LAND 240 Test 1

hadrian's villa

(villa urbana) shifted development away from the public eye with new palaces, theatre, temples, libraries, state rooms, and quarters for slaves. complex of 30 buildings, area of 250 acres; no true principal organized axis; a series of independent axes which collide creating significant intersections; created series of organic sequential discovery

sanctuary of fortuna primigenia

100 b.c. an urban shrine set into a hillside above the town of praeneste, rome; 7 terraces organized arounda central axis; colums (stoa) decorate passageways; the arch had made its way into construction technology - early example.

pergamum

100 b.c. located on a narrow mountain ridge; sought to rival the splendor of the athenian acropolis; a great example of roman ideals absorbed into the acropolis; in some christian teaching, pergamum is where satan dwells and where his throne is. forsook the horizontal grid layout and composed the city vertically; city was laid out in a fan shape and built on successive stages with a theatre as the pivot; an alter for zeus and temple for athena were also moved here; hellenistic theater with a seating capacity of 10,000. this had the steepest seating of any known theater in the ancient world.

ur

2332 b.c. iraq, on euphrates; organic hives of residential activity surrounding religious precincts; massive religious architecture was placed at the center of the cities; massive gates and walls of enclosure were regular.

new grange, ireland

3200 b.c.; 250 ft. wide with three recessed chambers- early cremation ocurred; on the winter solstice, th esun rises through a clerestory above the entranceway, illuminating the central chamber- designed for a ritualistic capturing of the sun on the shortest day of the year; decor- a curbstone carved with triple spiral motifs marks the entranceway; alignments to knowth, dowth and lough crew cairns constellations (paths + markings)

mesopotamia

3500-3000 b.c. between tigris and euphrates rivers; high water tale aided in agricultural yield increase; inccluded summer, akkadian, babylonian, and assyrian empires; first major floodplain cultures; northern setllements began to be socilly organized; a landscape of undulating hills and alluvial soils.

ur-uk

4000 b.c. probably had 50k-80k residents living in about 1500 acres of walled area; making it the largest city in the world; on eof the first cities, broken into districts; marked shift from small, agricultural villages to a larger urban center with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society; the eanna district was composed of several buildings with spaces for workshops, and it was walled off from the city.

yabrai mountain, mongolia

6,000 year old fingerprints and paintings

mehrgarh

7000 b.c. a small farming village- the whole area covers a number of successive settlements; archaeological material has been found in six mounds, and about 32,000 artifacts have been collected; the oldest evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth; lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore; earliest known center of argiculture (now mostly mounds in the desert).

jarmo

7000 b.c. western foothills of zagros mountains, iran; 2000 ft above sea level; alternatively open and wooded plains along a stream; grew wheat, barley, acorns, pistachio, lentils, field peas; raised goats, pigs, wild cattle. a loosely organized grouping of 20-25 houses with 7 people per unit; fashioned from sundried mud on stone foundations; interiors included spaces for cooking; sleeping, and storage; courtyards were used as shared workspaces; marked a change in circular floor plans to rectangular; rectilinear arrangement signified the family unit and allowed for an ease of growing in size.

catal huyuk

7500 b.c. konya plain- antolian plateau, turkey; 3000 ft above sea level; 32 acres in size. fortress-like wall surrounding mud-brick structures whose enterances were on the roof; communication occured via rooftops; courtyards were landfill areas for refuse; livestock was gathered on the periphery; became a huge trading post for obsidian.

villa of poppaea at oplontis

79 b.c. (villa suburbana) a residential suburb of pompeii; hedges lined the paths; 4 sculptural fountains located at primary intersections; paths created smaller interior gardens; many lemon trees and a pool for swimming.

neolithic

8000-1500 BC. new stone age (neo = new) abandoned traditional hunting and gathering systems, developed small permanent settlements, natural resources laid the foundation, agriculture marked the transition of humas as figures in the landscape to shapers of the landscape.

zawi chemi shanidar

8640 b.c. foothills of northern iraq; a cave with a village outside; still paying homage to the chamber of the cave

jericho

9000 b.c. jordan river valley, palestine; 700 ft below sea level; oldest neolithic community in the near east. 10 acre site- became the densest early near east settlement (3000 people); small mud structures with curved walls; rectilinear dwellings grouped around courtyards; a massive town wall surrounding

mycenae

a bronze age culture which occupied the area from 1550 b.c. to 1200 b.c. a trade based culture which sough lavish sites and luxurious architecture; practiced the same religious worshipping as the crete and minoan; sited tehir cities on high points (not natural megarons) with springs within the limestone; rich geology; populations located in close proximity to acropolises (choras much smaller)

city-state

a central city and its surrounding villages which together follow the same law, have one form of government, and share languages, religious beliefs, and ways of life (hierarchy in the landscape).

peristyle

a columned enclosed porch or open colonnade in a building surrounding a court with an internal garden. romans extended the garden into all social classes and forsook the noion of greek mythological gods and goddesses from the landscape- expression of power.

shanidar cave

a compound of circular structures; arranged around shared open spaces; a continuous stone tool industry; building foundations; domesticated deer and goat; evidence of domesticated plants

nile river valley

a government system which regulated the growth of crops; controlled crop storage and divided lands; constructed rudimentary dikes, dams, and canals; the first armies and organization of labor; writing and literacy classes were developed; communication and recordkeeping began; the written word became a symbol, as did constructed portions of the landscape

megaliths

a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. didn't really begin until the neolithic period.

menhir

a large upright standing stone

colonnades

a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building

mohenjo-daro

a major planned settlement around 2200 b.c. nearly two square miles in size; a population of 40,000; a semi-gridded layout organized around main st.; public toilets and bathing facilities; an underground sewage system; temple complex placed on high point.

microliths

a minute shaped flint, typically part of a composite tool such as a spear. the first example of cultural utility of the landscape. used as cutting tools and weapons

giza pyramids

a monumental tomb for a king with a rectangular base which unified the deceased with re, the sun god. the sun was belieed to have emerged from the water and shone down upon a triangular shaped stone (ben-ben); the pyramid is a massive symbolic representation of the ben-ben stone (with axis mundi); original gold capped tops broadcast light and symbolized rebirth. the interior was multifunctional; exterior was aligned to the cosmos. connected to the riverside by long causeways; an axial route connects them to temples, beginning at the mouth of the nile.

porticoes

a porch leading to the entrance of a building with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls

villa

a roman country house built for the upper class (initiation of the rural landscape and city as haven idea was lost). 4 types- villa urbana- followed the form of urbanization; villa rustica- promoted the ideas of the independent farmer and simple ancient values; villa surbana- located on the outskirts of the city; villa marittima- the seaside villa for the wealthy.

fertile crescent

a semicircle of alluvial soils in an otherwise arid landscape; a blunk of the settlements clustered in this region; generally accepted as the origin sight of agriculture.

acropolis

a settlement built upon an area of elevated ground - frequently a hill with steep sides, choosen for purposed of defense (elite residences as well); generally settlement would originate here and spread; the place of religion and communal tradition.

dolmen

a stone grouping with a flat, horizontal stone on top (early land art); once people left the caves, caves began to invert themselves onto the landscape; centered upon fertility, death, and spirits of the underworld; architectural versions of caves

kiva

a sunken or subterranean ceremonial room used in puebloan cultures

obelisk

a tall, narrow, four-sided tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. needle like pyramids placed upon high podiums, elongated pyramids; placed them in pairs at the entrance of temples; said to be a petrified ray of sun, gods dwelled within them.

axis mundi

a vertical center pole uniting heaven, earth, and the underworld. generally enormous existing natural or human resources erected upwards. 6 cardinal planes- north, south, east, west, zenith- highest point that landscape is aligned to, nadir- lowest point that landscape is aligned to

nazca lines, peru

an extensive series of straight lines and animal figures inscribed on a dry lake; the lines were intended to act as an observatory, to point to the places on teh distant horizon where the sun and other celestial bodies rose or set in the solstices; nazcans created them to be seen by their gods in the sky.

mount meru

ancient hindus regarded it as the navel of the universe. the perceived cosmological center of the arrangement of continents, oceans, and celestial bodies. temple - mountain - cities - nature - sea. architecturally symolically mimics a mountain; plan view is symbolic of a mandala a geometric feature representing the universe. links a cave in the center of the earth to celestial above space; energy from the cavemous interior is assumed to radiate up and don the axis mundi.

agora

appeared as cities grew in populationa nd expanded in size (small cities did not have); the center of athletic, artistic, economic, and political life of the city; marketing and trading functions began tto cluster in major institutions within the polis; place of government, commerce, and community (early downtown)

chauvet cave

ardeche region- rhone valley, france. hundreds of animal paintings depicting at least 13 ifferent species, including some rarely or never found in other ice age paintings that exist (well traveled); the walls uniquely feature many predatory animals- cave ions, panthers, bears, and cave hyenas; there are no paintings of complete human figures.

alluvial formation

areas where most humans began to settle and develop a lot of early communities. land forms created by sediment deposits over a long period of time by one a more rigorous from highland regions. the highland area erods due to weathering of water flow or some form of erosion. the sediment from these hills is transported to teh lower plains, generally into these flood plain area, and these are known as alluvial soils.

topos

aristotle - order within the chaos through containment; place as spatial containment. the need to create enclosed, ordered spaces; reflection of hippodamus' grid with definition vertically; city should be categorized as well (8 facets)

hippodamian planning

around 400 b.c. father of modern planning. many major cities after athens used this layout scheme; promoted an oblong rectangular system of blocks and streets (gridiron); divided land into three categories: sacred public, and private (the first zoning); based upon a political system which divided the population into three classes: artesian, soldiers, farmers.

adaptive

based on primitive means of living with the land (paleo)

permanent

based on stable agricultural means of living on the land (neo)

nomadic

based on temporary means of living in the land (meso)

two bison

c. 15,000-10,000 b.c.; unbaked clay; length 25" (63.5 cm) and 24" (60.9 cm); the scene is depicted as a premating ritual

venus of willendorf

c. 28,000-24,000 b.c.; limestone, 4 3/8" (11 cm); austria, naturhistorisches museum, vienna; the apparent large size of the breasts and abbdomen and the detail put into the vuvla have led scholars to interpret the figure as a fertility symbol.

stonehenge, england

c. 2950 b.c. - 1600 b.c.; built by different groups of people at different times; evolved from an earthen embankment, to a wooden structure, to stone stackings; all the stones face the northeast, framing the sunrise on the summer solstice; a circular ditch and bank, about 330 ft. in diameter marked the first phase of construction; extant postholes within the circle indicate the position o a wooden structure from about 2600 b.c.

human with feline head

c. 30,000-26,000 b.c.; mammoth ivory; 11 5/8" (29.6 cm); hohlenstein-stadel, germany/ ulmer museum, ulm, germany; it is uncertain whether the work depicts a composite creature, a human wearing an animal mask, a fantasy or a god

carnac stones, france

carnac stones are the largest collection of menhirs in the world. three major groups (once whole but now fragmented): menec alignment- 11 converging rows, believed to be "cromlechs"- ancient forms of burial areas, vast, somewhat linear, alignment; kermario alignment- means "house of the dead", 1029 fanlike stones, 10 rows, curvilnear middle area; kerlescan alignment- 555 stones, eastern-most sight, 13 rows, tallest stones and a stone circle, flared out buttress (order becomes diminished)

organic growth

chaotically grew through time as determinants changed (most all neolithic)

terrestrial space

composed of the land and all that dwell upon its grounds. the territory occupied by individual or collective inhavitants; as small assemblages of people began to collect together, they hd territory; hugely variable and altered with the cosmological interpretation of each age; art began to mimic terrestrial space boundaries.

stoa

covered walkwaysor porticos, commonly for public usage, lined principle streets, and defined public spaces outline building edges, to three dimensionalize connections

mesolithic

cultures included gradual domestication of plants and animals, early formation of settled camps, use of the bow, and development of delicatebut redimentary stone microliths and pottery

lascaux caves

dordogne region- france. the cavecontains nearly 2000 figures, which can be grouped into three main categories- animals, human figures,and abstract signs. the paintings contain no images of the surrounding landscape or the vegetation of the time. most images painted using mineral pigments although some designs have also been incised into the stone.

landschap

dutch; signified not only the nonhuman aspects of teh landscape, but also the need for the spatial design of human made constructs; a paint of a rural, agricultural scene, or natural scene ioften accompanied by a ruin, mill, disant church spire, local inhabitants, or elite spectators; transition into 3 dimensional.

landskip

earliest term of landscape, used by the English around the pre-17th and 17th century. portion of land which the eye can comprehend at a glance. used by artists and two-dimensional painters. wilderness.

magura cave paintings

early signs of social structure adn stability: weapon creation and manufacturing, movement into less hospitable habitats, growing human control over the environment informal collections of humans, controlling fire, cooking, rudimentary art, development of spirituality. took shape about 15 million years ago in bulgaria. depict silhouettes of women and men dancing and hunting, people waring masks, animals, stars, tools, and plants.

equinox

either of two times of the year when the sun crosses the plane of the earth's equator and day and night are of equal length

stone age

first known period of prehistoric human culture

tigris and euphrates rivers

first major floodplain cultures; northern settlements began to be socially organized; a landscape of undulating hills and alluvial soils; 6000 b.c.

theocracy

form of government in which official policy is governed by divine guidance - kingships defined territories, ceremonial axes, and defined districts by function

aegean

general term for the bronze age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean sea. 3 distrinct but interacting geographic regions: crete, cyclades (greek islands), greek mainlands. difference from near eastern settlements: broad spring fed valleys separated by smaller mountains, higher elevations of drowned mountain systems create a wealth of islands, the sea allowed for more isolation which stabilized cultural paterns more so, much more fragmented settlemetns due to no signular natural line of connectivity, scattered settlements with no mass organizational structure.

landschaft

german; referred more to the working community and its surroundings rther than simply its scenery; allowed for the reshaping of lands according to the constellation of forms and ideas that structured the society in general; 3 dimensional

polis

greek city. should not be so large that the settled area couldn't e taken in in a single view (landskip); must be both easily accessible and defensible; it shoudl have a natural abundance of springs and reservoirs; straight major streets were generally used; two nuclei- the acropolis and the agora

spotted horses and human hands

horses 25,000-24,000 b.c., hands 15,000 b.c.; paint of limestone; individual horses are over 5' (1.5 m) in length; pech-merie cave, dordogne, france; this area once had a great river flowing through it, cutting underground channels which were later used by humans for shelter and eventually for mural painting.

geoglyph

images inscribed on the earth

hall of bulls

inside lascaux caves, dordogne region- france. 15,000 b.c.; length of the largest auroch (bull) 18' (5.5m); lascaux paintings may incorporate prehistoric star charts linking the mobile bison

erbil

iraq 1500 b.c. was organized around water resources provided by the qanat; canals and surrounding maots were regular; parks were its key feature - known as paindaeza (walled hunting parks); exotic non-native trees characterized the landscape

summer solstice

june 21st, when the sun is at its northernmost point; longest day of the year

winter solstice

june 22nd, when teh sun is at its southernmost point; shortest day of the year

the temples of mentuhotep 2

karnak 2055 b.c. built into a rock face; a high square colannaded platform, and a sycamore lined forecourt were connected through an axial funerary procession; temples became primary elements for all ancient nile river settlements and eventually smaller elements of religous symbolism began to dot the landscape; architraves.

salvatierra, spain

location of dolmen

ziggurat

massive monuments having the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels; mountains were still seen as a link to the sky deities; an attempt to mimic the mountains and the axis mundi through architectures; construction of clay and mud brick made them permeable to water; extremely intricate design of the time.

bison

medium: paint on limestone; size- 8'3" (2.5 m); date- c. 12500 b.c.; source/museum: ceiling of a cave at altamira, spain; the first cave in which prehistoric cave paintings were discovered

cliff palace

mesa verde, CO. a small settlement etchd into a mountain face; in the crevices were kivas; cliff faces were sheltering open air caves (communion with gods); ancestral puebloan culture.

taurus mountains

metal pulled from mountains- arsenic, copper, tin, iron, gold, silver, and lead. source of urban power.

mesolithic era

middle stone age; meso-middle; 10,000-4500 b.c. in theory

watson brake

monroe, LA. earliest evidence of a constructed landscape in teh americas; a series of constructed large earthen mounds; 11 mounds linked by earthen ridges to form an ovular enclosure; purpose was ceremonial funerary proceses; center area was a plaza space.

neolithic era

new stone age; neo-new; 8000-1500 b.c. in theory

paleolithic era

old stone age (paleo - old, lithos - stone) c. 40,000-8,000 b.c. in theory

chora

outlying environments and regional space; connections for trade, defense, and building materials

songlines, australia

paths across the land (or, sometimes in the sky) which marks the route followed by 'creator-beings'; native peoples on earth are believed to have used music as wayfinding mechanisms; by singing the songs in teh appropriate sequence, indigenous people could navigate vast distances, often traveling through the deserts of australia's interior

knossos

peaceful, nonmilitaristic, ship building area; placed within a "natural megaron"- an enclosed area due to natural geography; wall-less, a major religious center; labyrinth was the most important religious complex on crete; a place of pilgrimage from other islands.

paleolithic

people were generally nomadic hunters and gatherers who sheltered in caves, used fire, and used non-fashioned stone tools; by the upper paleolithic there is evidence of communcal hunting, constructed shelters, and belief systems centering on magic and the supernatural. rack carving and paintings reached their peak.

volcanism

phenomenon of eruption of molten rock, magma, onto the surface of the earth. resulted in a huge amount of land.

house of octavius quartio

pompeii. small residential landscapes for merchant class citizens; seating areas; vine covered porticoes; small water features or pools; lush vegetation; pedestrian bridges; precursor to villa as building unit.

erosion

process by which soil and rock can be removed fromt eh earth's surface from exogenous processes such as wind, water flow, glaciers, flooding, freezing, and thawing, these soil and rock particles are transported and deposited at other locations.

mimis and kangaroo

red and yellow ocher and white pipe clay; older painting 16,000-7,000 b.c.; prehistoric rock art, oenpelli, amhem land, australia; the aboriginals believe that everything is going on at once- past/present/future. the mimi spirits are hunting kangaroos. these spirits taught people how to hunt.

demes

regional villages or towns ( grew to get agora); smaller outlying hamlets which mimicked the larger polis

athens

residential populations abandonded the acropolis and spread out on the lower ground. temples werelocated in close proximity to the agora; the propylon- the gateway separating the temples from the rest ofthe city. sited to frame the view of island of salamis (where the greeks defeated the persians in 480 b.c.) functional dispersal (connected to the sea by a wall); academic academies (plato and aristotle) were established; first niversities; gymnasiums were typically outside of the town walls; residences were generally modest while the major civic states were lavish.

paleolithic cave paintings

scenes in which animals mated, defecated, fought, charged, and/or were fleeing and dying from wounds inflicted by hunters were drawn and recreated the scenes of everyday life. most of these animals were drawn to scale. believed to be an expression of thanks to the spirits

cosquer cave

sea level was lower at the time because there was an ice age and large volumes of water were retained in enormous icecaps on land. today the cave can be accessed through a long tunnel. 4/5 of the cave, including any art on its walls, were submerged and obliterated by the rising sea. 150 instances of cave art remain.

indus river valley

settlements clustered around india river. settlement began around 7000 b.c.; permanent villages sprouted around 3500 b.c.; another aquatic area within a desert (indus river); settlement is chaotic with a mixture communities, major cities, and small villages.

zagros mountains

source of urban power

grotto of tiberius

sperlonga, rome 79 b.c. (villa marittima) famous for its luxurious villas; function as a holy place with a natural seaside cave; cave was extended into the landscape; a fish pong with an area for outdoor banqueting.

paleolithic art

symbolism- rituals for continued fertility, intergenerational transfer of knowledge, hunting instructional manuals, assertion of power by other tribes- the taking of spaces by humans

classicism

the aesthetic values embodied in ancient greek and roman art and architecture. simplicity of form; harmonious proportion; ornament that draws attention to significant parts of structures.

architrave

the beam that rests on the top of teh columns - estimated to weigh 7 tons

chaco canyon, az

the beginning of a regional center and public space; purpose of the kivas and plazas here was to provide a space in which humans could acknowledge and participate in teh cosmic connection between earth's orienation and the sky; the kivas and plazas were centered around a central axis; a puebloan festival center and nexus for surrounding civilzations.

animism

the belief that such elements as wind and water had conscious life and that spirit forces dwelt within trees, birds, fish, reptiles, and mammals; the ziggurat expressed a human desire to forge connections between humans and the multi-spirited universe; dependency on nature for life made it sacred

processional axes

the ceremonial way developed in conjunction with religious rituals in which priests and populace assembled before ziggurats, pyramids, and temples. a program of movement along axial streets connected significant spaces.

continental drift

the earth's continents were once joined together and have moved away from each other at different times in earth's history. this theory is the movement of the earth's continents relative to each other by appearing to drift across the ocean bed. this theory was first put forward by abraham ortellus in 1596 but the concept was more fully developed about 400 years later, by alfred wegner around 1912.

daemon

the natural shrines ( see spatial hierophany) - sacred woods, springs, and mountain caves- uniting the urban areas to the non-developed areas; we see much building atop of sacred spaces in greece, not leaving them be.

spatial hierophany

the notion that within the larger sanctity of nature, some places especially sacred. certain objects already aligned themselves cosmologically; stood out in contrast to their surroundings; nearly a universal principle in prehistoric cultures.

decumanus

the primary east-west running street

cardo

the primary north-south running street

genius loci

the spirit of a place and the idea of guardian deities of place. the belief that the natural world is embedded with divinity and that the built environment should bbe a microcosm of the divinit (generally based on the cosmos)

delphi

the spiritual center sacred to all greeks- not just mycenaean; pilgrimages were made to consult oracles; a journey for men who lacked governmental roles and didn't take part in athletic contests; delphic oracle, the most important oracle in the classical greek world.

turriga mother goddess

this mother goddess was found in senorbi, a turriga locality in the island of sardinia, italy, in the ruins of a neolithic village. it's frm clearly represents fertility and is very reminiscent of the cycladic art from greece.

matera, italy

three primary design aspects of old world caves: passage- the linkages of internal caverns and their connection to nature, chamber- the haven and homestead value of caves, art- the manifestation of cultural norms and decor of the passage and chamber.

ben-ben

triangular shaped stone

planned growth

were carefully laid out with decisions made based on determinants

miletus, greece (turkey)

while athens had unplanned growth, miletus was a designed city. habitual circulation patterns were used in athens, while miletus was a grid network; destroyed by the persians in a fire, a grid plan of uniform block sizes was created; subdividing land orthogonally had usually only been used for principle streets; one of the first examples of a flly designed layout of a city plan.