True or False? Humans can use sensory information to correct or adjust a movement without using conscious awareness
True
True or False? Proprioception provides us information about the state of body parts in relation to each other and relative to the environment
True
Highly practiced performers can overcome the disadvantages of low S-R compatibility
True- the higher the level of practice, generally the shorter the RT will be
True or False? We can use global and local convergence at the same time
True- this scenario would mean that you're moving and someone or something else is moving too
Invariant Features of the GMP
Unmodifiable features of a generalized motor program
Dorsal stream function
Vision for: ACTION -primary function is to answer "WHERE IS IT?" identifying where something is
ventral stream function
Vision for: OBJECT IDENTIFICATION provides information about the "WHAT" or "WHO" in motor control
temporal anticipation
WHEN a given stimulus will arrive or when a movement is to be made think: temporal=time
Can feedback contribute to the control of rapid movements?
Yes, but it is LIMITED -reflexes and perhaps dorsal visual stream
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the stimulus
what causes the Psychological Refractory Period?
a bottleneck (serial processing) in the movement programming stage of information processing
An eye detecting light can be compared to...
a camera -a camera is able to take a picture because it captures light, uses lens and light reflects off of the lightbulb and ends up at the bottom of the film and so the object is upside down
blindsight
a condition in which people who are blind can respond to visual stimuli in the absence of any visual awareness/without consciously perceiving them -primarily led to the discovery of the DORSAL system
Open-Loop Control System
a control system in which all the information needed to initiate and carry out an action as planned is contained in the initial instructions to the effectors DOES NOT UTILIZE FEEDBACK
Automatic processing
fast, parallel, not attention demanding, not consciously thinking, more accurate
Closed-Loop Control System
a system of control in which, during the course of an action, feedback is compared against a standard or reference to enable an action to be carried out as planned
3 verse reaction (or triple-burst pattern)
agonist-antagonist-agonist 1. first there is a burst of EMG the agonist muscle (here, the triceps) 2. then, the tricep turns off and the antagonist muscle (the biceps) is activated to decelerate (slow) the limb 3. finally, the agonist comes on again near the end to stabilize the limb at the target area
Effector
analogous to the worker in a company; do the actual work; typically referred to as the muscles
One fundamental way to reduce RT is to...
anticipate
Global convergence
backwards going towards center?
psychological refractory period: bottleneck effect
bottleneck prevents preparation of a second action until preparation of the previous action has been completed
When a person moves, the pattern of light ________ at every angle
changes
Movements greater than 200ms are considered _______, and primarily under ________________ control
closed-loop -means you have time to detect and use feedback
Comparator
compares two things: 1) actual state 2) planned/desired state *COMPUTES ERROR by comparing what is supposed to happen versus what is actually happening
agonist
contracts causing the movement to occur
Machines are controlled by...
control systems
Response selection...
depends on amount of practice
Detecting optic flow _______ _______ require attention
does not -it is unconscious and fast
The _______ system is sensitive to optic flow
dorsal system
Global Optic Flow
entire optic array changes -YOU'RE MOVING; the only way you can change your pattern is for you to move
The dorsal stream uses the light that strikes the _______ ________
entire retina (your entire visual field)
In a closed-loop system, the difference between the anticipated feedback (i.e., expected state) and the actual state (i.e., feedback) is called _________
error
inherited stimulus identification
examples: rooting reflex
Dichotic listening
experiment conducted by Cherry (1953) to investigate how auditory sensory information could be processed in parallel -a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear -exemplifies the cocktail-party effect and represents another example of parallel processing
In almost all situations, an _______ focus results in more skilled performance than an internal focus of attention
external
Choking under pressure may occur when there is a change in one's attention from _______ to _________
external to internal
Movement programming stage
final stage begins its processing upon receiving the decision about what movement to make as determined by the response selection stage -this stage has the task of preparing the motor system to make desired movement ~driving example: if the response selection stage determined that a braking response was required, then the organization of the motor program responsible for executing a braking action would occur in the movement programming stage
external focus attention
focusing on a target, such as an object to be struck or the intended effect that the action will have on the environment
internal focus of attention
focusing on monitoring the ongoing movement
The ventral stream primarily uses light that strikes a part of the retina which is the _________
fovea
Executive
gets to make decisions (also where the stages of information processing are)
Dorsal stream clarity/conditons
has GREATER LIGHT SENSITIVITY (needs less light) BUT LESS CLARITY THAN VENTRAL
The failure to perceive objects in the visual environment when attention is directed to other objects or events is called:
inattention blindness
The attentional resources remaining for a secondary task ____________________ when the primary task becomes less complex.
increase
As the stages of information processing proceed the demand for attention _____________
increases
Proprioception
information about body position and movement relative to the body example: if your nose itches, you need to know where your hand is relative to your nose ?: Where is my body in a space?
GMP Theory
information must be specified in the movement programming process in order to execute a skilled rapid movement -parameters (easier) and invariant features
Why is performance slowed in the Stroop Effect?
interference arises later on when the two stimuli compete for different responses
Photograph Analogy (revisited)
invariant features are on the record -cannot change the notes or the song -imprinted on the record and can't be changed
Why is perceptual narrowing an important mechanism?
it allows the person to devote more attention to those sources of stimuli that are immediately most likely and relevant -but excessive arousal means missing relevant cues
The best performance will happen when you're at ________ ___________
moderate arousal
intrafusal fibers
modified muscle fibers within/inside muscle spindles -can change the length of the muscle but not cause you to move (because they are weaker)
Local convergence
moving away from center back?
Non-Flow
no flow or movement whatsoever; everything is stationary around you and you're stationary as well
inhibitory response (subject matter being the golgi tendon organs)
occurs when a neuron's firing rate decreases due to inhibition from another neuron (turns the muscle off) -can make a muscle relax involuntary if the tension in a muscle exceeds a certain threshold; an action potential can be sent to the spinal cord to make the muscle stop contracting by turning it off (because if tension builds then it could cause injury)
Output
once the movement programming stage has completed and its processing of information
Local Optic Flow
only a part of the optic array changes -something else in the ENVIRONMENT is moving
We use the dorsal stream primarily to control...
our movements
Attention during info processing: countless stimuli enter the system in _________ essentially continiously
parallel
optic array
pattern when light reaches the eye
spatial anticipation
predicting WHAT is going to happen before the signal is presented
simple reaction time
reacting to the presence or absence of a single stimulus example: starting a sprint in response to the gun
Response Time
reaction time + movement time
Phonograph Analogy: a phonograph (turntable or record player) has been used to explain the notion of generalized motor programs
record = generalized motor program speed control = movement time parameter volume control = amplitude parameter -like throwing a ball hard or soft speaker switch = effector parameter -speaker or headphones
antagonist
relaxes so as not to impede (or delay) the agonist -essentially does the opposite of whatever the agonist is doing -another function can be to slow down or stop a movement
Inverted-U principle
represents a view of the relationship between arousal and performance -increasing the arousal level generally enhances performance, but only to a point, once it gets past a certain point, performance starts to decrease
fovea function
responsible for sharp central vision (2% of the visual field)
Controlled processing
slow, serial, attention demanding -with lots of practice, you'll likely switch to automatic processing
1.) Vision
the ability to see/what you see
attention
the capacity to process information -limited resource: you cannot "attend" to everything
For a given amount of S-R alternatives, increasing S-R compatibility decreases RT, which is thought to be the effect of...
the effect of relative difficulty of information processing in the response selection stage, where the more natural linkages between compatible stimuli and responses lead to faster resolution of uncertainty and thus to shorter RTs
Motor RT
the interval between the first change in electrical activity in a muscle and the initiation of a muscle movement
Premotor RT
the interval from the presentation of a stimulus to the initial changes in the electric activity of a muscle
Arousal
the level of excitement
excitatory response (in regard to muscle spindles)
the response of a nerve fiber in which the firing rate increases (turns the muscle on)
choice reaction time
the time it takes to respond to a stimulus when there are multiple responses from which to choose example: quarterback throws ball to open receiver
CPGs play a large role in the control of locomotion (walking, running, etc). Elaborate
they are the reason we don't go through life thinking "left root, right foot, left foot, right foot, left foot, right foot..." -good example later on is the stepping reflex
Local expansion
things in the environment are moving towards you (ex: looming effect)
Example of amplitude
throwing a ball at different distances, you use more force to throw to someone or something further away
Good example of open loop control system
toaster
Feedback
what is happening currently
Interference (distraction)
when the demand for attention (by a task/consent) exceeds your capacity to allocate attention, performance suffers
optic flow
when the entire pattern of light rays change in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world -how we detect motion -think: the pattern that moves across
Hick's Law Practical Application
when uncertainty increases, RT will increase by a predictable amount ex:
Global expansion
you experience forward movement
