Lesson 13 - Politics, power and violence

why do foragers almost exclusively not engage in war?

(1) the lack of private property and land rights removes one of the major causes of war and aggression. (2) While finding food may take only 2-3 hours of activity per day, it is a daily activity which leaves little time for more organized activities such as warfare. (3) The band has no political or territorial identity. The territory foragers require for survival is often so large that no single band could effectively use it alone, nor would there be an advantage in acquiring more territory. (4) The flexible nature of the band also contributes to the absence of organized aggression. A common solution to disagreements is for the band to split and separate the disputing parties. (5) Finally, the band is egalitarian, with everyone on a near equal footing. Only when we reach the level of food production do people have the time, resources, and motivation to conduct warfare.

3 basic functions of law

1) defines relationships among society's members and marks out proper behavior under specified circumstances. knowledge of the law permits people to know their rights and duties in respect to everyone else. 2) allocates the authority to employ coercion in the enforcement of sanctions. in centralized political systems, such authority is usually vested in judicial system of gov't. 3) functions to redefine social relations and to ensure social flexibility. as new situations arise, law must determine whether old rules and assumptions retain their validity and to what extend they must be altered. law allows room for change.

how disputes are settled

1) through argument and compromise, voluntarily arrive at mutually satisfactory agreement with or without 3rd party mediator (negotiation or mediation) (seen more in bands and tribes) 2) seen more in chiefdoms and states: an authorized third party may issue a binding decision the disputing parties will be compelled to respect. (Adjudication).

kinship organization of tribal societies

1) usually the clan. within the clan, elders, headman/women regulate members' affairs and represent their clan in regulations with other clans. 2) also segmentary lineage system.

state

A state is defined solely on territorial residence or membership. Membership is legal and has no kinship basis. Government can forcibly compel members to act according to laws. States form to control and support large, dense populations. As social organizations, the band, tribe, and chiefdom are incapable of this type of control. centralized political system that has the capacity and authority to make laws, and use force to maintain social order.

describe formation of alliances in yanomamo culture

Alliances do not form easily and progress slowly through three stages: sporadic trading, mutual feasting, and exchange of women for marriage. This final stage is a difficult step, but once taken, binds the villages firmly together. Most alliances only reach the level of mutual feasting. These feasts follow specific protocol. Visitors arrive decorated and parade into the host shabono. They are then invited to each host's hearth to rest on hammocks. Large quantities of food are then consumed. All-night trading then takes place between the hosts and their guests. While the feast is designed to link two shabonos together, things may end up violently resulting in chest pounding duels.

reasons for /manifestations of aggression in the yanomamo?

Among the Yanomamo, warfare and violence occur for more pedestrian reasons. Yanomamo violence forms a series of grades, eventually leading to outright warfare. Chest-pounding duels usually are the beginning. Men square off hitting each other bare-fisted until one gives up. This can escalate to the use of clubs or machetes. These fights can occur within villages as well as between them. Bodily injury can happen, but the design of the match should result in a bloodless decision. Sometimes this cannot resolve the dispute. A raid then occurs.

2 societies that exemplify that ideological motivations and justifications for war are embedded in a society's worldview - the collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality.

Aztecs Christian crusades

example of religion being intricately connected with politics

Christian crusades Aztec warfare (honorable death feeds sun god, captives of war sacrificed to gods) medieval Europe: holy wars fought over small matters; labor mobilized to build big cathedrals; kings and queens had divine right to rule; pope had power. peru incan king claimed he was ancestor of sun God Declaration of independence said we are all created by God equally in god we trust on coins

why would a horticulturalist society not have tribal organization, and what would replace it?

In some regions the land is more productive, creating a larger, denser, and more dispersed population. Under these circumstances, kinship obligations lose much of their strength and consensus becomes impractical (if not impossible) to attain. A centralized political organization—the chiefdom—is needed for societal control. Power is focused in one individual. Force, rather than obligation, is used to motivate people to action. Kinship still plays a role in validating the position of chief. By its nature, a chiefdom is not egalitarian. Leadership is an office that is usually inherited and its power therefore lies in the position and not the individual. Relatives of the chief gain status through their kinship association.

example of chiefdom

Kpelle of Liberia in west Africa. tasks = hear disputes, preserve order, maintain medicine, upkeep trails. paramount and lesser chiefs.

law - def and functions

Law is defined as a social norm where an infraction is regularly met with physical force or the threat of force. Laws, both in scope and nature, vary widely. All laws, however, fulfill three basic functions: 1) determine/establish appropriate behavior 2) allocate authority 3) redefine social relations (laws change as people do. important because laws are useless if they no longer work).

is formal aggression universal?

Many people conceive humans as naturally aggressive and warfare as a universal feature of society. This is a misconception. Formal aggression is not a universal. Reasons behind its occurrence are varied.

means of social control by political organization (as is their function)

One function of political organizations is the maintenance of social order. As social beings, it is common for people to disagree—to come into conflict. A simple means of control is the social sanction. Social sanction is carried out by the local group. Norms are enforced internally without a formal leader and written laws. A sanction might be something as simple as gossip and ridicule or as extreme as violence and expulsion from the group

when is social sanction most effective as a form of social control?

Sanctions are generally more effective in band and tribal settings, where survival depends on cooperation and reciprocity.

example of state in africa

Swazi of Swaziland, Bantu speaking people in southeast Africa. dual monarchy = political system.

discuss nomadic foragers and their uncentralized gov't

The nomadic foragers provide the best illustration of this political organization, the band. Here, cooperation between individuals is critical to survival. The family and kindred serve as the focal point of this cooperation. Although a headman or woman may exist for each band, there is no formal leadership. Decisions are reached through consensus. Older individuals and those with special talents acquire higher status. However, this status depends on sharing the talent, otherwise it is lost. In lacking a formal central leader, leadership changes depending on the need at hand (i.e., hunting vs. healing). The band is often patrilocal, comprised of several related males, their wives, and children. This means that members of a band recognize themselves as being related and practice exogamy in their marriages. Partners are sought from outside of the band, establishing kinship bonds that reach beyond the band to connect it with others.

raiding strategy of yanomao

The strategy is predictable. The raiding group splits into two parts; the attacked group does likewise, leaving behind two of their group to ambush those who follow. A successful raid is one where the raiding party is not detected, but does kill a member of the other village. Some villages are ineffectual in the face of such raids and ultimately move to escape regular predation. The Yanomamo, however, can be viewed as somewhat unique in the level of their interpersonal violence.

tribe - definition, compare/contrast to band

The tribe is an aggregation of many bands—several families united by common bond of kinship (usually lineage descent group). Members of a tribe share the same territory and often the same dialect. Most important, there is the shared belief that tribal members are descended from the same common ancestor. Like members of a band, they have strong kinship ties for cooperation. A tribe then is a group of people united by common dialect, territory, and kinship. While more complex than a band, the tribe still lacks a central authority and action is based on kinship obligations.

distinction between US and inuit social control through law

US focus on punishing guilt > compensating the victim Unuit - resolve conflict and restore social harmony > punish guilty offender

difference in perception of transgressions/crimes between US/western societies and non-state societies

US: clear distinction is made between offenses against the state and offenses against an individual. non-state societies such as bands/tribes: all offenses are viewed as transgressions against individuals or kin groups (families, lineages, clans, so on).

nation

a people who share a collective identity based on a common culture, language, territorial base and history.

power

ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own wishes

social control through withcraft

agent of control in societies with or without centralized political systems. people are afraid of being accused of practicing magic, and also afraid that someone will resort to using black magic on them.

what is one step above horticulture in terms of more advanced form of cultivation?

agriculture. With agriculture, a little land yields large quantities of food and with this comes large surpluses, increased population density, a high degree of specialization, and greater social inequity

difference between adjudication and mediation

authorization. in adjudication, the disputing parties present their positions as compellingly as they can, but they do not participate in the ultimate decision making.

4 basic kinds of political systems

bands (uncentralized) tribes (uncentralized) chiefdoms (centralized) states (centralized)

why does negotiation and mediation work better in bands and tribes than in the US?

bands and tribes are more egalitarian. US is stratified and has disparities, and usually more powerful people prefer mediation and negotiation more than less powerful people who are already disadvantaged in the discussion.

characterization of political organizations

centralized / uncentralized

state = hallmark of ___

civilization

cultural control

control through beliefs and values deeply internalized in the minds of indiviudals

William L ury

dispute resolution and anthropologist. studies role of anthropology in peacemaking. founded program on negotiation.

Inuit of northern Canada social control methods

disputes between individuals settled by singing insults to each other and resolution is decided by amount of spectator applause.

dual sex system of Igbo in nigeria

each political unit has separate political institutions for men and women, so that both have an autonomous sphere of authority and shared responsibility. head is male obi and female omu.

describe economy and political organization of segmentary lineage system/tribe.

economy = just above subsistence level. usually informal organization: no political offices or chiefs, although older tribal members may exercise some personal authority. among the Nuer pastoralists, no real leadership exists. it is mostly just a bunch of alliances. disputes are settled as people take side of their own lineage, and then higher order lineages get involved. known as complementary or balanced opposition.

social control

external control through open coercion

sanctions

externalized social controls designed to encourage conformity to social norms

exceptional female leaders to norm of male leadership

female indian sachems in southern new England queen Candace of Nubian monarchy of cush Isabella I of spain Elizabeth I of England Catherine the great of Russia queen Victoria of England/Scotland/wales/Ireland and empress of india dutch queen Wilhelmina

laura nader (1930-present)

first woman faculty member in anthropology department at U of Cali in Berkeley. Lebanese. cross cultural research on law, justice, and social, cultural control and their connection to power structures. has helped develop anthro of law. specialist in fields of law, chilrren's issues, nuclear energy, science, questioning central dogmas under which experts operate.

why is warfare more likely in pastoralist society?

food producing people have more exploitative view than do food foragers more population growth, which can --> resource depletion less fluid society membership; more fixed, more territorial identity. competition for land

state is most __ of political systems

formal

law

formal negative sanctions

why do horticultural societies have larger size and different form of political organization than nomadic foragers?

greater capacity for productivity. 1.This higher carrying capacity is one of food supply predictability. It remains limited by the swidden gardening of tuberous vegetables.

leader of Nuer

he settles disputes between lineages. he is the leopard skin chief. has ritual office of conciliation.

example of informal nature of band leadership

headman/woman of ju/'hoansi in Kalahari desert. coordinates band migration and helps with resolving conflict.

witchcraft in the Azande of sudan

if someone is thought to be bewitched, they consult an oracle and mystical rites are performed and witchcraft is ascertained. people may make magic against the witch if the initial witchcraft results in death. witchcraft provides a sanction against antisocial behavior and a means of dealing with natural hostilities and death. emotions are institutionalized in this way and social order is maintained.

example of religious belief influencing law

incest is considered sinful and is thus illegal

for the dani, what are the reasons for warfare/aggression?

it is religious in nature and follows very specific rules of behavior

different examples of ways in which leaders acquire legitimacy?

kapauku - power and legitimacy come from wealth kings of Hawaii, England and france before revolution - legitimacy comes from divine right to rule head of dahomey state of west Africa - legitimacy through age (oldest living male)

every law is sanction but not every sanction is ___

law

tribal leadership

local leader respected for his age, wisdom, integrity. no formal control. another example: the "big man"/ leaders of localized descent groups or of a territorial group. combines interest in tribe's welfare with cunning and calculation for personal gain. his status is result of acts that raise him above other tribe members and earn him loyalty. example: kapauku of western new guinea. big man = tonowi, who must be male, wealthy, generous , brave, able to deal with supernatural, and eloquent.

examples of negative organized sanctions

loss of face exclusion from social life seizure of property imprisonment bodily mutilation death

political organizations

means by which a society maintains order internally and manages its affairs with other societies externally. may be ucentralized/informal (bands/tribes) or centralized (chiefdoms/states). refers to the way power is distributed/embedded in society. how a society reduces disorder.

adjudication

mediation with an unbiased third party making the ultimate decision

examples of positive organized sanctions

military decorations and monetary rewards

talking circle

native American technique of conflict resolution

what is a prerequisite or alternative to adjudication?

negotiation. example: US labor disputes first entail worker strikes as they negotiate with management, often with mediation of 3rd party. if state decides the strike constitutes a threat to public welfare, the disputing parties may be forced to submit to adjudication. in this case, responsibility for resolving dispute is transferred to impartial judge.

do all horticulturalists have tribal social organization?

no.

most victims of war today

noncombatants - children, elders, women

uncentralized political organization - definition and example

one in which there is no single source of societal authority.

what about food foraging societies make warfare unlikely?

populations are small and see themselves as part of the natural world food surpluses are absent property ownership is minimal no state organization exists likelihood of organized violence by one group against another is small

what is a common approach to justice in north America that has not been proven to be effective?

punitive justice, such as imprisonment

segmentary lineage system

rare form of kin-ordered organization in which a tribal group is split into several branches made up of clans or major lineages, each of which is further divided into minor lineages and minimal lineages.

is war an age old problem or a recent one?

recent - past 200 years. violence has happened over the years, but more situation specific than biologically predisposed.

tribe

refers to a range of kin-ordered groups that are politically integrated by some unifying factor and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language and territory. ex: Navajo Indians.

chiefdom

regional polity in which 2 or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head of the ranked hierarchy of people. office is often hereditary and for life. chiefs usually control the economic activities of those under their rule. typically, they involve redistributive systems and the chief has control over the surplus and perhaps labor force. chiefs may be rich. social status based on blood proximity to chief. chief employs chain of command.

band

relatively small and loosely organized kin-order group that inhabits a specific territory and that may split periodically into small extended family groups that are politically independent. very egalitarian societies. conflicts that arise are settled informally through gossip, ridicule, direct negotiation, mediation. when all else fails, individual can leave band.

2 features of US law

rules enacted by authorized legislative body rules enforced by a judicial mechanism of the state

mediation

settlement of a dispute through negotiation assisted by an unbiased 3rd party

is public support and allegiance easier to obtain and keep in smaller uncentralized societies, or in big centralized societies?

smaller uncentralized. people are already part of decision making and is considered part of the political system. thus, societies like the US must rely on social coercion to control people.

what kind of social control is better than social sanction in larger, more complex societies?

social control is externalized in the form of law.

much of the warfare that has been observed in recent stateless society (so called tribal warfare), has been induced by ____

states as a reaction to colonial expansion

example of society that uses "trial by ordeal"

supernaturalistic example: kpelle of Liberia. hot knife held to suspect's leg. if leg is burned, they are guilty. between the lines psych stress evaluation is also made. scientific example: lie detector (polygraph) in US.

legitimacy

the right of political leaders to govern - to hold, use and allocate power - based on the values a particular society holds. legitimacy results in authority, but based on obedience rather than force and fear. power based on legitimacy is symbolic and depends upon the positive expectations of those who recognize and accept it. if expectation is not met, power of legitimacy may erode.

what centralized political organization is agriculture associated with?

the state.

negotiation

the use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to A dispute to arrive voluntarily at a mutually satisfactory agreement.

example of informal sanctions in Bedouins society of Egypt

those in authority are in a precarious position. they gain respect and thus power by demonstrating moral virtues. social standing is recognized by respect paid to them. to win respect of others, esp dependents, person must adhere to ideal of honor and be fair, taking no undue advantage of position. must exercise authority gingerly so it doesn't compromise dependent's autonomy and provoke rebellion and cause shame. tyranny is not tolerated. euphemisms are used to connote power in relationships. shepherds called "people of the sheep". approved response to abuse is leaving spouse/sibling/whomever. women have less ability to leave their fathers than their husbands, which means they often get stuck with undesirable marriages. some women commit suicide to get out of the marriage, or pretend to be crazy/possessed. lastly, supernatural sanctions help to deal with abuse/tyranny.

describe tribal organization of yanomamo

tribal organization is less formal. Each village is more or less independent. This often leads to alliances between villages. The purpose is to allow a shabono to move if needed. An allied village will help with food if the other village must abandon its shabono.

characteristics of bands and tribes

uncentralized political authority each group is economically/politically autonomous political organization is vested in kinship, age and common interest groups populations are relatively homogenous and small, with people engaged in civic activity.

the centralization of political control and the possession of valuable property among farming people provide many more stimuli for ___. it is among such people, esp those organized into states, where violence of warfare is most likely to result in ___.

warfare indiscriminate killing

most states are pluralistic societies, meaning...

within their boundaries are more than one nation

why do raids occur among yanomamo?

women theft, witchcraft, and stolen food.