Lifespan development ch.6
In many, but not all, cultures, stranger wariness emerges at about ____ months and increases throughout the first year of life, beginning to decrease after about ____ months of age
6; 15
As clear attachments form, starting at about ____ months, infants are likely to experience separation anxiety
7
Insecure-resistant attachment is associated with...
inconsistent and unresponsive parenting
The social smile emerges between ___ and ____ weeks of age
6 and 10
Anger appears at about ___ months of age and develops rapidly, becoming more complex in terms of elicitors and responses
6
Between ____ and _____ months, infants begin to demonstrate self-control by their awareness of, and compliance to, caregivers' simple requests
12; 18
Self-conscious emotions do not begin to emerge until about ___ to ____ months, and they largely develop during the second and third years of life
15; 18
Between __ and __ months of age, infants begin to display anger, sadness, joy, surprise, and fear
2;7
Infants may show clear expressions of joy and intense happiness as early as ____ months of age while playing with a parent
2½
By ___ months of age, nearly all of the children could pick out their own picture.
30
Separation anxiety tends to increase between __ and __ months of age, and then it declines
8; 15
goodness of fit
An important influence on socioemotional development between the child's temperament and the environment around him or her, especially the parents' temperaments and childrearing methods
social referencing
Between 6 and 10 months of age; looking to caregivers' or other adults' emotional expressions to find clues for how to interpret ambiguous events, which influences their emotional responses and subsequent actions
Phases of attachment
Bowlby proposed that attachment formation progresses through several developmental phases during infancy, from innate behaviors that bring the caregiver into contact to a mutual attachment relationship
Difficult temperament
Difficult babies are active, irritable, and irregular in biological rhythms. They are slow to adapt to changes in routine or new situations, react vigorously to change, and have trouble adjusting to new routines.
Easy temperament
Easy babies are often in a positive mood, even-tempered, open, adaptable, regular, and predictable in biological functioning. They establish regular feeding and sleeping schedules easily.
the "rouge test"
From 3 months of age, infants pay attention and react positively to their mirror image, and by 8 to 9 months of age, they show awareness of the tandem movement of the mirror image with themselves and play with the image, treating it as if it is another baby. Some 15- to 17-month-old infants show signs of self-recognition, but it is not until 18 to 24 months that most infants demonstrate self-recognition by touching their nose when they notice the rouge mark in the mirror
self-control
In order to engage in self-control, the infant must be able to attend to a caregiver's instructions, shift his or her attention from an attractive stimulus or task, and inhibit a behavior
Phase 3: Attachments (7-24 Months)
Infants develop attachments to specific caregivers who attend, accurately interpret, and consistently respond to their signals.
Phase 1: Preattachment—Indiscriminate Social Responsiveness (Birth to 2 Months)
Infants instinctively elicit caregiving responses from caregivers by crying, smiling, and making eye contact with adults.
The most adaptive matches between infant temperament and context can sometimes be surprising. Consider the Maasai, an African semi-nomadic ethnic group-
Infants who cry and are demanding are attended to, are fed more, and are in better physical condition than easy babies; he Maasai infants with difficult temperaments demonstrate higher rates of survival because their temperaments better fit the demands of the hostile context in which they are raised
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment (2 of 4)
Infants who display an insecure-avoidant attachment show little interest in the mother and busily explore the room during the Strange Situation. The infant is not distressed when the mother leaves and may react to the stranger in similar ways as to the mother.
Insecure-Resistant Attachment (3 of 4)
Infants with an insecure-resistant attachment show a mixed pattern of responses to the mother. The infant remains preoccupied with the mother throughout the procedure, seeking proximity and contact, clinging even before the separation.
Distinguishing happy faces from sad
It is thought that infants are innately prepared to attend to facial displays of emotion, because such displays are biologically significant and the ability to recognize them is important for human survival
If infants from Asian cultures engage in more self-soothing, are they more temperamentally resistant to stress?
Japanese infants showed a pronounced cortisol response, suggesting that they were experiencing great stress, coupled with little crying. The U.S. infants, on the other hand, displayed intense behavioral reactions to the pain and took longer to calm down, yet they displayed a lower cortisol response.
Slow-to-warm-up temperament
Just as it sounds, slow-to-warm-up babies tend to be inactive, moody, and slow to adapt to new situations and people. They react to new situations with mild irritability but adjust more quickly than do infants with difficult temperaments.
Newborns and awareness of the self
Newborns show distress at hearing a recording of another infant's cries but do not show distress at hearing their own cries, suggesting that they can distinguish other infants' cries from their own and thereby have a primitive notion of self
Which emotions are considered acceptable, as well as how they should be expressed, differ by culture and context
North American parents tickle and stimulate their babies, encouraging squeals of pleasure. The Gusii and Aka people of Central Africa prefer to keep babies calm and quiet; they engage in little face-to-face play
internal working model
The attachment bond developed during infancy and toddlerhood influences personality development because it comes to be represented as an _______________, which includes the children's expectations about whether they are worthy of love, whether their attachment figures will be available during times of distress, and how they will be treated.
secure base
The formation of an attachment bond is crucial for infants' development because it enables infants to begin to explore the world, using their attachment figure as a ___________, or foundation, to return to when frightened.
Insecure-Disorganized Attachment (4 of 4)
The infant with insecure-disorganized attachment shows a conflict between approaching and fleeing the caregiver, suggesting fear. Infants showing insecure-disorganized attachment experience the greatest insecurity, appearing disoriented and confused.
Secure Attachment (1 of 4)
The securely attached infant uses the parent as a secure base, exploring the environment and playing with toys in the presence of the parent, but regularly checking in.
Ainsworth and attachment
Virtually all infants form an attachment to their parents, but Canadian psychologist Mary Salter Ainsworth proposed that infants differ in security of attachment
Phase 2: Early Attachments—Discriminating Sociability (2 Through 6-7 Months)
When caregivers are sensitive and consistent in responding to babies' signals, babies learn to associate their caregivers with the relief of distress, forming the basis for an initial bond.
cultural differences in temperament that are rooted in cultural norms (Japan vs America)
Whereas Japanese mothers tend to interact with their babies in soothing ways, discouraging strong emotions, North American mothers are active and stimulating. Differences in temperament result, such that Japanese infants tend to be more passive, less irritable and vocal, and more easily soothed when upset than North American infants.
Phase 4: Reciprocal Relationships (24-30 Months and Onward):
With advances in cognitive and language development, children can engage in interactions with their primary caregiver as partners, taking turns and initiating interactions within the attachment relationship.
stranger wariness
a fear of unfamiliar people
Attachment
a lasting emotional tie between two people who each strive to maintain closeness to the other and act to ensure that the relationship continues.
separation anxiety
a reaction to separations from an attachment figure that is characterized by distress and crying
categorical self
a self-description based on broad categories such as sex, age, and physical characteristics
Strange Situation
a structured observational procedure that reveals the security of attachment when the infant is placed under stress
Basic emotions
also known as primary emotions (happiness, sadness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust), are universal, experienced by people around the world
In response to their infants' cries, U.S., Chinese, and Italian mothers show brain activity in regions associated with...
auditory processing, emotion, and the intention to move and speak, suggesting automatic responses to infant expressions of distress
An understanding of self is needed before children can be aware of....
being the focus of attention and feel embarrassment, identify with others' concerns and feel shame, or desire what someone else has and feel jealousy toward that person.
Temperament has strong __________ determinants
biological; behavior genetics research has shown genetic bases for temperament
autonomy versus shame and doubt
establishing a sense of autonomy, or the feeling that one can make choices and direct oneself
emotional display rules
every society has a set of these; specify the circumstances under which various emotions should or should not be expressed
By experiencing a range of emotional interactions—times when their emotions mirror those of their caregivers and times when their emotions are different from those of their caregivers....
infants learn how to transform negative emotions into neutral or positive emotions and regulate their own emotional states
One longitudinal study suggested that infants with an insecure disorganized attachment at 12 and 18 months of age were, as adults, more likely to have children with....
insecure disorganized attachment, suggesting the possibility of intergenerational transmission of insecure attachment
Attachment occurs in all cultures, but whether the Strange Situation is applicable across cultural contexts is a matter of debate
insecure-avoidant attachments are more common in Western European countries, and insecure-resistant attachments are more prevalent in Japan and Israel
infants of the Efe people of Zaire, Africa, show ___________
little stranger wariness; the Efe collective caregiving system, in which Efe babies are passed from one adult to another, relatives and nonrelatives alike, and the infants form relationships with the many people who care for them
Babies who receive more responsive and immediate caregiving when distressed show...
lower rates of persistent crying, spend more time in happy and calm states, and cry less overall as they approach their first birthday
Temperament can also be related to mothers' own temperament, as well as their expectations about their infants and their ability to parent...
mothers who, prior to giving birth, considered themselves less well equipped to care for their infants were found to be more likely to have infants who showed negative aspects of temperament, such as fussiness, irritability, and difficulty being soothed
social smile
occurs in response to familiar people, is an important milestone in infant development because it shows social engagement
Whether infants show stranger wariness depends on the infants' ________ , ________ and ____________
overall temperament, their past experience, and the situation in which they meet a stranger
The insecure-avoidant attachment pattern is associated with...
parental unavailability or rejection
Bowlby's Ethological Theory of Attachment
posed that early family experiences influence emotional disturbances not through feeding practices, conditioning, or psychoanalytic drives but via inborn tendencies to form close relationships; developed a theory of attachment that characterizes it as an adaptive behavior that evolved because it contributed to the survival of the human species
self-conscious emotions
secondary emotions; such as empathy, pride, embarrassment, shame, and guilt—depends on cognitive development, as well as an awareness of self
emotion regulation
the ability to control their emotions; Very young infants have been observed to manage negative emotions by sucking vigorously on objects or turning their bodies away from distressing stimuli
Self-recognition
the ability to recognize or identify the self; One way of studying self-awareness in infants is to examine infants' reactions to viewing themselves in a mirror
Temperament
the characteristic way in which an individual approaches and reacts to people and situations, is thought to be one of the basic building blocks of emotion and personality
About _______ of North American infants who complete the Strange Situation are classified as securely attached
two thirds
Effortful control
the degree to which one can focus attention, shift attention, and inhibit responses in order to manage arousal. Infants who are high in effortful control are able to regulate their arousal and soothe themselves.
security of attachment
the extent to which they feel that parents can reliably meet their needs
Negative affectivity
the tendency toward negative emotions, such as sadness, fear, distress, and irritability.
Extraversion/surgency
the tendency toward positive emotions. Infants who are high in extraversion/surgency approach experiences with confidence, energy, and positivity, as indicated by smiles, laughter, and approach-oriented behaviors.
According to Erikson (1950), developing a sense of ______________ is the first developmental task of life
trust versus mistrust
According to Erik Erikson (1950), as we travel through the lifespan, we proceed through a series of psychosocial crises, or developmental tasks. Erikson believed that infants and toddlers progress through two psychosocial stages that influence their personality development: __________ and __________
trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt.
