Lesson 8: Blood

People can also have both A and B antigens on their erythrocytes, in which case they are blood type ___.

AB

_____ is the universal recipient

AB+ Individuals with type AB blood, which has both antigens, do not have preformed antibodies to either of these. In addition, an Rh+ patient can receive both Rh+ and Rh− blood.

When doing a blood typing test, why does anti-A serum cause a type A blood to agglutinate?

Antibodies, antigens, anti-this, anti-that. So confusing! In regards to anti-A serum (or any other serums), the "anti" in these cases means against. An anti-A serum is going against blood type A, specifically the A-antigen that is presented on RBCs. So within this Anti-A serum is something that would cause type A blood to agglutinate. Recall that type A blood presents the A-antigen on its surface and there are preformed B-antibodies in the plasma. A-antigens and B-antibodies do not interact. So what does interact with the A-antigen? A-antibodies Anti-A serum contains A-antibodies. These antibodies will attach to blood presenting A-antigens, and agglutination will occur.

Each iron ion in the heme can bind to one oxygen molecule; therefore, each hemoglobin molecule can transport ____ oxygen molecules.

FOUR Each hemoglobin has 4 subunits, each which can bind an oxygen molecule.

True or False: the body must be exposed to a foreign blood antigen before an antibody can be produced.

False: This is not the case for the ABO blood group. Individuals with type A blood have preformed antibodies to the B antigen circulating in their blood plasma. These antibodies, referred to as anti-B antibodies, will cause agglutination if they ever encounter erythrocytes with B antigens. Individuals with type AB blood, which has both antigens, do not have preformed antibodies to either of these.

Eosinophils: abnormal levels

High counts of eosinophils are typical of patients experiencing allergies (antihistamine release), as well as parasitic worm infestations.

What are some of the WBC disorders discussed in LT background information? Hint: there's 3 and they all start with the letter L

Leukopenia Leukemia Lymphoma

Lymphocytes: general appearance

Lymphocytes have a round deeply staining nucleus surrounded by a relatively thin rim of cytoplasm. Lymphocytes can look like monocytes, except that lymphocytes do not have a kidney-bean shaped shaped nucleus, and lymphocytes are usually smaller. Atypically-shaped lymphocytes are an important indicator of infectious mononucleosis.

Platelets, sometimes referred to as thrombocytes, are not a cell but rather a fragment of the cytoplasm of a cell and are the second most numerous formed element after RBCs. What is their primary function?

Platelets have to be activated to perform their primary function, which is to limit blood loss by stopping blood flow following damage to a vessel.

Neutrophils: general appearance

Their nucleus has a distinct lobed appearance and may have two to five lobes. Mature neutrophils are commonly referred to as Segs due to their segmented nucleus Immature neutrophils have a band-shaped nucleus and are commonly referred to as Bands

Monocytes: general appearance

They are usually easily recognized by their very large size and indented or horseshoe-shaped nuclei.

When scientists first began to observe stained blood slides, it quickly became evident that leukocytes could be divided into two groups, what are they?

according to whether their cytoplasm contained highly visible granules (granulocytes) or not (agranulocytes).

Following an infusion of incompatible blood, erythrocytes with foreign antigens appear in the bloodstream and trigger an immune response. Proteins called antibodies, attach to the antigens on the infused erythrocytes and cause them to adhere to one another. What is this process called?

agglutination

One erythrocyte may contain about 300 million hemoglobin molecules and, therefore, can bind to and transport up to _____ oxygen molecules.

1.2 BILLION 300 million hemoglobin x 4 subunits = 1.2 billion oxygens

People whose erythrocytes have A antigens on their erythrocyte membrane surfaces are designated blood type ___

A

Monocytes: abnormal levels

Abnormally high counts of monocytes are associated with viral or fungal infections, tuberculosis, and some forms of leukemia and other chronic diseases. Abnormally low counts are typically caused by suppression of the bone marrow.

Neutrophils: abnormal levels

Abnormally high counts of neutrophils indicate infection and/or inflammation, particularly triggered by bacteria Low counts may be caused by drug toxicity and other disorders, and may increase an individual's susceptibility to infection.

Leukocytes: abnormal levels

Abnormally high lymphocyte counts are characteristic of viral infections as well as some types of cancer. Abnormally low lymphocyte counts are characteristic of prolonged (chronic) illness or immunosuppression, including that caused by HIV infection and drug therapies that often involve steroids.

_____ are substances that the body does not recognize as belonging to the "self" and that therefore trigger a defensive response from the leukocytes of the immune system.

Antigens

Lymphocytes: function

B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, play prominent roles in defending the body against specific pathogens (Specific immunity; antigens and antibodies) NK cells are capable of recognizing cancer cells, cells infected with a virus, and other cells with atypical surface proteins Atypically-shaped lymphocytes are an important indicator of infectious mononucleosis.

Basophils: function

Basophils generally intensify the inflammatory response. The granules of basophils release histamines, which contribute to inflammation, and heparin, which opposes blood clotting.

Is blood a connective tissue or epithelial tissue?

Blood is a connective tissue. Like all connective tissues, it is made up of cells (and cell-like structures) and an extracellular matrix. The cells and cell-like structures, referred to as formed elements, include red blood cells (erythrocytes, RBCs), white blood cells (leukocytes, WBCs), and cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes). The extracellular matrix, called plasma, makes blood unique among connective tissues because it is fluid. This fluid, which is mostly water, perpetually suspends the formed elements and enables them to circulate throughout the body within the cardiovascular system.

Basophils: general appearance

Contain large granules that pick up a dark blue stain and are so common they may make it difficult to see the two-lobed nucleus

Neutrophils: function

Engulf and digest bacteria

What are the types of granulocytes? What are the different types of agranulocytes?

Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils There are two major types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes

Basophils: abnormal levels

High counts of basophils are associated with allergies, parasitic infections, and hypothyroidism. Low counts are associated with pregnancy, stress, and hyperthyroidism.

Monocytes: function

Macrophages are monocytes that have left circulation and phagocytize debris, foreign pathogens, worn-out erythrocytes, and many other dead, worn out, or damaged cells. Macrophages also attract other leukocytes to the site of an infection.

Rank, by quantity present in blood, the different types of leukocytes from greatest to least.

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas Neutrophils Leukocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils

People with neither A nor B antigens are designated blood type ___

O

_____ is the universal donor

O- People with type O blood lack antigens A and B on their erythrocytes. Rh- means they also lack the D antigen However, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies circulate in their blood plasma.

What is hematocrit?

One common blood test, called a hematocrit, measures the percentage of RBCs, clinically referred to as erythrocytes, in a blood sample. It is performed by spinning the blood sample in a specialized centrifuge, a process that causes the heavier elements suspended within the blood sample to separate from the lightweight, liquid plasma

Erythrocytes are small cells whose primary function is to pick up inhaled _____ from the lungs and transport it to the body's tissues, and to pick up some of the _____ waste at the tissues and transport it to the lungs for exhalation.

RBC pick up inhaled OXYGEN for body tissues and help get rid of CARBON DIOXIDE waste for exhalation

Eosinophils: function

The granules of eosinophils include antihistamine molecules, which counteract the activities of histamines. Some eosinophil granules contain molecules toxic to parasitic worms.

Eosinophils: general appearance

The nucleus of the eosinophil will typically have two to three lobes and, if stained properly, the granules will have a distinct red to orange color.

Since RBCs lack most organelles, there is more interior space for the key molecule for the major RBC function of gas transport, _____

hemoglobin Hemoglobin is a large molecule made up of proteins and iron. It consists of four folded chains of a protein called globin. Each of these globin molecules is bound to a red pigment molecule called heme, which contains an ion of iron

The formed elements of the blood include include _____

red blood cells (erythrocytes, RBCs) white blood cells (leukocytes, WBCs), cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes) The term formed elements must be used, instead of cells, because not all of the components are actually cells

Like other fluids in the body, plasma is composed primarily (92%) of _____. Dissolved or suspended within this is a mixture of substances, most of which are proteins, and hundreds of other substances, most of which are found only in very small quantities.

water