Lesson 6: Memory

What is amnesia?

It is when we forget things due to brain injury or disease.

How does a human's Reconstructive Memory differ from a computer's memory?

Every time we retrieve a memory, we modify it slightly. Humans have reconstructive memory, which can slightly alter a memory as it is recalled due to one's mental state. A computer's memory, however, will recall information accurately time and time again.

What are the two types of long term memories?

Explicit and Implicit

Compare Alzheimer's Disease with Korsakoff Syndrome: - Cause of each? - Symptoms? - Treatment? - Permanent or Treatable?

Alzheimers: Unknown cause, problems based more on attention, semantic and abstract thoughts. Progressive and terminal. Korsakoff's Syndrome: Caused by lack of B1/thiamine, so lack of glucose metabolism because thiamine helps converts carbs into the glucose wee need to survive, will have poor balance and abnormal eye movement along with memory/confusion issues. Can be treated and improve.

After we encode information, what is the next step to bringing it to long term memory?

Consolidation which is the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory An example is sleep which is a very important way for one to consolidate memories

How do we measure the strength of a synapse?

How much the post synaptic potential changes as a result of pres synaptic stimulation

*CRB* Fill in the blanks: In a semantic network, the individual ideas are __________ and the connections between them are ___________. Fill in the blanks using: - Nodes - Blocks -Chunks - Associations - Links

Nodes, Associations In a semantic network, the individual ideas are Nodes and the connections between them are Associations.

Short term and working memory can be transferred into long term memory only by what?

Practicing, otherwise after a certain amount of time the stuff is gone

What are the types of implicit long term memories, and explain:

Procedural: for behavior or physical skills we have learned. Like how to for example ride a bike priming: where previous experience influences current interpretation of an event

What is interference?

Something that is blocking our ability to get to the information we want. Has nothing to do with decay

Compare retroactive and proactive interference in terms of memory.

Retroactive interference is when some new piece of information makes it harder to recall previously learned information/memories. Proactive interference is when something learned in the past interferes with learning or retrieving something learned after.

Episodic mememory includes what two aspects:

Temporal ( when the event occurred) , and contextual (where the event occurred)

In terms of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, Phonological Loop, and Episodic Buffer, describe the function of the Central Executive.

The Central Executive functions to coordinate the efforts of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and Phonological Loop, allowing them to work together and form an integrated representation, which is stored in the Episodic Buffer.

**In terms of storing memory, how is the Modified Semantic Networks (current theory) different than a simple hierarchical semantic network model?

The modified theory allows for a "hierarchy" based on experience and common knowledge, not necessarily just based on traits. This allows for individual differences in what connections exist in individuals, and differences in relative processing time.

What is the link between encoding and recall?

The more deeply we encode information, the higher the probability of recall

What is encoding?

The process of moving information form the temporary store in the working memory to the permanent store in the long term memory

Once the central executive tells both the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop to coordinate, what happens?

They create an integrated representation that gets stored in the episodic buffer which acts as a connector to long term memory

What is retrieval?

When you call up a long term memory or try to think of something you remembered before, bringing it to working memory. Successful retrieval can depend on your ability to use the cues that are present around you and recognize the association between cues present ant encoding and cues present at retrieval

What is a flashbulb memory, and are they susceptible to reconstruction?

A flashbulb memory is an extremely emotional, vivid memory (positive or negative). Even though emotional memories are sometimes though as hard to change, they are still susceptible to reconstruction.

Ebbinghaus was one of the first persons to monitor human decay of memory. HE made him self learn a whole bunch of three letter nonsense words, and tested to see the time period he could remember those over. Even if Ebbinghaus could not recall his nonsense words he learned, they were not completely gone from his long-term memory. Which of the following ways can show information is still stored? (A) By relearning the material faster than novel material is learned (B) By recalling the sequences after context clues are given (C) By learning a new set of letters and having proactive interference from previous sets. (D) By teaching the material to someone else without realizing it.

(A) By relearning the material faster than novel material is learned. Proves that some foundation of the information was till in long term memory. This foundation is called savings because it is what is saved in our memory whether or not we are aware of it.

In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes hearing a patient scream or noticing a cricket chirp, which is easily forgotten? (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(A) Echoic Memory Echoic memory is memory for what you hear and is kept only in sensory memory. Echoic memory lasts a little longer than iconic memory

In free recall, the serial position effect says subjects are more likely to remember the beginning and end of a list than the middle. Which of these effects is not a cause of the serial position effect? I. Context Clues II. Primacy Effect III. Recency Effect (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) III Only (D) II and III Only

(A) I Only Context Clues is not a cause of the serial position effect. The Primacy Effect says that the first few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than subsequent items. The Recency Effect says the final items in a series are more likely to be recalled than other items. The curve created from remembering the first few items well, the middle items not so well and then the last few items well is called the recency curve

Which of the following terms refers to the form of memory that holds almost limitless amounts of information, including implicit and explicit memories? (A) Long-term Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(A) Long-term Memory Long-term Memory which is the final stage in the information processing model, can hold almost limitless amounts of information, and includes implicit and explicit memories.

*CRB* Alternatively to retroactive interference, Positive Transfer is when old information helps someone learn new information. Which of the following is NOT an example of this? (A) Remembering "righty tighty lefty loosey", Jon successfully fixes his sink. (B) A hockey referee quickly adapts to soccer's offsides rule, having some previous experience with offsides rulings. (C) A lawyer has studied many cases before, so when he finds a novel case that would help his argument, he is able to learn it easily. (D) A doctor recalls their triage training from previous ER and EMT work and learns the triage system for natural disaster settings in a similar fashion.

(A) Remembering "righty tighty lefty loosey", Jon successfully fixes his sink. In this example, there is no new information being learned, only old information being applied.

If you are looking for supplies at a bookstore, and you are trying to learn your list by simply repeating the items over and over again, which encoding strategy are you using? (A) Rote Rehearsal (B) Chunking (C) Pegword Mnemonic Device (D) Method of Loci

(A) Rote Rehearsal It is also the weakest method. Because it is not an effortful technique. It just requires repeating information

*CRB* Which of the following terms best describes the effect when we put information in context of our own lives, making it easier to recall later? (A) Self-Reference Effect (B) Context Effect (C) Maintenance Rehearsal (D) Triple-Repeat Effect

(A) Self-Reference Effect The Self-Reference Effect explains how we recall information better once we put it into the context of our own lives.

*CRB* One of the other common symptoms of Korsakoff's Syndrome is Confabulation. Which of the following is the best example of Confabulation? (A) A patient has a newfound awe for a previously-disliked topic, like brussel sprouts. (B) A patient couldn't remember the last three days actual events, but has vivid memories of leading troops at Waterloo yesterday. (C) A patient combines two previous memories and cannot recall which details correspond with which event. (D) A patient starts swindling former business clients unethically.

(B) A patient couldn't remember the last three days actual events, but has vivid memories of leading troops at Waterloo yesterday. Confabulation is characterized by creating vivid and fabricated memories. This process is thought to be used to fill in gaps where there are a lack of memories.

Synaptic plasticity allows neurons to improve their connectivity and strength. How does repeatedly firing a neuron increase its signaling strength? (A) By triggering the growth of new neurons (cell division) (B) By converting the pre-synaptic signals into more effective, stronger synapses (Long term potentiation) (C) By changing which signaling molecules are released by the pre-synaptic neuron, the post-synaptic ion channels can be more activated (D) By sensitizing the synapse to decrease the distance between the axon terminal and dendrite

(B) By converting the pre-synaptic signals into more effective, stronger synapses (Long term potentiation)

People often compare familiar tasks to riding a bike. Which 2 of the following memory terms describe a skill like riding a bike? I. Implicit II. Non-Declarative III. Explicit (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I and III Only (D) II and III Only

(B) I and II Only Implicit and Non-Declarative Memory are synonyms and describe riding a bike. Declarative and Explicit are also synonyms.

Think about the vocabulary tests from elementary school. What type of memory was tested? (A) Procedural Memory (B) Semantic Memory (C) Priming (D) Episodic Memory

(B) Semantic Memory

In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes the initial scent of fresh-cut grass that can easily be forgotten later? (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(B) Sensory Memory This is the stage of getting the input. This is also called the sensory register. This is where we first interact with the information from our environment and it is a temporary register of all the info we are taking in

If a subject watches a video and is later told incorrect information about the video, they are more likely to recall the video incorrectly. Which of the following is a cause of this? (A) Context Clues (B) Source monitoring error (C) Recency Effect (D) Primacy Effect

(B) Source monitoring error This when we get false information after we encode something but before we try to retrieve it ourselves. This can also occur due to not only false information but also misleading information... Asking participants how hard did the cars hit each other vs smash into each other... All the participants knew it was a minor accident but those that heard smash in there question about whether glass was on the ground or not after the accident when asked a few weeks later, says that there was glass on the ground even though there wasn't.

*CRB* Alternatively to this neuroplasticity, there must also be a removal of unused neural connections to counteract those strong ones being strengthened. Which of the following terms best describes this effect? (A) Maintenance Effect (B) Synaptic Pruning (C) Synaptic Control (D) Connection Potentiation

(B) Synaptic Pruning Synaptic Pruning follows the "use it or lose it" principle, with unused neural connections being broken and oft-used ones being strengthened.

*CRB* In terms of strength of encoding information, rank each of the following ways we encode information from strongest to weakest. I. Semantic Encoding II. Visual Encoding III. Acoustic Encoding (A) I, II, III (B) II, I, III (C) I, III, II (D) II, III, I

(C) I, III, II In terms of strength of encoding information, the order of strongest to weakest encoding techniques are: -Semantic Encoding - Acoustic Encoding - Visual Encoding

Rate the following retrieval tests in order of difficulty from hardest to easiest to complete. I. Recognition II. Free Recall III. Cued Recall (A) I > II > III (B) II > I > III (C) II > III > I (D) I > III > II

(C) II > III > I Because adding more cues makes retrieval easier, the order from hardest to easiest is: II. Free Recall III. Cued Recall I. Recognition

If you are trying to memorize which lights in a grid are lit, and the top row is lit, you may remember each of those lights by remembering "top row lit". Which of the following encoding techniques are used here? I. Rote Rehearsal II. Chunking III. Method of Loci (A) II only (B) I and III only (C) II and III only (D) I, II and III

(C) II and III only Chunking was used by breaking the larger grid into more manageable parts. So you take things and chunk them in a way that makes most sense to you ( for example based on categories) The Method of Loci was used because a specific visualization/mental image was used to remember this.

*CRB* Which of the following terms is best described as repeating a piece of information to either store information in working memory or work to encode it into long-term memory? (A) Self-Reference Effect (B) Context Effect (C) Maintenance Rehearsal (D) Triple-Repeat Effect

(C) Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal is best described as repeating information to keep it stored in your memory longer, whether it be working memory or trying to encode it into long-term memory.

Which of the following terms refers to when a recent exposure to a stimulus will unconsciously influence a response to a later stimulus? (A) procedural memory (B) semantic memory (C) priming (D) episodic memory

(C) Priming

A student shows up drunk to a psychology exam, claiming he is using a retrieval cue because he studied drunk. Which retrieval cue is he using? (A) Priming (B) Context Clues (C) State-dependent (D) Recency

(C) State-dependent

Sometimes referred to as short-term memory, this type of memory can hold about 7 (plus or minus 2) pieces of information at a time and manipulate them. (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Long-term Memory

(C) Working Memory Just as sensory memory have different components for different types of input, working memory also has different components called the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Aging is almost always talked about with a decline in cognitive memory, however some cognitive abilites actually improve. Which of the following does NOT improve? (A) Semantic Memory (B) Crystallized Memory (C) Emotional reasoning (D) Dividing Attention

(D) Dividing Attention Semantic Memory, Crystallized IQ (using knowledge and experience for problem solving) and Emotional Reasoning all improve with age.

Aging is almost always talked about with a decline in cognitive memory. Of the following, which is the only type of memory to decrease with age? (A) Semantic Memory (B) Recognition (C) Emotional reasoning (D) Episodic Memory

(D) Episodic Memory

Think about your high school graduation. What type of memory is that? (A) Procedural Memory (B) Semantic Memory (C) Priming (D) Episodic Memory

(D) Episodic Memory

*CRB* Where is short-term memory primarily found? (A) Cerebrum (B) Medulla (C) Amygdala (D) Hippocampus

(D) Hippocampus The Hippocampus is where short term-memory is mostly found, along with transforming short-term memories into long-term ones.

In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes the initial sight of blood or seeing a white coat that is easily forgotten? (A) Echoic Memory (B) Sensory Memory (C) Working Memory (D) Iconic Memory

(D) Iconic Memory Seeing either blood or a white coat would count as iconic memory, because they were seen but kept only in sensory memory. Echoic memory lasts a little longer than iconic memory Even though sensory memory is technically correct, we want to choose the most accurate answer on the MCAT so we choose the specific part of sensory memory involved here.

*CRB* Another way retrieval can be improved is by changing what is being recalled. If given a 3x3 grid of letters, how would recall differ between needing to recall all of them (Whole-Report) or any specific row or column of them (Partial-Report)? (A) There are no differences between Whole-Report and Partial-Report recall. (B) There is better recall in Whole-Report, especially if told to memorize each letter. (C) There is better recall in Partial-Report, but only for the first and last rows, not the middle ones. (D) There is better recall in Partial-Report, no matter which row is chosen.

(D) There is better recall in Partial-Report, no matter which row is chosen. This may be because, when asked to list all the items, the time it takes to list the first few can be long enough to forget the others.

What is long-term potentiation?

A type of synaptic plasticity where there is a persistent increase in synaptic strength following repeated stimulation of a chemical synapse. With repeated stimulation the same level of presynaptic stimulation converts into greater post synaptic potential because after pre synaptic neuron gets a lot of practice firing and sending signals to a specific post synpatic neuron, it gets better at sending those signals and also opening up the channels to allow more ions to flow into the post synaptic membrane. This is an increase of synapse strength. This is the physiological way of how learning occurs.

What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?

Anterograde: Cant remember anything after the onset of the disease or injury but can remember stuff from before Retrograde: Can't remember anything before the injury or disease but can remember everything after forming new memories

Compare the functions of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad with the Phonological Loop.

Both the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and Phonological Loop are part of Working Memory. The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad is used for visual information (like schedules and maps) whereas the Phonological Loop is used for verbal information (words and numbers).

With aging comes cognitive ability changes, describe which cognitve abilities are associated with decline, stable, and improvement.

Decline: Free recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention (switching attention between tasks) Stable: Implicit memory, and the ability to recognize things Improvement: Semantic memory until about 60 years, crystallized intelligence, and also emotional reasoning

What is one of the main reason forgetting happens?

Due to something called decay. When we don't encode something well or don'r retrieve it for a long time, we become unable to retrieve it later. This is because the pathway to and from the memory meaning the neural connections between the cues and memory become weaker over a period of disuse so it becomes harder to stimulate those neurons.

What is explicit memory?

Facts or events that you can clearly describe

True or False? Words that are read will be stored in the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad.

False. All Words and numbers that are read and heard will be stored in the Phonological Loop. Remember, it is the type of information that determines where in the working memory it is stored, not the modality of acquiring the information!

True or False? Because both echoic and iconic memory fall under sensory memory, they both last the same amount of time.

False. Even though both echoic and iconic memory fall under sensory memory, the MODALITY (form of acquiring the memory) will determine how long the memory lasts for. For instance, echoic memory lasts for about 4 seconds while iconic memory only lasts for 1/4 of a second!

What are the methods we use for retrieval and explain:

Free recall: Without any cues and not in any particular order, you are presenting what you learned. Cued Recall: When we are given retrieval cues in order to help recall something. Recognition: You present options and allow for the subject to choose which one they know... Example you present options from a list of words that was told to be memorized and allow the participant to choose which word was told to be memorized and which one was not

What are the different types of mnemonic devices?

Imagery- which we use images to help encode certain information Pegword and Method of Loci mnemonic devices which are used to remember things that are in an order or sequence. These involve making anchors and linking new information to those anchors. Acronym: where one letter of a familiar word stands for the first letter of new information. Example HOMES for memorizing the great lakes... ontario, michigan, etc.

Compare the Information Processing Model of the nervous system to how a computer works.

In both the Information Processing Model and a computer, input is taken from the environment, processed, and outputs are produced. Important to note that this model does not highlight where things happen in the brain, it is more conceptual

**What is the semantic network model ?

Information and concepts stored in our minds are also organized in our minds in terms of connected ideas. More related ideas are connected closer and less related ideas are not connected as closely. This theory means that all ideas in our head are connected together. That means when we activate one concept, we also activate many others that are closely related to it.

What are implicit memories?

Involve things that we may not be able to articulate... but we know how to carry out the action. Implicit memories often resides outside of our conscious awareness and is pretty much automatic

Compare the Pegword and Method of Loci mnemonic devices.

Pegword devices are number and verbally based (match numbers with rhyming words, "one is a gun"), whereas... Method of Loci is based on location (putting items in different rooms of your house or something like that). Tying information you need to remember to certain places

What are the different retrieval cues and explain them:

Priming: The activation of certain associations in memory even though you are not aware of them. Example if you read a book about rabbits, later when thinking of hare, you will think about hare more than hair. Reason is that the memory of rabbit even though you are not consciously thinking of the story would prime you or prepare your brain to associate that hare with rabbit Context: Environment in which you encode information vs where you you try to retrieve it may be a factor. State- Dependent: An internal retrieval based on our current state or mood.

What are the different ways we can encode memories and explain them:

Rote rehearsal: Where we constantly repeat information over and over again to try to remember it but it is the weakest form Chunking: When we group information in manageable chunks in order to remember it. For example grouping stuff into categories Mnemonics Devices: linking what you are trying to learn to easy long term information Self referencing- Relating new information you want to learn to yourself Spacing- spread out study sessions over time instead of cramming ( for example starting to study 2 weeks before an exam instead of the night before)

What are the types of explicit long term memories, and explain:

Semantics: This is where we memorize like factual information... Recall that semantics is giving meaning to words Episodic memory: Memory for events in life we remember

Overall what does the information processing model look like:

Sensory memory to working memory to long term memory

Ebbinghaus was one of the first persons to monitor human decay of memory. HE made him self learn a whole bunch of three letter nonsense words, and tested to see the time period he could remember those over. What did he find in his experiment?

The rate of decay was very quick at first... but if he remembered those words after a few days, then he generally remembered them for all thirty days. The more integrated the initial learning is, the more stretched out the rate of forgetting is but it still follows that same pattern. SO most of the forgetting will happen in the first part, but after a while the level of forgetting will level off.

*CRB* True or false? Based on the previous card's information, it is clear that all of the letters in the grid entered the iconic memory.

True. Based on the previous card's information, it is clear that all of the letters in the grid entered the iconic memory. This is clearly the case because the letter could have been in any row and still recalled accurately.

True or False?Just because you can't retrieve something, that doesn't mean it is gone from your long term memory.

True. Just because you can't retrieve something, that doesn't mean it is gone from your long term memory. This can be tested by how quickly someone relearns stuff.

*CRB* True or false? Similar to State-Dependent memory, there is also a Mood-Dependent Memory; for example, if in a sad mood, someone is more likely to remember the tougher times in their life.

True. Similar to State-Dependent memory, there is also a Mood-Dependent Memory; for example, if in a sad mood, someone is more likely to remember the tougher times in their life. This is part of what can make Depression so tough to break out of!

True or False? The encoding strategy of Spacing explains that learning occurs best when spread out over time, not cramming.

True. The encoding strategy of Spacing explains that learning occurs best spread out over time, not cramming.

What is working memory?

Where you process anything you are thinking about right at this moment but it has a very limited capacity (7 plus or minus 2 things at a time) If you want to remember more than 7 things you are going to have to process that information in a way that it gets into and stays in long term memory so you can retrieve it later.

Sometimes we need to process information that has both verbal and visual information, but how do we do it together?

With the help of the central executive which coordinates the efforts of the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop