Learning, Memory, Attitude, Behavior
Positive transfer of memory
When previously learned information facilitates the learning of new information. - knowing english helps learning Spanish
Neural plasticity
malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses -based on behavior, environment, and neural processes. -brain undergoes changes throughout life
*Negative reinforcement*
*Removing undesirable stimulus* -Undesirable stimulus that is removed following a certain behavior. - the electric shock (- reinforcement) is removed after pushing the lever. -increases the likelihood of the targeted behavior (pushing the lever) - *Amygdala involved*
Theories of intelligence
*1. Theory of intelligence* by *Francis Galton* - 1800s -Intelligence has strong biological basis -can be quantified by testing cognitive tasks -*Genetically determined* *2. Stanford-Binet Intelligence scale* - aka IQ test -Quantify intelligence *3. General intelligence* (g) - *Charles Spearman* - also believed intelligence can be quantified through cognitive tests. *4. Raymond Cattell*: 2 types of intelligence -1. *Fluid intelligence* (Gf) -ability to think on your feet -ability to solve novel problems -2. *Crystallized intelligence* (Gc) - ability recall and apply already learned info - (used in school, learn and take tests) *5. Social intelligence* - by *Edward Thorndike* -1920 -*ability to manage and understand people* - lead to development emotional intelligence *6. Emotional intelligence* - ability to be well attuned to one's emotions - ability to accurately intuit others' emotions Good leadership skills, good interpersonal skills, positive outcomes in classroom are correlated with both emotional and social intelligence.
Social cognitive Theory
*A theory of behavior change* 1. *Cognition* 2. *Learning* 3. *Social influence* How we interpret and respond to external stimuli. How our past experience, memories, and expectations influence our behaviors *Reciprocal determinism*: -interaction between *behavior*, *personal factors* and *environment* 1. People choose their environment, and in return the environment have influence on them. 2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment. 3. Personality influences how you react (behavior).
Are adapted children's personality more similar to their biological parents or their adapted parents
*Adapted children* have *personalities* more similar to their *biological parents* i.e agreeableness, extraversion, introversion. BUT: *Adapted children* have *attitudes, values, manners, politics* more similar to their *adopted parents*
Positive reinforcement
*Adding positive stimulus* -Desirable stimulus that follows a certain behavior. -food (+ reinforcement) given to rat after pushing the lever. -increases the likelihood of the targeted behavior (pushing the lever) -*hippocampus involved*
Parenting Style
*Authoritarian* -attempting to control children -strict rules -expected to follow unconditionally -utilize punishment -will not explain reasoning behind rules - demanding but nor responsive to child - dont provide warmth or nurturing -Characteristics of these Children: more aggressive, shy, fearful, lower self-esteem -difficulty with social interaction *Permissive* -allow the child to lead the show -few rules & demands -rarely discipline the child -responsive and loving toward child - lenient -Characteristics of these Children: lack self-discipline, may be demanding, poor social skills. *Authoritative* - listen to the child -encourage independence -place limits on behavior -consistent with rules and consequences -allow children express, discuss options -discipline the child -*BEST PARENTIN STYLE* -Characteristics of these Children: happier, good emotional control, good social skills, confident in abilities.
Which type of reinforcement schedule would have the fastest behavior acquisition time? Explain the downsides
*Continuous Reinforcement* (reinforcement given after every single response) -fastest behavior acquisition time *BUT*: also -fastest rate of extinction. -Slow response rate
Two specific types of operant learning: Escape vs. Avoidance learning
*Escape learning* -learns how to get away (Terminates from the current aversive stimulus (punishment) by engaging in a particular behavior -i.e. the child wants to escape from eating vegetables (aversive stimulus) by throwing a temper tantrum (behavior). -If reinforced by the parents (they don't force the child to eat the veggies), the child learns the behavior (throwing tantrum --> not eating veggies) - has an element of *surprise* The aversive stimulus is given w/out a prior notice, or else the child --> escape learning If prior cues for the aversive stimuli are given, the child --> avoidance learning. *Avoidance learning* - learns how to avoid a future aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior to ensure that aversive stimulus does not occur. - aversive behavior= eating veggies. - child might pretend that he has as stomach flu to avoid eating the veggies. The learning occurs for both escape and avoidance as long as the behavior is reinforced (the parents do not force the child to eat the veggies).
Semantic networks
*Nodes*= individual ideas/info Associations- linking nodes together Strength of association: 1: Frequency of connections made 2: Depth of connections. Nodes are not activated until signals are strong enough --> *response threshold*. -input signals= cumulative -summation of signals from multiple nodes. Stronger memories --> more neural connections (more dendrites) --> more quickly & stronger summation --> quicker threshold *Spreading activation* -once one node reaches the response threshold --> sends stimulus to all the neighboring nodes --> when retrieving information, we start at one node, but don't choose where we end up. ac explains why hints are helpful: -activate nodes closely connected to the node of interest.
What are Primary and Secondary reinforcements in operant conditioning
*Primary Reinforcement* -unconditioned reinforcement. -Intrinsically desirable. -ex. + 1˚ reinforcement: Food -ex - 1˚ reinforcement: Pain avoidance *Secondary Reinforcement* - Conditioned reinforcement - must be paired with a primary reinforcement to b able to produce learned behavior. - ex. 1. Behavior= reading books 2. 2˚ reinforcement: stamps given after each book 3. 1˚ reinforcement that was paired with 2˚ reinforcement= Pizza given in exchange of 10 stamps. 2˚ reinforcement can also be paired with existing 2˚ reinforcement that was previously paired with 1˚ reinforcement.
Working memory vs. short term memory
*Short term memory* -*hippocampus* -new info is sought to be remembered -resides temporarily to either -> long term memory -or --> forgotten. *Working memory* -involves *prefrontal cortex* -storage bin to hold memories (short/long term) that are needed at a time to process other info/ solve a problem. -bringing short/long term memory into workin memory so they can be used for a certain occasion.
Two stages of specialize movement
*Transitional stage* & *application stage* *A*: *Transitional stage* -combination of movements occur -i.e grasping, showering jumping to play ball *B*: *Application stage* -conscious decisions to apply skills -application of strategy to movement. -i.e choosing to delay shooting/dribbling.
Intelligence definitions
*ability to learn from experience, problem-solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations* -not a single neurological trait that defines intelligence.
Fundamental movement stage
- *2-7 years old* -child is learning how to manipulate body - i.e running, jumping, throwing, catching. - largely affected by environment & culture. - movements first uncoordinated/uncontrolled --> more refined/coordinated/ efficient.
Intellectual disability
- individuals with *< 70 IQ score*. - (2 standard deviation below average IQ (100) - *difficulty adapting to daily life remains* -can be product of physical cause - i.e down syndrome, or acquired brain injury
Reflexive movement stage
-*0-1 years old* -Primitive -*involuntary* (reflexes) -Primes neuromuscular system for more complicated movements in future. -learns to do the reflexes -learns to avoid reflexes -overlaps with rudimentary movement
Specialized movement stage
-*7-14 years old* - combines fundamental movements - applies skills to special tasks -subdivided into 2 categories: *Transitional stage* & *application stage* *A*: *Transitional stage* -combination of movements occur -i.e grasping, showering jumping to play ball *B*: *Application stage* -conscious decisions to apply skills -application of strategy to movement. -i.e choosing to delay shooting/dribbling.
Infancy reflexes
-*Automatic behaviors (reflexes)* -a primitive behavior useful for survival. -originate in central nervous system -exhibited by all normal infants. 1. *Moro (Startle) reflex* -Response to *loud sound* / *sudden movement* -Baby throws back its head -Baby extends its arms & legs, cries *Abduction* -Baby pulls the arms and legs back in *Adduction* -Present at *birth* -*Lasts ~ 6 months* from birth 2. *Rooting reflex* -Response to *touching* / *stroking baby's cheek* -Baby *turns its head* in the direction of the stroke -Baby *opens its mouth* to "root" for a nipple 3. *Sucking Reflex* -Linked with rooting reflex -Response to *touching roof of baby's mouth* -Baby will being to *suck* 4. *Babinski Reflex* -Response to *stroking the sole of baby's foot* -Baby's big toes moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot -Baby's other toe fans out. 5.* Tonic Neck Reflex* -Response to *head being turned to one side* -Baby *stretch out its arm* on the *same side* -Baby's opposite arms bends up at elbow. -*Lasts ~ 6-7 about from birth* 6. *Palmar Grasp Reflex* -Response to stroking baby's palm -Baby will grasp -*lasts a few months*. *Walking/stepping reflex* -Response to sole of baby's feet touching flat surface -Baby attempts to walk by putting one foot in front of other. -Reflex disappears ~ 6 weeks -Reflex reappears 8-12 months when a baby learns to walk.
Rudimentary movement stage
-*First voluntary movement* -*0-2 years old* -i.e Rolling, sitting, crawling, standing -i.e standing, and walking -foundation for fundamental movemnt -Primarily dictated by *Genetics* -aka *pre-programed*
Application of movement stage
-14+ years -progress through adult hood. -movements continue to more refine. -applied to various activities.
Extinction in the process of classical conditioning
-Occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, -The conditioned response eventually stops occurring. - Occurs when the CS is only presented for a long time. The subject will eventually stop showing conditioned response.
Anterograde amnesia
-inability to encode *New* memories -Typically caused by damaged hippocampus
Retrograde amnesia
-inability to recall *old* memories that were previously encoded.
False memories
-inaccurate recollections of an event -may be the results of implanting ideas
Albert Bandura
-pioneer in the *operational learning field* -*Bobo Doll Experiment* - People might still imitate even if *the don't observe the consequences of the modeling*. Experiment A: Children watched adult acting violently to the Bobo doll, but didn't see the consequences of the violent act. B: Children watched adult totally ignoring the Bobo doll, but didn't see the consequences of the violent act. In both scenarios children *chose to imitate the adults* even though they weren't aware of the consequence of the behavior.
Source monitoring
-when recalling information, susceptible to *forgetting the information's source*
Two cognitive paths of Elaboration likelihood model
1. *Central Route* - Persuaded by *Content* - Key features of the argument is important - *Key features* influence persuade people -CHOSEN IF: ----*Motivated* in the logic of argument ----*Interested* in the subject of argument ----*focused their attention* on argument -*Longer lasting persuasive outcomes. 2. *Peripheral Route* - Persuaded by 2˚/superficial characteristics - i.e attractiveness of the orator - i.e the length of the speech - i.e source characteristics (expert)
Reinforcement Schedule
1. *Continuous reinforcement* ---> rapid behavior acquisition (faster learning) ---> rapid behavior extinction 2. *Intermittent reinforcement* ---> slower behavior acquisition ---> slower behavior extinction (higher persistence) (aka resistance to extinction) 4 types of intermittent reinforcement. 1. *Fixed ratio schedule* 2. *Variable ratio schedule* 3. *Fixed-interval schedule* 4. *Variable-interval schedule*
Types of long term memory
1. *Explicit Memory (Declarative)* -Memory with conscious recall -Hippocampus A. *Episodic Memory* -events, more personal information (what you wore at a certain time in the past) B. *Semantic Memory* -facts (presidents name) -forgotten first before episodic memory 2. *Implicit Memory (Non-declarative)* -memory w/out conscious recall -cerebellum A. *Procedural memory* -memory for motor skills (eg, riding a bicycle) B. *Emotional/reflexive memory* -memory for associations between stimuli (eg, salty ocean air triggers pleasant emotions from childhood beach vacations).
Three types of recall
1. *Free recall* - ability to retrieve item out of thin air 2. *Cued recall* -ability to retrieve info when provided a cue. 3. *Recognition* -identifying specific information from a set of info -i.e multiple choice
What are the two types of non-associative learning ?
1. *Habituation* -learn to tune out the stimulus after the stimulus is repeated many times. 2. *Sensitization* -opposite of habituation. -increase in responsiveness to the stimulus. -due to repeated application of stimulus -or due to an aversive or noxious stimulus
Two types of sensory memory
1. *Iconic Memory* -brief photographic memory for visual info -decays in few tenth of a second 2. *Echoic memory* -memory for sound -lasts for 3-4 seconds ---------------------------------- Initial recording of sensory info -brief snapshot - quickly decays
3 Elements of a message that impact persuasiveness.
1. *Message characteristics* - the feature of the message (logic, key points) - superficial factors (length of speech, grammar) 2. *Source characteristics* - person/venue delivering the message - power of authority. - perceived expertise, reputation, trustworthiness 3. *Target characteristics* - person receiving the message - his/her self-esteem, intelligence, mood
Processes that helps encoding memories
1. *Phonologic loop & Rehearsal* - repeat the information over and over again - repeated rehearsal can lead to encoding to long term memory. 2. *Chunking* - organizing information in discrete groups of data -decreasing # of "things" to remember - i.e breaking down phone # into area code ... -limit of working memory is generally 7 digits. 3. * Hierarchies* -categorizing based on order -recall can significantly improve 4. *depth of processing* -important for encoding memories -semantic information (meaning) easier to remember than grammatical info (form) when trying to learn a concept. 5. *Dual Coding Hypothesis* - easier to remember words with *associated images* than either words or images alone. - Encoding both *visual mental representation* and word --> more connections made to memory and more deeper level processing. 6. *Method of loci* -imagining moving through a familiar place and in each place having a visual representation of a the info to be remembered. -when recalling, recall the place of the images. 7. *Self-reference effect* -easier to remember personally relevant information -can be linked to existing memories.
Two types of memory interference
1. *Proactive interference* - the previously learn info interferes with the ability to *learn new information* 2. *Retroactive interference* - the newly learned information interferes with *recall of previously learned information*
Motor Development
1. *Reflexive movement* -*0-1 years old* -Primitive -*involuntary* (reflexes) -Primes neuromuscular system for more complicated movements in future. -learns to do the reflexes -learns to avoid reflexes -overlaps with rudimentary movement 2. *Rudimentary movement* -*First voluntary movement* -*0-2 years old* -i.e Rolling, sitting, crawling, standing -i.e standing, and walking -foundation for fundamental movemnt -Primarily dictated by *Genetics* -aka *pre-programed* 3. *Fundamental movement* - *2-7 years old* -child is learning how to manipulate body - i.e running, jumping, throwing, catching. - largely affected by environment & culture. - movements first uncoordinated/uncontrolled --> more refined/coordinated/ efficient. 4. *Specialized movement* -*7-14 years old* - combines fundamental movements - applies skills to special tasks -subdivided into 2 categories: Transitional stage & application stage *A*: *Transitional stage* -combination of movements occur -i.e grasping, showering jumping to play ball *B*: *Application stage* -conscious decisions to apply skills -application of strategy to movement. -i.e choosing to delay shooting/dribbling. 5. *Application of movement* -14+ years -progress through adult hood. -movements continue to more refine. -applied to various activities.
Reinforcement vs. Punishment in operant learning
1. *Reinforcement* -increase the desirable behavior response- *Positive Reinforcement* - the *desired stimulus is added* -food is given --> increase the behavior response. *Negative Reinforcement* -the *undesired stimulus is removed* -shock is removed. --> increase the behavior response 2.*Punishment* -Decrease the undesirable behavior response- *Positive Punishment* - The *undesired stimulus is added* - Time-out/ grounded --> Decrease the behavior response. *Negative Punishment* - The *Desired stimulus is removed* - PlayStation is taken away. --> Decrease the behavior response. Usually reinforcements have longer lasting effect than punishments.
Types of memory storage
1. *sensory memory* -initial recording of sensory info -brief snapshot - quickly decays -2 types: *iconic memory* & *Echoic memory* *Iconic Memory* -brief photographic memory for visual info -decays in few tenth of a second *Echoic memory* -memory for sound -lasts for 3-4 seconds 2. *short term memory* -limited in duration & capacity -retained for ~ 20 seconds -if actively processed --> long term memory 3. *long-term memory* -can be retained indefinitely 4. *Working memory* -involves *prefrontal cortex* -storage bin to hold memories (short/long term) that are needed at a time to process other info/ solve a problem. -bringing short/long term memory into workin memory so they can be used for a certain occasion.
What are the two types of associative learning ?
1. Classical conditioning. 2. Operant conditioning.
Major changes to the brain during adolescence
3 changes in the transitional stage bw childhood and adulthood 1. *Cell Proliferation* in certain areas. i.e prefrontal lobe and limbic system 2. Synaptic pruning - unused or unnecessary connections. 3. Myelination: - strengthens connections between regions
Recognition
A form of recall -identifying specific information from a set of info -i.e multiple choice
Sensitization
A type of Non-assositaive learning -result from being repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus. -opposite of habituation. -*increase in responsiveness* to the stimulus. -due to repeated application of stimulus -or due to an aversive or noxious stimulus
Dishabituation
A type of Non-assositaive learning -result from being repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus. x -if the previously habituated stimulus is removed --> dishabituation. --> then if the stimulus is presented again, the person would react to it as if it was a new stimulus.
Observational learning
Aka *vicarious learning* Aka *social learning* *Learning through watching and imitating others* *Modeling* -mechanism of observational learning. -observer sees the behavior being performed by another person. -the observer *imitates* the observed behavior
Prospective memory
Another type of recall -remembering to do things in the future -stronger when cues present in the environment.
Twin studies
Behavioral Genetics Study *How Genotype and environment --> phenotype* *Twin-studies* -compare traits in *monozygotic (MZ- identical) vs dizygotic (DZ-fraternal) twins. *Monozygotic* - Same genotype. - almost identical environment from the womb. *Dizygotic* - not identical genotype (~50% same) - almost identical environment from the womb -twin studies asses the variance of phenotype to estimate generic effects (heritability) and environmental effects. *genes likely play the role* if: - the identical twins share the phenotype more than fraternal twins. -i.e most traits
Which of the two cognitive paths of Elaboration likelihood model will result in a longer lasting persuasion outcomes?
Central route. 1. *Central Route* - Persuaded by *Content* - Key features of the argument is important - *Key features* influence persuade people -CHOSEN IF: ----*Motivated* in the logic of argument ----*Interested* in the subject of argument ----*focused their attention* on argument -*Longer lasting persuasive outcomes* 2. *Peripheral Route* - Persuaded by 2˚/superficial characteristics - i.e attractiveness of the orator - i.e the length of the speech - i.e source characteristics (expert)
Is the response resulted from classical conditioning voluntary or involuntary? How about the response from operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning --> *involuntary response* i.e salivating. Operant conditioning ---> *voluntary response*
Serial position effect
Working memory is limited. effect seen when memorizing a series and immediately recalling. -*primacy effect* -only remember/recall first items on the list -*recency effect* -only remember/recall last items on the list
Cognitive psychology
Contrary to behaviorism. - focus on the *brain*, *cognitions*, and their effects on how people navigate the world.
Skinner Box
Designed Operant conditioning chamber (one of the associative learnings) developed by *B.F. Skinner*
Acquisition in the process of classical conditioning
During the conditioning. When the *unconditioned stimulus* is combined with *neutral stimulus*. i.e when the bell (neutral Stimulus) and food (US) are paired in the Pavlov's experiment with dogs.
Process of encoding information- working memory
Encoding: - the process of transferring sensory information into our memory system sensory info --> memory Working memory has 4 component 1. *Phonological loop* -when manipulating spoken and written information (eg, reading a book) 2. *Visuospatial sketch* -when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (eg, reading a map) 3. *Episodic buffer* - temporal processing -(understanding the timeline of events) -integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant). 3. *Central executive* -regulates attention and task switching Working memory= limited
Elaboration likelihood model
Explain behavior when people 1. *Influenced* by the *content of the speech* (logic of argument) v.s 2. *Influenced* by the other/more *superficial factors* (appearance of the orator or the length of the speech) Two main *cognitive routes of persuasion* 1. *Central Route* - Persuaded by *Content* - Key features of the argument is important - *Key features* influence persuade people -CHOSEN IF: ----*Motivated* in the logic of argument ----*Interested* in the subject of argument ----*focused their attention* on argument -*Longer lasting persuasive outcomes* 2. *Peripheral Route* - Persuaded by *2˚/superficial characteristics* - i.e attractiveness of the orator - i.e the length of the speech - i.e source characteristics (expert) This model argues: *People only choose the central path* if they are ----*Motivated* in the logic of argument ----*Interested* in the subject of argument ----*focused their attention* on argument if the conditions are not met ---> peripheral path.
Behaviorism
Explained by desired the *observable* antecedents of behaviors and its consequences. *Not concerned* about *unobservable events in the mind* --*B.F. Skinner* ---
Free recall vs. Cued recall
Free recall: - ability to retrieve item out of thin air Cued recall -ability to retrieve info when provided a cue.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it -In middle school, a child getting a ride to school from his dad, *latently learn* the route to school. even if he never had to navigate through the rout by himself (demonstrating the learned behavior). 5 years later, he needs to go to school by himself and is able to navigate through the route (latently learned behavior).
Moro (Startle) reflex
In Response to: -*Loud sound* -*sudden movement* Baby responds by: -abduction and adduction of arms and legs. - cries How long does it last ? - about 4-six months from birth
Rooting Reflex
In Response to: -*Touching/stroking one of the baby's cheeks* Baby responds by: -*turns its head* in the direction of stroke - open its mouth to *roots* for nipple
Walking/stepping reflex
In repsonds to: - Baby's *feet touching a flat surface* Baby responds by: -*attempts to walk* -places one foot in front of the other - disappears ~ six weeks -reappear at around 8-12 month
Tonic Neck reflex
In repsonds to: - *head being turned to one side* Baby responds by: -*stretch out its arms* on the same side - *bends up at elbow* @ opposite arm ~ lasts 6-7 months.
Palmar Grasp reflex
In repsonds to: -*stroking the baby's palm* Baby responds by: - *baby's hands grasping* ~ last for few months
Babinski Reflex
In repsonds to: -*stroking* the *sole* of baby's *foot* Baby responds by: - *big toes moving upward/ toward the top surface of foot - the other toes fan out
Sucking Reflex
In repsonds to: -Touching the roof* of the baby's *mouth* -linked with rooting reflex Baby responds by: -*Sucking*
Physical changes of neurons due to long-term memory storage
Long term memory storage (long-term potentiation) --> structural and functional change 1. permanent *changes* in *pre-* and *postsynaptic membranes* 2. permanent change in the *amount of neurotransmitter synthesis* 3. Increase in *# of branching of dendrites*. 4. change in *protein synthesis*.
Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Experiments
Mothers would leave their infants in unfamiliar environment -Suggested: *different attachment styles* 1. *Securely attached* -in presence of their mother- play & explore -infant distressed when mother leaves room -infant seeks contact and --> normal (play & explore) when mother returns to the room. ----Once grown up: associated with -better social skills -grater capacity for intimate realtionships -better promote secure attachment their children 2. *Insecurely attached* - in presence of their mother: less likely to play & clings to mother. -When mother leaves the room: infant cries out loud/remains upset -when mother returns: infant remains distressed 3. *Avoidant* -were not upset when mother left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.
Attachment styles
Mothers would leave their infants in unfamiliar environment -Suggested: *different attachment styles* 1. *Securely attached* -in presence of their mother- play & explore -infant distressed when mother leaves room -infant seeks contact and --> normal (play & explore) when mother returns to the room. ----Once grown up: associated with -better social skills -grater capacity for intimate realtionships -better promote secure attachment their children 2. *Insecurely attached* - in presence of their mother: less likely to play & clings to mother. -When mother leaves the room: infant cries out loud/remains upset -when mother returns: infant remains distressed 3. *Avoidant* -were not upset when mother left the room and were indifferent to her when she returne
Primacy and Recency effect
Observed in serial position effect effect seen when memorizing a series and immediately recalling. -*primacy effect* -only remember/recall first items on the list -more easily recalled bc *most time to be encoded* --> long term memory -*recency effect* -only remember/recall last items on the list - more easily recalled bc still in *phonological loop* & readily available.
Spontaneous recovery in the process of classical conditioning
Occurs when the extinct conditioned response occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented after a period of time since the conditioned stimulus became extinct.
Persuasion
One method of attitude and behavior change.
Classical learning
One of the 2 types of *associative learning* - aka respondent conditioning. -*two stimuli are paired in a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes* -*Neutral stimulus* a. the stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response. b. after conditioning becomes the conditioned stimulus. c. Ex. Bell ring -*Unconditioned stimulus (US)* a. The stimulus that initially elicit the intrinsic response b. causes the unconditioned response. c. i.e Presentation of food to dogs. -*Unconditioned response (UR)* a. the intrinsic response when the unconditioned stimulus is presented. -i.e salivation when food is shown to the dogs -*Conditioned stimulus (CS)* a. The former neutral stimulus that was combined with the unconditioned response. b. after the conditioning, will cause the conditioned response w/o the US. c. i.e bell ring (CS) will trigger salivation (CR) -*Conditioned response (CR)* a. The former unconditioned response. b. the learned response that is resulted from the conditioned stimulus without the US. c. salivation when bell ring is presented.
Long-term potentiation
increase in synaptic strengths between two neurons --> stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli. *increase sensitivity* (two ways and/or): 1. The sending (pre) neurons needs less stimuli for neural firing and releasing its neurotransmitters. 2. The receiving (post) neuron have more receptors for the neurotransmitters --> higher potential of firing. *How short memories consolidated into long term memories*
4 types of intermittent reinforcement
Operant conditioning 1. *Fixed ratio schedule* -providing reinforcement after *set # of behaviors* -*High rate of responses** i.e Rat given food every 10 time it pushes lever --> high rate of response: Rat pushes lever rapidly 2. *Variable ratio schedule* -Reinforcement after *unpredictable # behaviors* -*High rate of responses* -i.e gambling, reinforcement= unpredictable. but. the higher # behaviors, higher probability of reinforcement given. 3. *Fixed-interval schedule* -reinforcement after *set period of time* (constant) - regardless of # of behaviors. - increase in rate of response toward end of the interval (closer to the reinforcement time) 4. *Variable-interval schedule* -Reinforcement after *random period of time* -*Slow and steady response rate* - (efficient) but not too rapid responses (steady). -
Discrimination in the process of classical conditioning
Opposite of Generalization -the subject is able to distinguish the conditioned stimuli from other similar neutral stimuli. - the Conditioned response only occurs when that specific and exact conditioned stimulus is presented.
Which parts of the brain are involved with negative and positive reinforcement during operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement: *Hippocampus* Negative reinforcement: *Amygdala*
Mirror neurons
Present in: 1. premotor cortex 2. supplementary motor area 3. primary somatosensory cortex 4. inferior parietal cortex Frontal lobe neurons that fire when 1. performing certain actions 2. observing another doing so. -The brain's mirroring of another's action may *enable observational learning, imitation, language learning, and empathy (Vicarious emotions)*
Insight Learning
Previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique way to attain a desired outcome
Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow Experiment
Procedure of the study: -bred monkey. -monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth (*Maternal deprivation*) -provided baby blanket. -when blankets were removed for laundry ---> Monkeys became distressed. Monkeys had developed physical attachment to the blanket. ------------------------- Accidentally discovered that *stranger anxiety* and attachment is NOT due of the fact that nourishment is provided by the mother. BUT RATHER *CONTACT COMFORT* + psychological development are the essential element for infant-mother bonding
Associative Learning
Process of learning in which one thing is directly connected with another. Two types: 1. *Classical conditioning* (respondent) -US, UR, CS, CR -acquisition -extinction -generalization -spontaneous recovery - discrimination 2. *Operant conditioning* (instrumental) - positive reinforcement - negative reinforcement -Negative punishments -Positive punishments - primary reinforcement - secondary reinforcement (token economy) -Continuous reinforcement -intermittent reinforcement ---Fixed ratio schedule ---Variable ratio schedule ---Fixed interval schedule ---Variable interval schedule
Non-associative learning
Repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus. Two types: 1. Habituation -learn to tune out the stimulus 2. Sensitization -become more responsive to the stimulus.
Reinforcements in operant conditioning
Results in the increase in likelihood that the targeted behavior will be repeated -*operant conditioning* Two Types: *Postive reinforcement* - *Adding positive stimulus* -Desirable stimulus that follows a certain behavior. -food (+ reinforcement)given to rat after pushing the lever. -increases the likelihood of the targeted behavior (pushing the lever) -*hippocampus involved* *Negative reinforcement* -*Removing undesirable stimulus* -Undesirable stimulus that is removed following a certain behavior. - the electric shock (- reinforcement) is removed after pushing the lever. -increases the likelihood of the targeted behavior (pushing the lever) - *Amygdala involved* *Primary Reinforcement* -unconditioned reinforcement. -Intrinsically desirable. -ex. + 1˚ reinforcement: Food -ex - 1˚ reinforcement: Pain avoidance *Secondary Reinforcement* - Conditioned reinforcement - must be paired with a primary reinforcement to be able to produce learned behavior. - ex. Reinforcement Schedule: *1. Continuous* *2. Intermittent* -Fixed Ratio schedule -Variable Ratio schedule -Fixed interval schedule - Variable interval schedule
Consolidation
Short-term memory --> long-term memory.
Generalization in the process of classical conditioning
Stimuli other than the conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response. -Conditioned stimulus (bell ring) -conditioned response (salivation) - Generalization: A shouting noise --> salivation (CR)
Behavioral genetics
Studies the role of inheritance in behavioral traits: -interaction between heredity and experience --> individuals personality and social behavior. aka: How *genotype* and *environment* --> *phenotype*. Uses two studies: *Twin studies* and *Adoption studies* -------------------------------------------------- *Twin-studies* -compare traits in *monozygotic (MZ- identical) vs dizygotic (DZ-fraternal) twins. *Monozygotic* - Same genotype. - almost identical environment from the womb. *Dizygotic* - not identical genotype (~50% same) - almost identical environment from the womb -twin studies asses the *variance of phenotype* to estimate *genetic effects* (heritability) and environmental effects. *genes likely play the role* if: - the identical twins share the phenotype more than fraternal twins. -i.e most traits (same genotype, but even though identical genes, some MZ might have different # of copies of gene---> one twin w disease and another w/out disease) (also male MZ have more identical genes as compare to female MZ, because X inactivation in female somatic cells is not identical bw Z female twins.) ("Almost identical environment", even though the MZ twins share the same placenta in the womb, one twin might get more blood/nutrient. Also 30% of MZ twins develop separate placentas) ------------------------------------- *Adoption Studies* Two groups: 1. Genetic relatives 2. Environmental relatives Then: the Adopted individuals compared to two groups. Examine: if the adopted individual is more similar to the genetic relatives or their environmental relatives. *Advantage over Twin study* -can determine the impact of *both* *heredity* and *environment* -Twin study cannot show impact of environment (very identical) *Adapted children* have *personalities* more similar to their *biological parents* i.e agreeableness, extraversion, introversion. *Adapted children* have *attitudes, values, manners, politics* more similar to their *adopted parents*
Forgetting curve
longer the retention interval --> easier to forget info (faster forgetting). Every time that reviewing the materail, decreasing the retention interval --> longer time that we remember.
Short term memory vs. working memory
Working memory and short-term memory are distinct executive functions. Both involve a limited and temporary store *working memory* -manipulation and *processing of information* -4 parts (phonological loop, visuospatial sketch, episodic buffer, central executive). *Short-term memory* -does not include processing
Which type of reinforcement schedule would have the slowest rate of behavior extinction?
Variable (ratio/interval) reinforcements *Variable ratio reinforcements* -Slowest rate of extinction. -gambling -Fast rate of response *Variable Interval reinforcements* - slow rate of extinction - *Slow and steady rate of responding*
Desensitization
a stimulus that previously caused a triggering response no longer has a triggering response.
taste aversion
a type of *classical conditioning* in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation.
Explicit (declarative memory)
being able to "declare" or voice what is known. Two subdivision: 1.*Semantic memory* -memory for factual information -factual details (objective) -decays before episodic memory 2. *Episodic Memory* -autobiographical memory -info that have personal importance - lasts longer than semantic memory *Hippocampus* is involved with new explicit memories
Neurogenesis
birth of new neurons -found to occur in small portions in *hippocampus* and *cerebellum*.
Implicit: procedural memory
conditioned association and knowledge of how to do something -ex. reading MCAT strategy books, will know the procedures that they mentioned (explicit memory) -but unless you start practicing, by just reading you would not be able executive the skills you learn (implicit/procedural) *Cerebellum* is involved.
Stranger anxiety
develop ~ at 8-12 months of age Symptoms: -*crying & clinging to caregiver* - developed schemas for familiar faces and smell. -peaks at 13 months -gradually decline after.
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
Maturation
sequence of biological growth processes in human development -largely genetic -Also influenced by environment -developing brain --> motor development -maturing nervous and musculoskeletal --> more complex physical skills
Infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age ~ 3.5 -Unable to recall memories -But still babies still able to learn and memory -
Mood dependent memory
when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state