LEKSIKOLOOGIA EKSAM

Componential analysis

"...analysing the sense of a word in terms of smaller sense components.""a sense is a set of semantic features"."semantic features should have the same properties as phonological features: they should be (1) primitive, not analyzeable into smaller units, (2) universal, found across languages, and (3) binary, having a positive (marked) and negative (unmarked) value for each feature. The full feature inventory should have sufficient coverage to exhaustively define the sense of any word.""A componential analysis presupposes a preliminary positioning of the examined words in a semantic field, after which the the field is as it were turned inside out: the labels that represent the dimensions of the field become components of the meaning of the separate words."Prototype theory -"a concept is structured as a space centered on a prototype. A prototype is an abstraction of maximal typicality for the category: for example, the BIRD prototype is about the size of a robin, is dullish brown or grey, flies and sings...The closer a member is to the prototype, the more typical it is.""The central issue in the interface between verb senses and syntax is the linking or syntactic projection of the semantic arguments of a verb...called thematic roles, thematic relations, or participant roles". Thematic roles are components of verb meaning. " Actor and patient are macroroles - they express very abstract content which may be combined with other roles. The actor is the performer of the action, or the source of energy in the event, may be sentient and act volitionally, and may cause change to occur to the patient. The patient is the undergoer of an action or change, is the 'energy sink' in the event, and is not volitionally involved.Spatial or localist roles...may be combined with the macroroles. Localist roles refer to location or movement in physical or metaphorical space. The entity which moves or is located in a state or location is the theme, the entity from which movement departs is the source, and the entity at which movement terminates is the goal. Where movement takes place in the field of possession, the goal is a recipient". "Verbs which express translocation of a theme select a path. A path may contain a goal...""Verbs of perception and emotion have the roles experiencer, the sentient being perceiving or experiencing emotion, and stimulus, the precept or cause of emotion". "The entity expressed in an instrumental with-phrase is an instrument".

Compounds

"Compounds are formed by joining two or more root morphemes or (classical) combining forms into a single lexeme". "Compounding - a word-formation process in which two or more simple words are joined to a new word with a single meaning."Classification based on word classes: compound nouns - coffee pot compound adjectives - sky-blue, lead-free, machine-readable compound verbs - dry-clean, carbon-copy compound prepositions - onto, into Dry-clean, happy-go-lucky etc. "It seems that longer compounds such as railway timetable can virtually always broken down into nested compounds, each of which shows binary branching""Not only is it the case that only the final element in an English compound can usually inflect, it is also the case that in a very large number of cases the final element in isolation denotes a hyperonym or subordinate term for what is denoted by the compound as a whole" windmill, sky-dive, sky-blue "It (i.e. the final element) determines the word-class of the compound and, in most cases, the inflectional class of the compound"flittermouse (pl -mice "Inflection is typically marked on the final element of the compound whether it is regular or irregular. In such cases we may talk of this final element as the HEAD of the compound"The distinction between a phrase and a compound is far from clear forget-me-not, love-in-a-mist 1) phonology (stress patterns) (not consistent or predictable, thus unreliable) 2) semantic criterion - a compound can be more specialized than a phrase One of the criteria is the position of the stress - in compounds primary stress on the first component, and the second component carries a secondary stress. Classical compounds: "...neo-classical compounds, where a knowledge of Greek and Latin would be required for their interpretation". Calligraphy, mastectomy Phonological compounds - falling intonation, stressed on the first word blackbird teapotOr primary stress falls on the stressed syllable of the first word emergency plan Republican Party

Collocations

"the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text"."the name given to the relationship a lexical item has with items that appear with greater than random probability in its context". Grammatical collocations -"consist of a dominant word - noun, adjective/participle, verb - and a preposition or a grammatical construction"in the picture 'pildil'admiration for acceptable to Lexical collocations "do not have a dominant word; they have structures such as the following: verb + noun, adjective + noun, noun + verb, noun + noun, adverb + adjective, adverb + verb. 1) weak collocations - see a film, and enjoyable holiday, extremely complicated 2) medium-strength collocations -see a doctor, direct equivalent, highly intelligent 3) strong and restricted collocations - see reason, burning ambition, blindingly obvious 1) adjective + noun bright / harsh / intense / strong light 2) quantifier + noun a beam / ray of light 3) verb + noun cast / emit / give / provide / shed light 4) noun + verb light gleams / glows / shines 5) noun + noun A light source 6) preposition + noun by the light of the moon 7) noun + preposition the light from the window 8) adverb + verb choose carefully 9) verb + verb be free to choose 10) verb + preposition choose between two things 11) verb + adjective Make / keep / declare sth safe 12) adverb + adjective perfectly / not entirely / environmentally safe 13) adjective + preposition Safe from attack 14) short phrases including the headword the speed of light, pick and choose, safe and sound

6.Celtic borrowings

(1) Breton through French: bijou, dolmen, menhir. (2) Celtic before Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, and Cornish, and through Latin, French, and Old English: ambassador/embassy, bannock, bard, bracket, breeches, car/carry/career/carriage/ cargo/carpenter/charge, crag, druid, minion, peat, piece, vassal/valet/varlet. (3) Cornish: porbeagle, wrasse. (4) Gaelic, general: bog, cairn, Tory; Scottish: caber, cailleach, cairngorm, clachan, clan, claymore, corrie, trews, trousers. (5) Welsh: bug, coracle, corgi, cromlech, cwm, eisteddfod, flannel, flummery

Scandinavian borrowings

(1) Danish: smorrebrod. (2) Dutch, including Flemish and Low German (but not Afrikaans: see Africa): bluff, boor, boss, brandy, bully, bumpkin, clamp, clipper (3) German: blitz(krieg), dachshund, fahrenheit, flak, frankfurter, glockenspiel, gneiss, hamburger, hamster, (4) Icelandic: auk, eider, geyser, saga. (5) Norse: anger, blink, bloom, die, dirt, dowdy, doze, dregs, egg, fellow, gasp, gaunt, gaze, muggy, nasty, nudge, oaf, odd, raise, root, scalp, , want, weak, window. (6) Norwegian: fjord/fiord, floe, kraken, krill, lemming, ski, slalom. (7) Scots, in English at large: balmoral, burn, canny, carfuffle, collie, cosy, eerie, eldritch, rampage, uncanny, wee, weird, wizened, wraith; mainly in Scotland: ashet, bogle, bonnie, burn, cleg, dreich, (8) Swedish: glogg, ombudsman, smorgasbord, tungsten. (9) Yiddish: chutzpah, shlemiel, shlep, shlock, schmaltzy.

French borrowings

(1) French, Old: allow, bastard, beauty, beef, brush, castle, chivalry, choice, constraint, court, defeat, destroy, dinner, forest, , garden, honest, hostel, interest, judge, loyal, paste, place, poison, bourgeois(ie), brasserie, bcafe/café, camouflage, canard, chateau/château, chef, chevalier, coup de grace/grâce, coup'etat/état, croissant,

Greek borrowings

(1) Inflectional endings retained but spelt in the Latin style: abiogenesis, aegis, analysis, anemone, antithesis, automaton, charisma, dogma, drama, (2) With Latin endings: brontosaurus, chrysanthemum, diplodocus, hippopotamus, (3) Endings dropped or adapted: agnostic, analytic, anthocyanin, astrobleme, atheism, automatic, biologist, biology, (4) Modern: bouzouki, moussaka, ouzo, rebetika, sirtaki, souvlaki.

Back-formation

...a kind of derivation in reverse, in which a supposed affix is removed from a word. baby-sit v < babysitter , televise < television

Size of English vocabulary

1)Old English - 50,000 to 60,000 words OE - homogeneous; 1/3 of the vocabulary has survived About 450 Latin loans 2) Middle English - 100,000 - 125,000 Norman French influence - about 10,000 words, 75 % are still in use (Baugh) Latin influence continues 3) Early Modern English - 200,000 - 250,000 English becomes a polycentric language; polyglot, cosmopolitan language 4) Modern English - 500,000 words (OED) At present at least 1 billion lexical units

Combining forms

A combining form can either be a prefix or a suffix; the difference is that the combining form adds a layer of extra meaning to the word, e.g. bio- (life, living) biochemistry -cide (killing) pesticide Prefixes and suffixes only modify an existing meaning.

Hypernyms (hyperonyms)

A hypernym is a more general term, so that dog is the hypernym of spaniel, and container of bag, box, and cup. →nouna word with a broad meaning constituting a category into which words with more specific meanings fall; a superordinate. For example, colour is a hypernym of red.

Lexical fields

A lexical set of semantically related items, for example verbs of perception.

Prefixes

A prefix is an affix that precedes its base. English examples so far presented are mis- in misfortunes and pre- in premeditated. In English all prefixes are derivational; thus un- in unhappy, de- in decontaminate, counter- in countersignature, and so on create new lexemes rather than inflected forms of happy, contaminate, and signature. A prefix is an element placed at the beginning of a word to adjust or qualify its meaning (de-, non-, re-).

Idioms

A set expression in which two or more words are syntactically related, but with a meaning like that of a single lexical unit: e.g. 'spill the beans' in Someone has spilled the beans about the bank raid, or 'put one's foot in it' in Her husband can never make a speech without putting his foot in it

Suffixes

A suffix is an affix that follows its base. English examples so far presented are -s in misfortunes, -ate and -(e)d in premeditated, and -ful in spoonful and cheerful. A suffix is an element placed at the end of a word to form a derivative, such as -ation, -fy, -ing, frequently one that converts the stem into another part of speech.

Affixation

Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base, which may be simple (as in full, the base to which -ness is attached to yield fullness), or complex (like meditate, the base to which pre- is attached to yield premeditate)

Concordance line

An alphabetical list of the principal words used in a book or body of work, with their immediate contexts. (Because of the time and difficulty and expense involved in creating a concordance in the pre-computer era, only works of special importance, such as the Vedas[1], Bible, Qur'an or the works of Shakespeare, had concordances prepared for them.)

Phrasal verbs

An idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another element, typically either an adverb or a preposition, for example see to, or a combination of both, such as look down on

Infixes

An infix is an affix that is inserted inside its base. An infix is placed within a word; they are rare in English:-o- narcology -i- calciferou

Corpus

Any systematic collection of speech or writing in a language or variety of a language.

Archaisms

Archaisms - Form or use of a form which is obsolete or belongs recognizably to an older stage of a language →nouna thing that is very old or old-fashioned, especially an archaic word or style of language

Meaning restriction and extension. -restriction of meaning

Change by which the meaning of a word is narrowed by the addition of a feature or features that were not previously part of it: e.g. that by which deer, formerly a word for 'animal' in general, came to denote one specific kind of animal.widening of meaning Enlargement of the class of entities that a word denotes: e.g. the meaning of bird, formerly 'young bird', was extended, in the early history of English, to mean 'bird' in general. Also called 'extension of meaning': but extensions that involve the simple loss of a restriction (like the restriction to birds that are young) might usefully be distinguished from those by which new senses will be added

Clippings, fore clippings, back clippings, ambiclippings

Clipping refers to the shortening of some word while the original meaning is retained. Clipping does not create lexemes with new meanings, but lexemes with a new stylistic value. 1) foreclippings - raccoon->coon, telephone->phone 2) back-clippings - debutante->deb, crocodile->croc 3) ambiclippings - influenza->flu, head shrinker->shrink "(1) the material which is removed may come from the beginning of the word, the end, or both, (2) that it is not always the semantic head of the word which is retained, (3) that it is not always the stressed syllable in the word which is retained, and (4) that a compound or phrase may be clipped to provide a simple clipping.

Clipped compounds

Clippings may be compounded with each other to give clipping compounds. Kid-vid - kid's video. The term may also be taken to include compounds which have just one of the elements clipped... autochanger < automatic record changer, op art < optical art In a clipping compound, the first part of both words is represented in the new word; in a blend the first part of the first word in the original and the last part of the second word in the original are represented." (Bauer 2006: 501) sitcom < situational comedy (clipping compound) monergy < money energy (blend) "...clippings are frequently given additional suffixal material, which has the effect of lengthening them again... embellished clippings are regionally variable in their productivity... preggers < pregna

Dutch borrowings

Dutch, including Flemish and Low German (but not Afrikaans: see Africa): bluff, boor, boss, brandy, bully, bumpkin, clamp, clipper, coleslaw, cookie, cruise, dapper, derrick, dope, drill, drum, easel, frolic, golf, grime, hunk, kink, landscape, loiter, poppycock, rant, runt, scow, skipper, sled, sledge, sleigh, slim, smack, smuggle, snap, snoop, splint, spook, stoop, yacht, yawl

Etymological doublets

Etymological doublets - two words of the same derivation but having different meanings, for example fashion and faction, cloak and clock

Folk etymology

Folk etymology →nouna popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase. • [mass noun] the process by which the form of an unfamiliar or foreign word is adapted to a more familiar form through popular usage.

Latin borrowings

Inflectional endings retained: area, bacterium/bacteria, cactus, camera, cancer, circus, complex, data, fauna, (2) Actual inflected Latin verbs used as nouns: audio, audit, caveat, exeunt, fiat, video. (3) Fixed phrases: ad hoc, a posteriori, de facto, de jure, extempore, (ex) post facto, post mortem (4) Binomials: gluteus maximus, Homo sapiens, miles gloriosus, Pax Britannica. (5) Endings dropped or adapted, often through French: add, addition, additive, agent, agentive, peninsular, revise, revision, sex, similar, similarity, temple

Italian borrowings

Italian, through French: balcony, battalion, brigade, charlatan, design, frigate, granite, squadron; direct: alto, arpeggio, bordello, broccoli, cameo, canto, confetti, contralto, cupola, ghetto, graffiti, grotto, imbroglio, lasagne, libretto, mozzarella, pasta, piano(forte), piazza, piccolo, pizza, pizzeria, pizzicato, ravioli,

Meronyms

Linguistics) a term which denotes part of something but which is used to refer to the whole of it, e.g. faces when used to mean people in I see several familiar faces present.

Metaphor and metonymy

Metaphor: the application of a name or descriptive term or phrase to an object or action to which it is imaginatively but not literally applicable (e.g. a glaring error, a loud check). Metonymy: figure of speech in which a word or expression normally or strictly used of one thing is used of something physically or otherwise associated with it: e.g. the Pentagon (strictly a building) when used of the military inhabiting it. This may lead to metonymic change of meaning: e.g. the sense of bureau changed successively from 'cloth used to cover desks', first to 'desk' itself, then to 'agency etc. (working from a desk)'. Defined in the most general sense as any figure based on 'contiguity': as such often taken to include e.g. synecdoche: opposed in this sense to metaphor as a figure based on 'similarity'.

Native and foreign element

Native vocabulary: 3 strata 1) Indo-European words (names of close relatives, names of natural objects, parts of the body, numerals) 2) Germanic words 3) Old English words Indo- European: mother, father, Night, foot, heart, bear (bore, born), see Germanic: friend, Bridge, ship, life, heaven, glass, death, make v, meet v Old English: 23,000 - 24,000 items. Only about 3 % are of non-Germanic origin. Etymologically homogeneous.

Neologisms

Neologisms →noun a newly coined word or expression. • [mass noun] the coining or use of new words. - DERIVATIVES neologist noun neologize ( also neologise ) verb. - ORIGIN early 19th cent.: from French néologisme.

Homophones

One of two or more words that are identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning: beer/bier, there/their/they're. The occurrence of homophones is largely a matter of historical chance, in which words with distinct meanings come to coincide phonologically: byre a cowshed, buyer one who buys. Words may be homophones in one variety of English but not another: father/farther and for/four are homophonous in RP, but not in AmE and ScoE; wails/Wales are general homophones; wails/Wales/whales are homophones for many, but not in IrE and ScoE. Whether/whither are homophones in Scotland, but not whether/weather, which are homophones in England.

Core and periphery

Origin of the 10,000 most frequent words:Old English 31.8 % French 45 % Latin 16.7 % Other Germanic languages 4.2 % Other languages 2.3 % The core vocabulary is predominantly Germanic (the, I, you, etc.) Only 4 of the top-ranked one hundred words in the Brown Corpus are of foreign origin. 93 of the first one hundred words in the Brown Corpus are monosyllabic, and the remaining have two syllables

Solid, hyphenated, and open compounds

Orthographic compounds:1) Solid compounds blackbird 2) hyphenated compounds muddle-headed 3) open compounds coffee cup

Asian burrowings

South and South East Asia (1) Hindi/Urdu: bungalow, crore, dacoit, deodar, dinghy, dungaree, ghee, gymkhana, jodphurs, lakh, loot, paisa, pakora, Raj, samo(o)sa, shampoo, tandoori, tom-tom, wallah. (2) Javanese: bantam, batik, gamelan, junk. (3) Malay: amok, bamboo, caddy, camphor, cassowary, cockatoo, dugong, durian, gecko, gingham, gong, kampong/compound, kapok, kris, lory, mangosteen, orang-utan, paddy, pangolin, rattan, sago, sarong. (4) Malayalam: betel, coir, copra, ginger, teak. (5) Marathi: mongoose. (6) Sanskrit through various languages: ashram, avatar, banya, banyan, beryl, brahmin, carmine, cheetah, chintz, chutney, crimson, juggernaut, jungle, jute, lacquer, mandarin, palanquin, pundit, sapphire, sugar, suttee; more or less direct: ahimsa, asana, ashrama, atman, avatar, bodhisattva, brahmin, Buddha, chakra, guru, hatha yoga, karma, lingam maharaja(h), mahatma, mantra, Maya, nirvana, raja(h), rani/ranee, satyagraha, sutra, swastika, yantra, yoga, yogasana. (7) Sinhala: anaconda, tourmaline (8) Tagalog: boondock, ylang-ylang. (9) Tamil: catamaran, cheroot, curry, mango, mulligatawny, pariah. (10) Telugu: bandicoot. Central and East Asia (1) Chinese languages: china, chin-chin, chopsticks, chopsuey, chow chow, chow mein, dim sum, fan-tan, feng shui, ginseng, gung-ho, kaolin, ketchup/catsup, kowtow, kung fu, lychee, loquat, mahjong, pekoe, sampan, tai chi, taipan, Tao, tea, yang, yen, yin. (2) Japanese: aikido, banzai, bonsai, bushido, futon, geisha, haiku, hara-kiri, judo, jujitsu, Kabuki, kamikaze, kimono, koan, mikado, sake, samisen, samurai, sayonara, Shinto, shogun, soy(a), sushi, teriyaki, tofu, tycoon, yen, Zen.(3) Tibetan: lama, Sherpa, yak, yeti. (4) Tungus: shaman.

Spanish borrowings

Spanish, adapted: alligator, anchovy, barricade, cask, galleon, grenade, sherry, chinchilla mosquito, mulatto, negro,sombrero,

Conversion

The process by which a word belonging to one word class gets used as part of another word class without the addition of an affix. (Also called reclassification or functional shift.) Nouns from verbs: a bounce (E16), a meet (M19), a retread (E20), a swim (M16; M18 in current sense) Verbs from nouns: to fingerprint (E20), to highlight (M20), to holiday (M19), to mob (M17), to necklace (E18; L20 in current sense) Adjectives from nouns: average (L18), chief (ME), commonplace (E17), cream (M19), damp (L16; E18 in current sense), game (plucky; E18). An unusual recent conversion is the use of plus, already a preposition and noun, as a colloquial conjunction: 10% bonus offer until 31st December, plus you'll get a mystery present. Minor types of conversion include conversions of closed class words (e.g. the ins and outs, the whys and wherefores); of affixes (e.g. So you've got an ology, isms and wasms); and even of whole phrases (e.g. his prolier-than-thou protestations).A distinction is sometimes made between full conversion, as here, and partial conversion. In this a word takes on only some of the characteristics of its new word class. The use of adjectives in constructions like the poor, the handicapped are cited as examples of partial conversion, since they do not permit marking for plural or countability (*six poors, *a handicapped); but this analysis is disputed by other grammarians, who prefer to treat such usage simply as an adjective functioning as the head of a noun phrase.

Monosemy - noun

[mass noun] (Linguistics) the property of having only one meaning.

Homographs

a kind of HOMONYM: one of two or more words that are identical in SPELLING but different in origin, meaning, and PRONUNCIATION, such as entrance(noun: stress on first syllable) a door, gate, etc., and entrance (verb: stress on second syllable) to put in a trance; lead (verb: rhyming with 'deed') to take, conduct, guide, etc., and lead (noun: rhyming with 'dead') a metal.

Opposites(antonyms)

a word opposite in meaning to another (e.g. bad and good

Synonyms

a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language, for example shut is a synonym of close.

Homonyms

a word that has both the same pronunciation and the same spelling as another, but is etymologically unrelated to it. Examples are: bill (statement of charges): bill (beak) fair (just): fair (sale, entertainment) pole (long slender rounded piece of wood or metal): pole (each of the two points in the celestial sphere about which the stars appear to revolve) pulse (throbbing): pulse (edible seeds) row (noun, a line): row (verb, propel boat) soil (earth): soil (make dirty)

KWIC

an acronym for Key Word In Context, the most common format for concordance lines. Denoting a database search in which the keyword is shown hihighlighted in the middle of the display, with the text forming its context on either side.

Endocentric and exocentric compounds

endocentric a. (Ling.) designating a compound or construction whose distribution is the same as that of one of its constituents M20. NSODE (of a construction or compound) having the same syntactic function in the sentence as one of its immediate constituents. Cold water is an endocentric construction, since it functions as would the noun water. Greenhouse is an endocentric compound, since it is a noun as is its head house. Cf. exocentric. The overwhelming number of English compounds are endocentricexocentric a. (Ling.) designating a compound or construction whose distribution is not the same as that of any of its constituents; not endocentric: E20. NSODE not having the same syntactic function in the sentence as any one of its immediate constituents. In the garden is an exocentric construction, since it does not function in the same way as the noun garden. The noun bittersweet is an exocentric compound, since it is a noun but its elements are both adjectives. Cf. endocentric. "The class of dvandva compounds in Sanskrit is made up of compounds which denote the unity made up of the two distinct items named in the elements of the compound.

Hyponym

in linguistics, a hyponym of a given term is a more specific term in the same domain; e.g. spaniel is a hyponym of dog, and bag, box, and cup are hyponyms of container

Holonyms

in relation to a given term, a term—word or phrase—that denotes a whole whose part is denoted by the other term, such as "face" in relation to "eye". Body is a holonym of arm, leg and heart.Word is a holonym of letter

Alphabetisms, initialisms, acronyms

initialism →nounan abbreviation consisting of initial letters pronounced separately (e.g. BBC).acronym. 1. This term denotes a type of abbreviation made up of a set of initials that are pronounced as a single word, as Nato is (as distinct from BBC). An acronym is generally treated as a word in its own right in other ways, for example in the formation of plurals when appropriate. Examples of familiar acronyms include: Aids(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), Anzac (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps), ASH (Action on Smoking and Health), PIN (personal identification number), SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), Unesco (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), and WASP (White Anglo-Saxon Protestant). Some of these, especially the names of organizations, start off as ordinary abbreviations (often with full stops) and develop into acronyms; others (e.g. ASH) are deliberately contrived so as to lend themselves to pronunciation as words and hence acquire acronym status artificially.

Syntactic freezes (irreversible binomials, trinomials)

irreversible binomial - a pair of words in a fixed and parallel relation: e.g. (It is raining) cats and dogs, not dogs and cats; (just a few) odds and ends, not ends and odds, heart and soul, not soul and heart. Irreversible trinomials - three words always stated in a fixed order (bell, book, and candle; calm, cool, and collected).

Polysemy

mass noun] (Linguistics) the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase

Blends

portmanteu words - "lexemes made out of a phonological parts of two (rarely more) other words, with the parts which remain from the originals being determined purely phonologically without any reference to morphs". Boom+hois=boost, breakfast+lunch=brunch etc. In this semantic respect, proper blends resemble copulative compounds (such as actor-director, writer-journalist). Semantically or in terms of origin, we can distinguish two fundamental types of blend. There are those like smog where the words in the original, smoke and fog, are in paradigmatic relationship with each other, and those like motel, where the two words in the original, motor and hotel, are in a syntagmatic relationship with each other". In syntagmatic origin blends, the order of the elements is determined by the original.

Meaning change

semantic shift A change in the meaning of a word taking place over time. (Also called semantic change.) There is a general tendency for words to develop new meanings and to relinquish other meanings over time. Much of this change occurs not in isolation but in relation to other words whose meanings are changing in other ways. Meat once meant 'food in general' while flesh had a wider coverage than at present, taking in both living flesh and dead flesh as food. Individually considered, each word has contracted its field of reference, but taking them together it becomes clear that a certain reclassification has taken place. Collide, once used mainly of pairs of trains and ships in motion, has expanded its scope, merely as a result of technological change, so as to refer to motor vehicles and aircraft. With this momentum it has been able to achieve generalization not only to the encounter of almost any objects whose paths might cross (e.g. pedestrians, sub-atomic particles, etc.) but also to the meeting of a moving object with a static one (e.g. a car colliding with a tree).