Life Science - Unit 2

How would you describe how genetic information is stored in a DNA molecule?

Genetic information is stored in the order of the nitrogen bases that form in the interior of the DNA double-helix.

In which of these ways do cancer cells and healthy cells differ?

Healthy cells are specialized based on their genetic instructions, while cancer cells disregard these instructions and lose specialization though they continue to divide.

How can vaccines be used to treat cancer?

White blood cells can be engineered to present tumor antigens to the immune cells that trigger an immune response.

Choose the summary of how the risk of cancer can be detected in the body.

White blood cells can be isolated from the blood and genetic testing can be carried out on the DNA isolated from those cells.

The daughter cells that result from mitosis

are genetically identical.

Small samples of tissue are taken to testing for cancer during a process called

biopsy.

Which is the least complex level of human organization?

cells

What is the term used to describe the "twisted ladder" structure of a DNA molecule?

double-helix

Mitosis is the part of the cell cycle during which

genetic material divides into two nuclei.

Which type of cancer originates in the cells and tissues of the immune system?

lymphoma

Which of these molecules stores genetic information in a cell?

nucleic acids

The checkpoints that regulate the cell cycle are

under the control of proteins.

Breast cancer is staged using a scale from

0 to 4 including subcategories in some stages.

the process of gene expression

1) A gene is copied into an mRNA molecule in the nucleus 2) An mRNA molecule is processed to remove unneeded regions 3) An mRNA molecule is read one codon at a time on a ribosome in the cytoplasm 4) A chain of amino acids (polypeptide) assembles

stages of mitosis

1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

Which is the best description of cancer?

A disease that begins in a single cell or group of cells that can spread to tissues and organs, disrupting the normal function of body structures.

What is a proto-oncogene?

A gene that, if mutated, can lead to cancer. A gene that is part of growth and development signaling pathways in a cell. A gene that encodes proteins that typically speed up the cell cycle.

What is a mutagen?

A known cause of genetic mutation.

Which of the following describes the process of mitosis?

A type of cell division that separates chromosomes and produces two daughter cells with identical nuclei.

Select the methods by which cancer, or the risk of cancer, is detected in the body.

A variety of X-ray technologies may be used to capture images of the body to find tumors. A simple blood test may be used to detect changes in blood chemistry, the presence of abnormal proteins, or disease-fighting antibodies. A minor surgical procedure may extract tissue to look for cancer cells.

carcinogen

An agent known to cause DNA mutation specifically associated with cancer.

mutagen

An agent known to cause DNA mutation, such as chemicals, radiation, or viruses.

What is RNA polymerase?

An enzyme that participates in every stage of transcription.

Which of these are usually targeted by the immune system?

Bacteria and viruses

If a physician wanted to look for signs of cancer, such as elevated white blood cell count, abnormal proteins, or elevated liver enzymes, what sort of test would they perform?

CBC and blood marker test

Cancer occurs at a cellular level.

Cancer begins with the body's inability to control cell division in a cell or group of cells.

How is cell division related to cancer?

Cancer can develop whenever genetic material is damaged such that a cell undergoes cell division unchecked.

Body chemistry

Cancer can increase blood calcium, which causes coma or death.

How does cancer that starts out in one location in the body end up in others?

Cancer cells can move in the body using the body's own transport systems.

Homeostasis

Cancer interferes with the body's ability to maintain a balanced internal environment.

Choose the explanations of how cancer affects the normal physiology of the body.

Cancer interferes with the body's maintenance of homeostasis. Cancer in tissues like bone, which help to regulate blood calcium, can contribute to a decrease in blood calcium and lead to coma or death. Tumors in organs can block vessels and ducts, disrupting organ function.

Organ function

Cancer takes up space, blocking ducts, blood and lymph vessels, or even blocking airways.

White blood cells are removed, exposed to tumor antigen, and then returned to a person's body in what sort of cancer treatment?

Cancer vaccine, a form of immunotherapy

When the body sustains an injury that damages tissue, what happens in a normal, healthy body?

Cell division produces new cells to replace the damaged cells and thus repair the tissue.

Telophase

Cytokinesis often begins before this step is complete.

During interphase, a cell doubles its organelles and replicates its ___ in preparation for cell division.

DNA

The basic mechanism behind radiation is

DNA damage using energy waves or particles.

A process that determines the precise order of nucleotides in a segment of DNA is called

DNA sequencing.

Anaphase

Daughter chromosomes move toward the poles.

When are chromosomes copied?

During S phase, in preparation for cell division.

How would you describe the daughter cells that result from mitosis?

Each has the same number and types of chromosomes in its nucleus.

There are several known mutations associated with breast cancer risk. How might an individual's risk of developing breast cancer be assessed using this information?

Genetic testing can compare the cancer genes in an individual's DNA to the DNA sequence of the normal (non-mutated) genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2.

Which cancer therapy identifies subtle differences between healthy cells and cancer cells, such as surface antigens?

Immunotherapy

Taking advantage of the body's own immune response to fight cancer is a type of therapy called

Immunotherapy.

What happens to a cancer cell that allows it to divide uncontrollably?

It disregards its genetic programming and becomes less specialized, altering its ability to function in a tissue or organ.

How does a cell prepare for division during interphase?

It doubles its organelles. It grows. It replicates its DNA.

Why does a cell grow, synthesize proteins, and double its DNA and its organelles during interphase?

It is preparing to divide.

How does radiation therapy work?

It uses the movement of energy to slow or stop cell division.

Cell division occurs during which phase of the cell cycle?

M phase

Select the two major parts of the cell cycle.

M phase interphase

A scan that uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed pictures of the body for screening and diagnosis is called a(n)

MRI

A radioactive tracer measures cell activity in which type of imaging?

PET scan

The enzyme that unwinds the DNA molecule and helps to produce a complementary RNA copy during transcription is called

RNA polymerase.

Which of these might be a result of tumor invasion of an organ?

Restricted airways Blocked ducts Compression of important areas of the brain

Prophase

Spindle fibers form from the centrioles to help align the chromosomes.

Which stage of breast cancer is detected early and has not spread to any surrounding tissue?

Stage 0

Which of these outcomes is possible using genome editing?

Targeting genetic mutations to change nucleotides sequences, and as a result, reduce tumor size.

Metaphase

The chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator.

What is cytokinesis?

The process that pinches the plasma membrane to divide the cytoplasm and organelles between two new daughter cells after mitosis.

How does cancer begin in the body?

There is a loss of control in cell division.

Which of these explains how genetic mutations change the information contained in a DNA molecule?

They alter the nucleotide sequence of the DNA.

What happens to the chromosomes prior to cell division?

They are copied.

Which is true of the 100 trillion cells in the adult body that is not true of the body's very first cell?

They are specialized to form tissues and organs.

Which of these mechanisms might you list when explaining how mutations change the contents of DNA molecules?

They remove one or more nucleotides. They exchange one nucleotide for another. They insert additional nucleotides.

What is the role of nucleic acids in cells?

They store genetic information.

How do cancer cells get the oxygen and nutrients they require to continuously grow?

Tumors cause blood vessels to grow by releasing growth factors.

Cancer is a physiological disease.

Tumors or excess cells in the blood interfere with the normal function of tissues or organs.

A computerized X-ray that takes pictures of the organs at different angles is called

a CT, or CAT, scan.

Which type of cell might be described as immortal?

a cancer cell

Often the first indications of cancer result from tissue or organ function changes, but the disease actually begins when

a cell or group of cells began to divide uncontrollably.

The smallest living biological unit of organization is called

a cell.

What is the expected outcome of changes to the DNA in a cancer cell?

a change in the function of the cell

What is a CT scan?

a computerized X-ray that takes pictures of the organs at different angles

The term cancer is best defined as

a disease caused by the inability to control cell division.

Which is more threatening to the human body?

a malignant tumor

Cancer begins with

a mutation that allows a cell to divide more quickly.

What is the characteristic of all eukaryotic cells that distinguishes them from prokaryotic cells?

a nucleus

You want to determine if a cell is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. Which of these must be present if the cell is a eukaryotic cell?

a nucleus

What is angiogenesis?

a process in which tumor cells release growth factors that cause local capillaries to grow toward the tumor

What is gene expression?

a process that uses the information in the genes to form a functional protein

What is a PET scan?

a scan that uses sugar with a radioactive tracer to measure cell activity

What is an MRI?

a scan that usess radio waves and magnets to generate detailed pictures of the body for screening and diagnosis

What is a gene?

a sequence of genetic information that contains instructions used to make a protein

The cell cycle is

a series of events during which a cell prepares to and then divides into two new identical cells.

A nucleotide is best defined as

a subunit of a nucleic acid, consisting of a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen base.

A cell with a mutation that allows it to divide more quickly frequently

accumulates more mutations as it rapidly divides.

The characteristics that define life include the ability to

adapt to the environment. reproduce. acquire materials and energy.

The four nitrogen bases found in a DNA molecule are

adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

What is a mammogram?

an X-ray of the breast tissue and some surrounding tissue

When each homologous chromosome is copied, what forms?

an identical structure called a sister chromatid.

When a mutation causes a proto-oncogene to be in an active state without stimulation from a growth hormone, the gene has become

an oncogene.

Both stage 0 and stage 1 breast cancers

are located in a very small area.

Cancer cells lose specialization

as they accumulate mutations.

Why doesn't a cancer cell function like a normal cell?

because changes to cancer cell DNA result in changes or loss of function of proteins and enzymes in the cell

As cancer cells accumulate mutations, they

begin to change faster, becoming distinctly unlike the cells in the surrounding tissue.

In order to test the body's tissues for cancer, a doctor might perform a ___, during which they remove a small sample of cells from a tumor or the surrounding lymph nodes.

biopsy

Which of the following tests would a physician order for a patient who wants to determine their risk of breast cancer?

blood tests followed by DNA sequencing blood tests followed by DNA microarray

Changes in body chemistry, which disrupt homeostasis, can be detected using

blood tests.

When cancer invades the body, the immune system

can indicate the presence of cancer by producing antibodies called immunoglobins.

If an agent known to cause mutations to the DNA is also directly associated with a specific form of cancer, it would be called a

carcinogen.

the smallest biological unit of organization that has all of the characteristics of life.

cell

Centrioles generally function in ______, when they divide genetic material and the contents of a reproducing cell.

cell division

Which of the following happen during M phase of the cell cycle?

cell division mitosis cytokinesis

During M phase of the cell cycle

cell division occurs.

Cancer is caused by loss of control of

cell division.

The general function of centrioles in a cell is

cell division.

Select some of the consequences associated with the accumulation of mutations in cancer cells.

change in appearance loss of specialization tumor growth

This cancer treatment works better for metastatic cancer, comparatively.

chemotherapy

A tumor-suppressor gene is a gene that

codes for proteins that examine DNA during the cell cycle. can lead to a tumor if mutated. slows down the cell cycle.

The process that pinches the plasma membrane in and results in two daughter cells is called

cytokinesis.

Select the nitrogen bases found in a DNA molecule.

cytosine adenine thymine guanine

Which nitrogen base would you expect to see bonded to guanine (G) in a DNA molecule?

cytosine (C).

DNA sequencing is a process that

determines the order of nucleotides in a segment of DNA.

Chemotherapy can be defined as

drug used to treat cancer or to control or reduce the symptoms of cancer. treatment of a disease with a drug.

Which of these are characteristics of cancer cells?

extra DNA variation in shape and size irregular shape

A sequence of information in the genome, which provides the instructions for forming a protein or enzyme, is called a

gene

The steps that use the information in a gene to create a protein are collectively referred to as

gene expression.

Which of the following help to explain how changes to the cell cycle can lead to cancer?

genetic mutations genes that control the cell cycle

Sally has a history of breast cancer in her family and decides to investigate the chances that she may also develop breast cancer. Which of the following routes would Sally's doctors likely explore to determine her risk?

genetic testing to examine both copies of her BRCA1 tumor-suppressor gene

The sum of all of the genetic information in a cell is called the

genome

Stage 4 breast cancer

has fully metastasized, spreading to organs outside the breast.

Which of the following terms refers to the body's ability to maintain balanced internal conditions?

homeostasis

The stabilization of the internal environment around a specific set of conditions is referred to as

homeostasis.

What are sister chromatids?

identical structures formed when each homologous chromosome is copied during S phase of the cell cycle.

Because it produces antibodies called immunoglobins in response to cancer, the ______ system can indicate cancer in the body.

immune

The system in the body that is adapted to identify foreign invaders, like bacteria or viruses, and target them for destruction is the ______ system.

immune

What is the general function of the nucleus?

information processing

During the cell cycle, a cell spends the most time in which phase?

interphase

Stage 4 breast cancer

is often called incurable. has spread to organs outside the breast. typically spreads to organs including the lungs, heart, brain, or liver.

When a tumor invades an organ,

it takes up space and causes negative physiological consequences.

The nucleus of a cancer cell is ______ compared to a normal cell.

larger

As cancer cells accumulate mutations, they become ______ specialized.

less

A normal cell has a(n) ______ lifespan, while a cancer cell has a(n)_____ lifespan.

limited; unlimited

When staging cancer, a ______ number indicates a less severe and less invasive cancer and a ______ number indicates a more severe and more invasive cancer.

lower higher

An X-ray of the breast for screening or diagnostic purposes is called a(n)

mammogram.

Which two types of cancer can originate in the cells of our skin?

melanoma carcinoma

The process by which tumor cells move to other parts of the body and form new tumors is called

metastasis

Select the two major parts of M phase of the cell cycle.

mitosis cytokinesis

M phase of the cell cycle includes

mitosis and cytokinesis

The part of the cell cycle during which the genetic material is divided into two nuclei is called

mitosis.

Cancer cells are capable of

moving through the lymphatic vessels. moving through the circulatory system. stimulating blood vessels to grow toward them.

Chemicals, radiation, and viruses are all known causes of mutations or

mutagens.

Which term is used when referring to a change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule?

mutation

Changes to the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule are called

mutations

Two things happen when a cell develops cancer: first, a cell rapidly divides because of changes to its genetic programming. How would you explain the second?

mutations in the genes that regulate the cell cycle allow the cell to continue to divide uncontrollably.

Benign tumors are

not as dangerous as malignant tumors.

The class of organic molecules responsible for storing and processing genetic information are the

nucleic acids.

DNA is made up of subunits called ______, which are a combination of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

nucleotides

The individual subunits of DNA are called

nucleotides

The monomers that make up DNA and are composed of a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base are called

nucleotides.

Information is processed in the ribosomes and within the ___ of a cell.

nucleus

A mutation in a proto-oncogene produces a(n) ___ that may cause cancer.

oncogene

Information is stored in the ______ of a DNA molecule.

pattern of nucleotides

Cells belong to one of two classes, the simple ______ and the more complex ______.

prokaryotes; eukaryotes

Choose the two classes of cells.

prokaryotic cells eukaryotic cells

During which step of mitosis does the genetic material condense into chromosomes?

prophase

Which of these is the first step of mitosis?

prophase

Which of these controls each of the checkpoints that regulate cell division?

proteins

Which type of gene typically interacts with growth hormones to increase the rate of cell division?

proto-oncogenes

Which cancer treatment is more targeted?

radiation

Chemotherapy and radiation are often used together because

radiation is precise but not effective in treating cancers that have spread, while chemotherapy is less precise but can effectively treat cancer that has spread.

Energy waves and particles are used to damage DNA in a cancer therapy called

radiation.

Because they need oxygen and nutrients from the body to grow, tumor cells

release growth factors that cause capillaries to grow toward them.

Damaged cells and worn out, old cells are ______ by new cells. Damaged tissues are ______ by the production of new cells.

replaced; repaired

Which of the following describe how genome editing could prevent the formation of cancer?

restore mutated proto-oncogenes correct mutations restore mutated tumor-suppressor genes

The term double-helix refers to the

shape of a DNA molecule.

What is the name for the identical duplicate chromosomes held together by a centromere?

sister chromatids

Cells are able to form tissues and organs that serve specific purposes in the body because they are

specialized.

Chemotherapy works by targeting the characteristics of fast-growing cancer cells. This means they target

specific points of the cell cycle to stop cell division.

A nucleic acid is best defined as a molecule that

stores genetic information.

This is a variation on internal radiation therapy, used for cancers such as thyroid, by which a radioactive substance is administered via injection or ingestion.

systemic radiation therapy

Chemotherapy functions to combat cancer because it

targets the characteristics of fast-growing cancer cells.

During which stage of mitosis do two daughter nuclei contain the same chromosome number as the parent cell?

telophase

Which of these is the final step of mitosis?

telophase

During which checkpoint might you expect proteins to determine that a cell is not ready to pass on to the S phase because of excessive DNA damage?

the G1 checkpoint

During which cell cycle checkpoint would you expect proteins to find that DNA had not replicated properly and must be repaired or the cell will be marked for apoptosis?

the G2 checkpoint

Which of the cell cycle checkpoints checks to make sure that DNA has replicated?

the G2 checkpoint

During which cell cycle checkpoint would you expect proteins to find misaligned chromosomes and thus halt mitosis?

the M checkpoint

Which of the cell cycle checkpoints checks to make sure that chromosomes are properly aligned after before completing mitosis?

the M checkpoint

Two characteristics of living things are related to the external environment:

the ability to respond to the environment the ability to adapt to the environment.

Interphase and M phase are the two major parts of

the cell cycle.

The series of steps a cell undergoes to prepare for cell division, the process of cell division, and the regulation of these steps are collectively referred to as

the cell cycle.

What is metastasis?

the process by which cancer cells move to other locations in the body, forming new tumors.

Which of these defines the term chemotherapy in general?

the use of a drug to treat a disease

Which is the definition of radiation?

the use of energy waves or particles to damage DNA

Radiation does not work well to treat cancer once it has spread, but chemotherapy can be effective for metastatic cancer treatment, so

these therapies are often used together to maximize effectiveness.

A single muscle cell combines with others to form muscle ___ , which can function in a unit called an organ within an organ ___, along with other organs.

tissue, system

What is the function of the M checkpoint?

to check for proper chromosome alignment

What is the function of the G2 checkpoint?

to check for properly replicated DNA

What is the function of the G1 checkpoint?

to make sure DNA is not damaged

What is the purpose of transcription?

to produce an intermediate molecule that can carry the genetic information from the nucleus to the ribosome

What is the purpose of translation?

to translate the information in an mRNA transcript into the amino acid language of proteins

Which of these processes passes genetic information from DNA to an RNA molecule that can leave the nucleus?

transcription

The information in a sequence of DNA called a gene is copied into an mRNA molecule during ______, then it is interpreted to synthesize a protein during ______.

transcription; translation

Which process achieves the conversion of the information found in DNA to create a specific chain of amino acids?

translation

Which type of gene is responsible for preventing unregulated cell growth?

tumor-suppressor genes

How would you characterize the life span of a cancer cell?

unlimited—the cell with divide endlessly

Which of these are defining features of systemic radiation?

use of radioactive compound bound to a targeting molecule use of specific radioactive elements, like iodine in the treatment of thyroid cancer use of targeting molecules (monoclonal antibodies) that interact via specific proteins on the surface of cancer cells