Leading People
Managers and Power
A manager's need for power ought to be greater than the need to be liked High need for power = concern for influencing people The most effective managers = power + high inhibition Power goal = make subordinates feel strong rather than weak
Forms of Discrimination
Discriminatory Policies -Actions that deny equal opportunity to perform or unequal rewards (e.g., older workers targeted for layoffs b/c highly paid w/ high benefits) Intimidation -Overt threats or bullying directed at members of specific groups (e.g., swastika marked on a Jewish person's workstation) Mockery/Insults -(Jokes or negative stereotypes (e.g., Arab-Americans asked if they were a terrorist) Exclusion - Exclusions from job opportunities, social events, discussions or mentoring (e.g., Women assigned tasks that don't lead to promotion) Incivility - Disrespectful treatment—acting aggressively, interrupting or ignoring (e.g., Women being ignored at a meeting) Sexual Harassment - Unwanted sexual advances; verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates a hostile or offensive work environment (e.g., bringing strippers into the office for celebrations
Group Property 6: Diversity
Increased diversity leads to increased conflict May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse groups may perform better
Representative: Biasing Factors
Not sensitive to statistical information Not sensitive to sample size Misconceptions of chance
Feeling Excluded Exercise
Recall a time when you have felt uncomfortable or targeted because of your demographic status (race, ethnicity, gender, religion, etc.) Briefly described the situation, how you felt, reacted, etc. Think about when you deliberately or accidently did something that made someone else feel excluded or targeted because of their demographic status. Briefly described the situation, what precipitated the event, how you felt, how other reacted, etc. Deliverable: Develop a brief list of what behaviors lead people to feel targeted or excluded. Be specific. Create a list of principles for how you can avoid excluding or targeting people in the future. Be specific.
Anchoring and Adjustment: Biasing Factors
Uncertainty Low Confidence
Groupthink*: A Group Decision Making Problem
*A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action
Group Property 3: Status*
*A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others • What determines status? - Power over others, ability to contribute to group goals, and personal characteristics • Status and norms - High-status members are less restrained by norms and pressure to conform; are given more freedom to deviate from norms than others • Status and group interaction - High-status members are more assertive; large status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativity and may also result in deviant behavior • Status and culture Managers must understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from another culture.
Behavioral Leadership Ohio State Studies
*Behavioral theory assumes that leadership is a skill set and can be taught to anyone, so we must identify the proper behaviors to teach potential leaders
Contingency Theories*: LPC Model
*Contingency theories consider the environment in which the leader exists in addition to traits and behavior
Group Property 5: Cohesiveness*
*Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group Increasing group cohesiveness: Make the group smaller Encourage agreement with group goals Increase time members spend together Increase group status and admission difficultly Stimulate competition with other groups Give rewards to the group, not individuals Physically isolate the group Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity
Factors for Successful Diversity Management
- Diversity Focused Policies; Legal Framework - Regular Monitoring & Evaluation - Available Training and Resources for Program Implementation - Clear Reward System and Accountability - Personal Development for All Workers - Clear and Consistent Personnel Decisions - Attracting and, Selecting Diverse Employees - Support from Top Levels; Convey advantages of diversity - Diversity Focused Policies; Legal Framework
Types of Teams
- Problem-solving - Self-managed - Cross-functional
Group Properties
- roles - norms - status - cohesiveness - size
Availability: Biasing Factors
-Ease of Recall -Familiarity -Vividness -Recency
The Five Stages of Group Development
1. Forming - Members feel much uncertainty about the group's purpose, structure, and leadership; complete when think of selves as part of a group 2. Storming - Lots of conflict between members of the group; complete when clear hierarchy of leadership in place 3. Norming - Members have developed close relationships and cohesiveness; complete when have common expectations 4. Performing - The group is finally fully functional 5. Adjourning - In temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance
Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
1. Identify the problem 2. Establish decision criteria 3. Weigh decision criteria 4. Generate alternatives 5. Evaluate the alternatives 6. Choose the best alternatives 7. Implement the decision 8. Evaluate the decision
FYI: Norms-How They Develop
1. Precedents set over time (seating location of each group member around a table) 2. Carryovers from other situations (professional standards of conduct) 3. Explicit statements from others (working a certain way because you are told that's how we do it around here)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Advantages - pooling of resources - different perspectives - specialization of labor - decision acceptance Disadvantages - waste time - conformity pressure - group conflict or domination - ambiguous responsbiliity
Power
Capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B The more someone is dependent on you, the more power you have over that person
Social Loafing: A Universal Phenomenon?
Certain cultures perform better in groups (i.e., china and israel)
Framing: Biasing Factors
Choice of Reference Point Transaction vs. Acquisition Utility
Some Hidden Aspects of Diversity
Cognitive—how we approach problems Discipline—different knowledge; different solutions Cultural—norms of interaction and communication Multiple identities—woman, engineer, mother, project leader...which one do others see?
3 C's of Managing Your Boss
Compassion: An empathic understanding of your boss, his/her environment, personal style - Must know yourself and your own strengths, weaknesses, preferences and personal style Cultivation: Developing mutual expectations and communication style that fits both party's needs - Keep boss informed, help boss succeed, reduce complications in life Credibility: Trustworthy source of information and performance - Be a team player, never bad mouth, go the extra mile
Groups Decision Making: Complex vs. Simple Problems
Complex Problem
Building High Performance Teams
Context - Adequate resources, leadership and structure, trust, performance evaluation and rewards Composition - Ability, personality, size, roles, diversity Work Design - Autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance Process - Common purpose and specific goals ~ provides direction - Team efficacy ~ team believes it can succeed - Mental model ~share accurate beliefs about how the work gets done - Conflict level ~task conflict, not relationship conflict - Social loafing ~hold individual and team accountable
Escalation
Continuing to commit additional resources to a seemingly failing endeavor based on the hope that there will be a positive change or to justify previously made decisions
EFFECTIVE WORKING RELATIONSHIPS
DO'S • Learn everything you can about your boss- check your assumptions and clarify expectations • Find out what would further your boss's success and help deliver it • Adapt your work style and habits to those of the boss; do not expect the boss to adapt to yours • Find out what your boss's goals and objectives at work are • Make yourself indispensable by learning what your boss needs to know • Be a good listener - rather than arguing, help your boss explore issues by asking probing, open-ended, but supportive questions • Keep your boss informed about what is going on • Communicate with your boss in the manner he or she prefers • Manage your own performance - initiate regular reviews on how you are doing and make sure your work is visible. Don't assume your boss knows everything you are doing. DONT'S ___________________ • Expose the boss to surprises - if there is bad news, you must deliver it yourself • Go over the boss's head to a more superior manager except in very rare situations • Be defensive when criticized - instead focus on the facts • Criticize your boss inside or outside of the organization; never assume anything you say will remain confidential
Five Steps for a Rational Problem Solving Process
Define and analyze the situation Set objectives Develop alternative courses of action Identify obstacles and adverse consequences Reach consensus decisions
Deviant Workplace Behavior*
Deviant workplace behavior - Workplace incivility that threatens the well-being of the organization Norms encourage conformity to the reference group—the group to which one would like to belong Group norms can encourage deviance Simply belonging to a group increases the likelihood of deviance Types of Deviant Workplace Behavior: Production - working speed and leaving early Property - damage and stealing from organization Political - favoritism and negative gossip Personal Aggression - verbal abuse and stealing from co-workers
FYI: Path-Goal Application
Directive - when employees have: - high role ambiguity - have low abilities - external locus of control Supportive: when tasks are: - boring and repetitive - stressful Participative: when: - employees have high abilities - the decision is relevant to employees - employees have high internal locus of control Achievement-oriented: when employees have: - high abilities - high achievement
Two Major Forms of Workforce Diversity
Diversity Management= - surface level diversity - deep level diversity
TRAITS OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERS
Drive - Desire for achievement; ambition; high energy; tenacity; initiative Honesty and integrity- Trustworthy; reliable; open Leadership motivation - Desire to exercise influence over others to reach shared goals Self‐confidence - Trust in own abilities Cognitive ability -Intelligence; ability to interpret large amounts of information Knowledge of the business -Knowledge of industry, relevant technical matters Creativity -Originality Flexibility -Ability to adapt to trends of followers and requirements of situation *Traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than actually distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.
Effectiveness of Influence Tactics
EFFECTIVE • Rational persuasion • Emotional/ inspirational appeals • Consultation • Exchange* Note: All more effective with interest-based approach - what's in it for them? EFFECTIVE FOR SOME • Ingratiating/ liking tactics • Coalition formation INEFFECTIVE • Authority • Pressure
Potential Problems with Diversity Training
Emotional tension is heightened - Talking about prejudices is likely to make people feel uneasy. Training needs to be conducted in a "safe", comfortable environment. Possibility of polarization - Avoid discussions that have yes or no answers, (e.g., "should gays be allowed in the military?"). Instead, encourage consideration of a broad range of options. Some people may have personal "axes" to grind - Training sessions should not provide platforms for people who want to vent abut past problems. Facilitators should keep the group on target. Personal attacks may occur - Strong opinions on diversity issues may box people into corners. Treat everyone with respect and dignity. Reactions to training will be varied - Some may welcome the training; whereas others may resent having to go through it. Addressing these feelings would be made a part of training sessions. White males tend to be blamed Timing may be problematic. - Avoid adding to stress by not scheduling sessions during periods in which other sensitive events (e.g., layoffs, contract negotiations) are occurring. Reasons for training may be Disingenuous - Diversity training works best when it is part of a strategic effort on the part of management to change policies so as to make a more "inclusive" organization. However, training conducted because "everyone's doing it" is likely to fail -- and maybe even backfire.
Leadership Traits and Big Five Personality
Essential Leadership Traits • Extroversion • Conscientiousness • Openness • Emotional Intelligence *Trait theory assumes that leadership is inherent, so we must identify the leader based on his or her traits
Sources of Power
Expertise* - Leads to attitude change • Personal Qualities* - (Charisma/Referent, Effort/Track Record, Authenticity/Commitment, Confidence) • Access to Resources (Information, People) •Network/Association/Relationships ------------------- Used by those who feel week • Control of Resources (Rewards, Punishments/Coercive^) • Position (Legitimate^, Criticality/Relevance, Centrality, Visibility, Flexibility)
Track Record: How Power is Built Over One's Career
Fit/learning Opportunity -> Stretch assignments, Network of Relationships -> Expertise -> Track Record/Credibility -> Stretch Assignments (Criticality, Flexibility, Visibility), Network grows Centrality Increases -> Expertise ->Track Record/Credibility -> Stretch Assignments (criticality, Flexibility, Visibility), Network grows Centrality Increases
Influence
Getting people to do things they normally would not do
Differences between Groups and Teams
Group -A group interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility - No joint effort required Team Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. The individual efforts result in a performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs
Group Decision Making
Group Strengths: Generate more complete information and knowledge Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity Increased acceptance of decisions Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most accurate group member) Group Weaknesses: Time-consuming activity Conformity pressures in the group Discussions can be dominated by a few members A situation of ambiguous responsibility
Groups vs. Teams
Groups: are often described as two or more people with a reason to be together e.g., fans cheering for Brazil at the World Cup A team:, on the other hand, is interdependent, achieving a common goal, and see themselves as a social identity e.g., Brazil's World Cup Soccer team
Improving Decision Making
Identify areas where your judgments may be biased Examine the causes of the bias Allow psychological distance
The Case for Diversity
Increases pool of talent Diverse teams produce better results Helps understand customer if reflects the customer
Factors that Influence Political Behavior*
Individual factors - high self-monitors - internal locus of control - high mach personality - organizational investment - perceived job alternatives - expectations of success Organizational Factors - reallocation of resources - promotion of opportunities - low trust - role ambiguity - unclear performance evaluation system - Zero-sum reward practices - Democratic decision making - high performance pressures - self-serving senior managers Political Behavior low -> high Favorable Outcomes - rewards - averted punishments *Political behavior: Activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but attempt to influence the distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the organization
Availability Heuristic
Judging the frequency or likelihood of an event by how easily instances of the event come to mind
Leaders vs. Managers (Walt vs. Roy Disney)
Leaders • Innovate • Develop • Inspire • Long-term view • Ask what and why • Originate • Challenge the status quo Managers • Administer • Maintain • Control • Short-term view • Ask how and when • Initiate • Accept the status quo
Leaders and Managers
Leaders Job - establish organization vision -> formulate strategy for implementing vision Manager's Job - implement organization strategy
Representative Heuristic
Making a judgment based on the resemblance to a typical case while ignoring information about averages or prior probabilities
Group Property 2: Norms*
Norms- acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members Classes of Norms Performance norms - level of acceptable work Appearance norms - what to wear Social arrangement norms - friendships Allocation of resources norms - assignments of jobs and material Hawthorne Studies (an examination on the effects of norms on worker behavior) Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual behavior and output (no rate busters or chislers!) Norms enforced through sarcasm, name-calling, ridicule, and even punches to the arms of violators
Framing Effects: An Empirical Demonstration
People seek risk when losing. Avoid risk when winning.
Reactions to High Level of Politics
Perceptions of organization politics -> decreased job satisfaction -> increased anxiety and stress -> increased turnover - reduced performance
Escalation: Biasing Factors
Perceptual biases (confirmation) -Look for disconfirming evidence Judgmental biases (loss from initial investment) -Seek other reference points Impression Management -Reward for process not just outcome Competition -Examine why continuing actions
Heuristics
Quick rules of thumb that reduce information processing demands on decision makers
Group Property 1: Roles*
Role Perception - an individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation (internship programs help prepare for his/her role in an organization) Psychological Contract - an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual expectations of what management expect from employees and vice versa (violations of the contract lead to low productivity, high theft and high turnover) Role Conflict - employees experience significant stress when their work and family roles conflict Zimbardo's Prison Experiement - showed how quickly people learn new roles and are affected by their expectations * Roles- a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit
Typical barriers to effective communication
SENDER: Filtering (choice of words) Overload (too much information for receiver to process) Timing (receiver not ready to hear message) Channel Misusage (using email instead of face to face) RECEIVER: Emotions (affect interpretation) Perceptions (credible or reliable source)
Group Properties - Size
Social Loafing - The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually Ringelmann's Rope Pull: greater levels of productivity but with diminishing returns as group size increases - caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of responsibility (free riders)
Types of Diversity
Surface Level (biological characteristics) - gender - race - ethnicity - age - disability Deep Level - tenure - religion - sexual orientation/gender identity - physical ability - intellectual ability - marital status - educational background - union affiliation - functional level/classification - division unit/group - work location workforce diversity - any characteristic that makes people different from one another
Influence Without Authority— currencies for exchange relationships
Task—gets things done • Resources • Support • Knowledge Position—enhance status • Advancement • Recognition • Visibility • Reputation • Network • Belonging Inspiration—provides meaning • Vision • Opportunity for Excellence Relational—enhance relationships • Personal Support • Understanding and Listening Personal—enhance self • Affirming worth • Challenges (skills) • Involvement (ownership) • Gratitude
Beware! Teams Aren't Always the Answer
Teams take more time and resources than does individual work. Three tests to see if a team fits the situation: Is the work complex and is there a need for different perspectives - will it be better with the insights of more than one person? Does the work require synergy (process gains greater than the aggregate individuals)? Are members of the group involved in interdependent tasks?
Punctuated-Equilibrium Model: An Alternative Model for Group Formation
Temporary groups with deadlines don't follow the five-stage model; they go through transitions between inertia and activity—at the halfway point, they experience an increase in productivity. -Sequence of Actions- -Setting group direction -First phase of inertia -Half-way point transition -Major changes -Second phase of inertia -Accelerated activity
Framing
Tendency to make different decisions based on how a problem is presented (gains vs. losses)
Gambler's Fallacy "Law of Small Numbers"
The belief that data collected by a randomprocess will look random; however, thesequence collected is too short (i.e., too smallof a sample) for the process to express itself statistically
Management of Diversity
The set of activities involved in integrating nontraditional employees into the work force and using their diversity to the firm's competitive advantage
Overconfidence
The tendency to believe in your ability to be correct or accurate more often than is really true When people say they are 100% sure of an outcome they tend to be 70‐85% correct Most likely to occur outside our area of expertise Those whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability Fail to adequately consider risks or prepare a plan B
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to gather or accept information that confirms our initial beliefs while being critical of information that challenges them. We are most prone to the confirmation bias when we believe we have good information and strongly believe in our opinions
Leadership: Transactional, Transformational, and Authentic
Transactional • Guides or motivates their followers in the direction of established goals • Clarifies roles and tasks • Uses contingent rewards Transformational • Inspires followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization • Pays attention to individual followers and helps develop them • Empowers, coaches and advises • Encourages and intellectually challenges Authentic • Builds Trust • Sharing information • Encourages open communication • Sticks to their ideals (values)
Summary: Checklist for managing your boss
Understand your boss and his or her context: • Goals and objectives • Strengths, weaknesses, blind spots • Preferred work style Assess yourself and your needs: • Strengths and weaknesses • Personal style Develop and maintain a relationship that: • Fits both your needs and styles • Is characterized by mutual expectations • Keeps your boss informed • Is based on dependability and honesty • Selectively uses your boss's time and resources
FYI: Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction
Upward Influence - Rational persuasion Downward Influence - Rational persuasion - Inspirational Appeals - Pressure - Consultation - Ingratiation - Exchange - Legitimacy Lateral Influence - Rational Persuasion - Consultation - Ingratiation - Exchange - Legitimacy - Personal Appeals - Coalitions
Anchoring and Adjustment
Using an initial judgment as an anchor on which subsequent decisions are based The Primacy Effect and Anchoring may combine, for example if a list of possible sentences is given to a jury, they will be anchored by the first option
MANAGING YOUR BOSS
WHY • Your success is linked to your boss's -you either succeed together or fail together • You can best meet your needs by ensuring the boss meets his/her needs • A difficult, unproductive working relationship with your boss is one of the greatest sources of stress in the workplace Managing your boss: consciously working with your superior to obtain the best possible results for you, your boss, and your company
The Rationally Bounded Decision Maker
We suffer bounded rationality! We have cognitive limitations which makes it impossible to assimilate and understand all information necessary to optimize a decision Respond by reducing information to a level which can be readily understood We are satisficers —seeking the satisfactory solution rather than the optimal one We apply our rationality only after having greatly simplified the choices available.
Communication: The #1 Source of Conflict in Organizations
yup
Charismatic Leadership Behaviors
• Articulates overarching goal-vision • Communicates high performance expectations • Exhibits confidence and enthusiasm in the ability of followers to meet expectations • Empathizes with the needs of their followers • Uses whole body when speaking-paces, sits on desk edge, leans toward, eye contact, relaxed posture, and animated face • Captivating and engaging voice tone
Preventing Groupthink
• As a leader, avoid statements about your preferred alternative; foster an open climate for discussion or use sub-groups • Encourage the sharing of objections and critical evaluation; assign a devil's advocate (explore the negative) • Hold second chance meetings to allow members time to re-assess • Avoid insulating the group from outside criticism • Once consensus is reached, reexamine the next alternative, comparing it to the chosen course of action
Overcoming Social Loafing
• Build in individual accountability • Prevent social loafing by: Setting group goals and establishing roles Increasing intergroup competition Using peer evaluation Selecting highly motivated members Distributing group rewards based on individual effort • Most often in Western (individualistic) cultures
Leadership Effectiveness
• Depends on the characteristics of the leader, the follower and the situation • The leader sets the vision and articulates the vision— managers implement the vision Leadership is the process of influencing others toward the achievement of shared goals—not just a person or position
Informal Authority Influence
• Dress • Assertive tone of voice • Air of confidence • Height, formal dress, lower voice, gray hair • Statistics • Direct eye contact • Emphatic gestures
Summary: Behavioral Guidelines for Improving your Influence
• Enhance personal power by improving your expertise, personal attraction, effort and confidence • Increase position power by improving your centrality, flexibility, visibility, and relevance • Use logic/reason, emotional appeals, consultation and reciprocity to influence; consider ingratiation and coalition strategies where appropriate
How to Win Over Others?
• Establish rapport and build trust* - get to know them before you ask them for their cooperation • Show you care about their interests and needs - don't approach the other based on what you need; listen and acknowledge their needs first • Identify common interests - don't sell the other why it is good for them, let them come to the conclusion on their own You cannot force anyone to accept anything you say. You can only help people to persuade themselves.
Tools that Increase Influence
• Expertise, confidence and/or authority (nonverbal cues* etc., language, statistics) • Appealing to emotions (Vivid images, emotions, stories, personal experiences, metaphors) • Liking and rapport (Attractive, similar, familiar, ingratiating, empathetic, mirroring, communication style) • Scarcity (desire what is limited) • Social proof (the norm) • Reciprocity (exchange; door in face) • Commitment and consistency (foot in door; saying yes)
Groupthink: Another Look
• Group members rationalize any resistance to the assumptions they have made • Members apply direct pressures on those who express doubts or who question the alternative favored by the majority • Members who have doubts or differing points of view keep silent about misgivings • There appears to be an illusion of unanimity Groupshift (A special case of groupthink) • Group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold, causing a shift to more conservative or more risky behavior.
Group Property 4: Size
• Group size affects behavior • Size: - Twelve or more members is a "large" group - Seven or fewer is a "small" group
Tips For Effective Networking
• Include several levels of the organization in your network • Increase opportunities by including customers and suppliers in your network • Have network ties to own group and the dominant group in the company • Have network contacts that extend beyond required work-related interactions Important! Effective networking involves an exchange relationship
FYI: Symptoms of a Team Problem
• Poor atmosphere whispering side conversations a few dominate discussions • Discussion jumps around • Discussion of real feelings/ ideas after meeting • Lack of information sharing • Coalition formation • Overly polite • Conflict ignored or suppressed • Quiet people ignored
Transforming Power into Influence
• Power is a necessary precondition of influence • Influential people have power, but not all powerful people have influence
Remedies for Escalation
• Set limits on your involvement and commitment in advance • Avoid looking to others • Actively determine why you are continuing • Remind yourself of ultimate costs involved
What Creates Dependency?
• The resource is important • Scarcity of resources • Nonsubstitutability of resources
