Lifespan exam 1 modules

insecure-avoidant infants who learn that displays of distress elicit rejection, punishment, or withdrawal become conditioned to______________

inhibition of affect.

contingency management

involves presenting and withdrawing reinforcers and punishments in a systematic and consistent way to effect behavioral change

A ________________ displays the actual chromosomes from human body cells, photographed under a microscope and laid out in matching pairs.

karyotype

Use of love withdrawal is often characteristic of parents who exercise ________________ control over their children

psychological

The spiritual self ( Me self),

viewed by James as the most precious, incorporates her qualities of character, beliefs, and personal values

The "Me" includes all those attributes that are used to define the self and that make up the self-concept. In James's typology, these are the_________________ ranked in that order of importance from lowest to highest.

"material self," the " social self," and the "spiritual self,"

representations of interactions (RIGs).

"procedural" representations or schemata—preverbal, unconscious, and a kind of sensorimotor memory. They are patterns generalized from the repetitive nature of caregiver-infant interactions. ( second half year)

Specific defense mechanisms, such as ____________________ can also be associated with the conflicts that arise at a particular stage

"reaction formation" or "repression,"

Corporal punishment has been defined by Straus (1994) as

"the use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the child's behavior''

dizygotic

("fraternal"), meaning that they develop from two different eggs. In fraternal twins, each twin is fertilized by its own sperm cell.

Main and Hesse (1998) identified six primary subtypes of Fightening behavior. They include parental behaviors that are

(1) threatening, as in suddenly looming or abruptly coming up close to the infant's field of vision; (2) frightened, as in showing a fearful face with wide eyes and facial grimaces; (3) timid or deferential, as in acting as if the infant were in control; (4) spousal or romantic, as in sexualized or overly intimate behavior toward the infant; and (5) disorganized, as in asymmetrical and mistimed movements. A final behavioral category is (6) dissociative, which is exemplified by the parent's freezing all movements as if in a trance while the infant is actively trying to gain parental attention or speaking

european American

(Independence) Autonomy, Individualism Authoritative; egalitarian family structure

African American Communalism

(Individualism), Importance of kinship relationships, unity, creativity, cooperation, Authenticity, Awareness of racial disparities and discrimination Authoritarian (No-nonsense) parenting; unilateral decisions made by one parent; egalitarian family structure

orienting system (Present from birth.)

(Present from birth.) Enhances proximity between infant and caregiver. Stays in the middle of the infant's field of vision. Makes exaggerated facial gestures (like surprise, joy) and vocalizations. Sustains eye contact. Shows preference for human over non-human faces. Shows preference for human speech sounds. Displays "cuteness" or attractiveness to adults

Intuitive parenting system

(Present in early months of infant's life.) Enhances the attunement of communication between parent and caregiver. Mirrors infants behaviors. "Reads" the behavior of infant and ascribes meaning to infant behavior; responds to cues promptly and accurately. Encourages greater tolerance by allowing for time lags in between responses to infant demands. Alters speech patterns (slows down speech, exaggerates vocalizations, uses "motherese" to direct speech to infant). Soothes negative affect in infant. Builds on infants' improved motor and visual skills through object play and repetitive games. Mirrors caregiver's behavior. Infant anticipates response but is more tolerant. Expects contingency in communication; reacts to non-communication (still-face) with distress. Experiences feelings of joy and relief; smiles more in context of caregiving relationship. Learns repetitive action sequences

An intriguing study of changes in the food supplied to New York City schools provides a strong illustration

(Schoenthaler, Doraz, & Wakefield, 1986). In a three-stage process, from 1978 to 1983, many food additives and foods high in sugar (sucrose) were eliminated from school meals, so that children's consumption of "empty calories" was reduced, and, presumably, their intake of foods with a higher nutrient-to-calorie ratio increased. With each stage of this process, average achievement test scores increased in New York City schools, with improvements occurring primarily among the children who were performing worst academically

Difficult babies

(about 10%), compared to the others, were more fearful, more irritable, and more active, displayed less positive affect, were more irregular, and so on—a mix of traits that made them difficult and challenging to parents.

Slow-to-warm-up babies

(about 15%) were like difficult babies in their fearfulness, showing more wariness in new situations than most other babies, but their reactions in general were less intense and negative than those of difficult babies

Easy babies

(about 40%) were more placid, less active, more positive, and more regular in their rhythms than most, and thus easier to care for

Reflective Practice

(according to Dewey) requires us to take careful consideration of our own beliefs and knowledge before actually practicing

Native American

(collectivism) Interdependence, Value of Nature, Harmony, Balance, extended Family, respect for elders, cooperation, Sharing Permissive; Patriarchal and Matriarchal Structures

Latino American

(collectivism) Interdependence, Familism, Respeto, Personalismo, Machismo, Marianismo Authoritarian; Patriarchal family structure; High Parental warmth

Asian-American

(collectivism) Interdependence; Filial piety, Guan & Chiao shun, Amae, conformity, Obedience, Avoiding loss of face, Humility/Modesty Authoritarian; Structural and managerial parental involvement; Patriarchal family structure

attention-persistence

(duration of orienting or looking),

period of the embryo

(from about the 3rd to 8th week), when most of the body's organ systems and structures are forming

period of the fetus

(from the 9th week until birth), when the reproductive system forms, gains in body weight occur, and the brain and nervous system continue to develop dramatically

Dewey

(in the U.S.) turned his attention more specifically to settings like schools, focusing on how development occurs in a social context

Biobehavioral processes

(like immune system changes) that are actually traceable to genes. They are the links between the genes responsible for disorders & whether or how they are expressed in behavior.

rhythmicity

(predictability of sleep, feeding, elimination, and so on).

parents' warmth and responsiveness facilitate compliance ______________and promote the development of concern for others

(self-control)

positive affect

(smiling and laughing, especially to social stimuli),

fearfulness or reactivity

(the infant's proneness to cry or pull away from new stimuli)

irritability or negative emotionality

(the infant's tendency to react with fussiness to negative or frustrating events)

activity level

(the intensity and quantity of movement),

Sociocultural theories

(which originated with Vygotsky) actually suggest that cognitive development may be qualitatively different in different cultures. Bronfenbrenner actually addresses this in his explanation of how cultures influence behavior via proximal processes, which take into account the give-and-take in social networks

example of maternal dew

, a mother's touch to her infant's belly is expected to help stomachaches go away

example of number conservation task

. A set of discrete items, let's say five candies, is laid out in a neatly spaced line. Below the first set is a second set, laid out the same way, with the candies in each row matched one to one. A child is asked if the two rows have the same number or whether one or the other has more candies. Typically, 3- and 4-year-olds recognize that the two rows have the same number of candies. But when the researcher then changes the appearance of the second row by spreading out the candies, preschoolers usually think that the number has changed along with the appearance of the row. Most frequently, they say that the longer row now has more candy.

example of symbolic artifacts

. Research on children's understanding of pictures indicates that if a picture is realistic, like a photograph, 9-month-olds attempt to pick up the object in the picture. Eighteen-month-olds are indifferent to whether a picture is right side up or upside down, and even 2-year-olds often cannot pick which picture represents a real object

Pre-Self

0-6 months Beginnings of "self-invariance" and "other invariance" embedded in infant- caregiver interactions

when can babies make object concept connections?

1 month

Pinker (1994) reviewed several findings that led him to conclude that although language can be learned at other times, it is never learned as well or as effortlessly as it would have been in the critical period from about _____________years

1 to 5

Imprinting occurs at a relatively small number of gene locations (about _____________); for most gene locations, if one allele is transcribed, so is the other one. But for a small number of gene locations, imprinting alters the process of genetic expression, such that "parent of origin" becomes an important factor in whether a gene will influence development

1%

Freud was the first stage theorist, but there are reasons that his theory is no longer considered relevant:

1) There is little or no evidence for much of what he proposes (ie. How to measure/find the unconscious) and 2) The theory is based upon early 20th century gender bias.

Goals of Developmental Psychopathology

1) To increase the probability of successfully predicting unhealthy outcomes. 2) To find ways to prevent unhealthy outcomes. This is where Prevention Science comes into play, as its goal is to both design & test prevention (beforehand) and intervention (afterwards) strategies aimed at at-risk populations. 3) Also to study people with extremely disordered behavior to better understand how developmental processes work for all.

_______________ in 2-year-olds is predictive of measures of internalization and conscience in the later preschool period

Committed compliance

The human ovum is a giant cell with a nucleus containing ________________ chromosomes, the physical structures that are the vehicles of inheritance from the mother.

23

About the_______________ of your prenatal life, your brain's basic structures were formed. Your neurons migrated in an orderly way and clustered with similar cells into distinct sections or regions in your brain, such as in the cerebral cortex or in the specific nuclei.

4th month

Freud assumed that much of personality development occurs before age _____`, during the first three stages

5

when babies are securely attached to their mothers, they tend to be appropriately independent as 4-year-olds and to be self-confident and socially skilled as_______________

10-year-olds

From about the 40th day, or 5th week, of gestation, your neurons began to increase at a staggering rate—one quarter of a million per minute for 9 months—to create the ____________ billion neurons that make up a baby's brain at birth.

100

11-month-old babies will imitate a simple action as long as 3 months later, but 20-month-olds can imitate more elaborate sequences as long as ____ months later

12

After your birth, your neurons continued to reproduce at a rapid pace, finally slowing down around ________________months of age

12

Over the next _________________years or so, through a process known as neural pruning, many neurons would die off and many synaptic connections would be selectively discarded.

12

Objective Self or "Me"

12-24 months Self-recognition; early self-control; early self-esteem (feelings of autonomy

By the end of the second and beginning of the third trimesters, your sense organs had developed sufficiently to respond to perceptual stimulation from outside your mother's womb. Sounds were heard by ______________weeks

15

By age 5, the typical child may understand______________ words, so that an average of 9 or 10 words have been added every day for 3 years!

15,000

The first "scientific" theories of development came out of North America and Europe in the _____________. They were based on philosophical thought, the biological sciences, and the beginning of mass education due to the Industrial Revolution

1800's

G. Stanley Hall (a great learning theorist) extended his scientific study to normal child development in the early ____________ in the U.S..

1900's

Scientific theories of human development began to emerge in Europe and America in the _______________. They had their roots in philosophical inquiry, in the emergence of biological science, and in the growth of mass education that accompanied industrialization

19th century

Infants begin to understand agency by the end of the ____ year

1st

The beginning of intentional behavior by the end of the____________year is evident in babies' communicative behaviors. When a younger baby repeats an action that has attracted attention in the past, such as patting Mommy's cheek, the child may be doing no more than "making interesting sights last."

1st

Schore (2012) posits that the development and reorganization of the baby's brain over the first ____ years of life are critically dependent upon the caregiver's rhythmic, sensitive responses, which help regulate the infant's uneven hormonal, autonomic, and behavioral states

2

Between the ages of _________________, young children often display emotional responses to their wrongdoing and mistakes, suggesting that they have begun to evaluate themselves in ways that they expect to be evaluated by others

2 and 3

Preschoolers begin to construct narratives, usually with the help of others, by about __________________years old

2 or 3

The authors concluded that the rates of mental disorders could be reduced______________ percent by eliminating harsh physical punishment.

2 to 7

period of the zygote

2 weeks ( fertilization to implantation)

in the _______________ century, it was acknowledged that development continues even into adulthood. This was important to acknowledge and understand, as life expectancies had increased greatly by the late 19th/early 20th centuries. Families and family dynamics had changed, as well, as extended families were tending not to live together anymore

20th

Self-Monitoring Self

24-60 months Self-description; self-conscious emotions; self-regulation

The relatively high incidence of disorganized attachment in nonclinical, middle class U.S. samples (15%) and nonclinical, lower class U.S. samples (_______________) is surprising

25% to 34%

By your _____________ week, you could open and close your eyes. You could see light then rather like the way you see things now when you turn toward a bright light with your eyes closed. At this point in development a fetus turns her head toward a light source,

25th

At the kindergarten interview, _______________ of all mothers reported spanking their children in the previous week, and 80% reported that they had used spanking at some time

27%

Across many studies, findings suggest that self-recognition is universally acquired late in the ____________ year of life

2nd

Based on observations of his own children's behavior, Piaget believed that deferred imitation begins around the middle of the baby's _____________ year.

2nd

Children master most sound distinctions like these by age ___, but may continue to struggle with other aspects of phonology, such as making the th sound in the right places, for much longe

3

If infants are__________________ months old or older when they are exposed to a stimulus, they sometimes recognize it after several months of nonexposure, especially if it is a moving stimulus

3

as early as ____ years of age, children can correctly identify their race, ethnicity, and skin color

3

we have learned that newborns cannot perceive differences between most colors, but that babies differentiate major color groups by ____________ months old, and that their color discrimination is as nuanced as an adult's by 4 months old

3

With the aid of advanced technologies, researchers have demonstrated developmental changes in white matter functioning up to age ______________ in areas involving decision-making and emotion regulation

30

Studies have reported that ___________of maltreated children fall into the disorganized category.

32% to 86%

The evolution of logical thought went through ____ stages, according to Piaget, from birth through to adulthood. Like other classical stage theories, development occurs with qualitatively different leaps in cognition.

4

Securely attached, fearless toddlers tended to show committed compliance, but insecurely attached, fearless toddlers were much less likely to do so. And, as expected, committed compliance at age 2 was predictive of moral development at _______________ years

4 ½

High reactive

4-month-olds produce frequent vigorous limb activity, have high levels of muscle tension, and react irritably (e.g., crying) to sensory stimulation, such as new smells or sounds.

The zygote contains __________ chromosomes, or more accurately, 23 pairs of chromosomes; one member of each pair came from the mother (ovum) and one from the father (sperm)

46

Zygote has ______________ chromosomes (23 pairs of rod-shaped structures)...22 pairs autosomes (chromosomes look & function alike) & 1 pair of sex chromosomes (determine the sex).

46

your neurons began to fire spontaneously around the ____________month of gestation

4th

Freud believed that the relationships between, the complexities and conflicts between these 3 aspects of the personality are all due to a person's experiences during 5 psychosexual stages. He believed that these stages occurred during critical/sensitive periods with time-frames during which development has to happen (for a "healthy" personality to develop). He also believed that most personality had been developed by age ______.

5

Overall, the peak of white matter volume occurs around age _________________

50

Some disorders caused by dominant, defective alleles do not kill their victims in childhood, and thus can be passed on from one generation to another. When one parent has the disease, each child has a _____________ chance of inheriting the dominant, defective gene from that parent. example Huntington's disease

50%

The World Health Organization recommends exclusive breast-feeding for the first _____ months and breast-feeding with solid food supplements through the 2nd year (Bellamy, 2005).

6

not until about ____ weeks do babies reach up to grasp an object that they are sucking; and not until 4 to 6 months do they smoothly coordinate grasping and looking, allowing easy exploration of objects through visually guided reaching.

6

Intentional or Agentic Self or "I"

6-12 months Intentional signaling of caregiver; social referencing; shared referents; beginning self-efficacy; using caregiver as secure base (beginning self-worth and trust)

Piaget found that improvements in children's thinking moved forward rapidly in the years from 5 to 7, so that most children were successful on tasks such as number conservation by about age ________

7

We have learned from such studies that newborns have substantially less visual acuity than adults (their vision is blurrier) but that by ____ months old, babies' visual acuity is adult-like

8

it appears that a behavior that requires mental representation, planning, begins in the ______________ period.

8- to 12-month

More recent research demonstrates that infants from about __________months of age will recall, and later imitate, actions that they have witnessed

9

example of the continuous performance task

A 5-year-old sits in front of a small computer screen. Beside the screen is a red button. Every 2 seconds a picture appears briefly on the screen. The pictures are familiar objects, like a butterfly or a flower. The child knows that her task is to push the red button, but only when a picture of a chair appears. The task continues for over 7 minutes, requiring the child to pay close attention, respond when the correct cue appears and, just as important, not respond to any of the wrong cues

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A computerized system for recording activity anywhere in the brain by imaging responses to input to input. Stimulation causes the affected areas of the brain to increase blood flow and metabolism. A magnetic scanner detects these changes and sends the information to a computer, which produces an image that shows the differential activity of brain areas. fMRI is one of several MRI technologies, generally referred to, along with PET techniques, as "brain imaging

_____________ loosens the binding, typically increasing gene transcription

Acetylation

Identity vs. Role Confusion 12 to 20 years

Adolescent must move toward adulthood by making choices about values, vocational goals, etc.

Main and her colleagues (Main et al., 1985) evaluated mothers' and fathers' own models of attachment using a structured interview procedure called the __________

Adult Attachment Inventory

Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adulthood

Adult becomes willing to share identity with others and to commit to affiliations and partnerships.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair Late adulthood

Adult comes to terms with life's successes, failures, and missed opportunities and realizes the dignity of own life.

Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle adulthood

Adult wishes to make a contribution to the next generation, to produce, mentor, create something of lasting value, as in the rearing of children or community services or expert work.

higher rates of authoritarian parenting practices, including power assertion, are found among ___________________ possibly due to different parenting goals

African-American, Asian-American, and Hispanic-American groups

One of the most compelling demonstrations of the importance of input for children's vocabulary growth is a classic study in which researchers made monthly visits for over 2 years to the homes of children whose families were either poor and on welfare, lower middle class (mostly in blue-color occupations), or upper middle class with at least one professional parent (Hart & Risley, 1992, 1995).

All of the parents were actively involved with their children, playing with them, expressing affection, providing them with toys, and so on. But there were marked differences in how much the three groups of parents talked to their children right from the start. (Children were about 9 months old at the beginning of the study.) In a 100-hour week, a toddler in a professional family might hear 215,000 words on the average. in a lower-middle-class family children heard about 125,000 words, and in the poorest homes about 62,000. All of the children learned to talk on schedule, but the differences in parental input were correlated with children's vocabulary measures by age 3. Children who heard the most language performed best. The content of parents' conversations with their youngsters also differed. Those who spoke with their children most tended to ask more questions and elaborated more on topics of conversation. Parents who spoke with their children the least tended to utter more prohibitions. Even when the researchers looked within a single socioeconomic group, so that social class was not a factor, children whose parents talked with them more had the most advanced vocabularies

negative reinforcements:

An aversive experience stops or is removed after the operant occurs. If your brother releases you from a painful hammer-hold when you yell "Uncle," you have been negatively reinforced for saying "Uncle" (the operant) in that situation

Anal 1 to 3 years

Anal area is the source of greatest pleasure. Harsh or overly indulgent toilet training can cause an "anal fixation," leading to later adult traits that recall this stage, such as being greedy or messy

Attachment

Approximately 5 to 6 months after birth.) Development of a stable preference and way of relating to caregiver in order to maintain proximity, provide security in times of stress, and serve as a base for later independent exploration. Shows heightened responsiveness and emotional connection to infant. Predictably soothes and comforts infant when distressed; minimizes separation. Demonstrates predictable and sensitive caregiving related to basic needs. Exhibits capacity to consider the mental state and experiences of infant (mind-mindedness). Demonstrates preference for caregiver. Responds with distress upon separation; shows protest behaviors (cries, clings, etc.) and seeks contact when stressed. Develops sense of confidence that care will be predictable

steps to the looking glass self

As we interact with others, we first imagine how we must appear to the other person on a certain dimension, such as intelligence. Then, we interpret or imagine how that other person evaluates us on that certain dimension. Finally, we experience some emotional response to that perceived evaluation.

example of deferred imitation

At 16 months, for example, his daughter Jacqueline watched a visiting boy have a temper tantrum, screaming and stamping his feet in a playpen. The next day, Jacqueline did the same, only she was smiling and her foot stamping was gentle. She was not actually having a temper tantrum, but was imitating her little friend's fascinating performance

At about the time that children can produce about 50 words, they typically go into a new phase of vocabulary learning called the vocabulary spurt:

At about 18 to 24 months, toddlers begin learning words very rapidly, expanding their productive vocabulary from 50 to about 500 words in just a few months

Genital Puberty through adulthood

At puberty, adult sexual needs become the most important motivators of behavior. The individual seeks to fulfill needs and expend energy in socially acceptable activities, such as work, and through marriage with a partner who will substitute for the early object of desire, the opposite-sex parent

___________________ children who have learned that emotional expression can be dangerous take on the responsibility of their own emotion regulation without seeking caregiver help. They function defensively to keep the caregiver "close but not too close

Avoidant

"_________________" change refers broadly to change in both observable activity (e.g., from crawling to walking) and mental activity (e.g., from disorganized to logical thinking)

Behavioral

Thalassemia

Blood cells abnormal; low energy, paleness, poor resistance to infection

Sickle-cell anemia

Blood cells have an unusual "sickle" shape; causes heart and kidney problems

_________________ for example, does not have a fixed set point but varies normally depending upon times of the day, sleep-wake cycles, and response to challenge

Blood pressure

Hemophilia

Blood-clotting factor not produced; vulnerable to death by bleeding.

Remember Bandura's research with the "_____________"

Bobo doll

The changes seen in the individual can be either qualitative/stage-like, or continuous/gradual, but they are all due to proximal processes. With change, the individual has an impact on the environment which in turn impacts on proximal processes. It all feeds and propels both the individual and environment to evolve, which leads to even more change

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Theory

There are a multiplicity of microsystems, which are the mesosystem, which also modify each other. Surrounding that is the exosystem, which includes environments or settings the child may not interact with directly but still has an impact on him or her (like SES's impact on neighborhood/school). Surrounding it all is the macrosystem, which includes customs and culture that impact on the microsystems

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Theory

The first of those to consider children as such were John Locke in Britain and Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Rene Descartes in France, beginning in the 17th century. _____________was really the first to begin its actual study in the 19th century as he began a "baby biography", recording the development of his own son.

Charles Darwin

In the 19th century, ______________ theory of the evolution of species and the growth of biological science helped to foster scholarly interest in children.

Charles Darwin's

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 1 to 3 years

Child develops a sense of independence tied to use of new mental and motor skills.

Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to 1 year

Child develops a sense that the world is a safe and reliable place because of sensitive caregiving.

Industry vs. Inferiority 6 to 12 years

Child needs to learn important academic skills and compare favorably with peers in school

Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 5 or 6 years

Child tries to behave in ways that involve more "grown-up" responsibility and experiments with grown-up roles.

example of self-regulation or inhibitory control:

Choosing to pay attention to the color of the ink requires you to deliberately ignore distractions and inhibit the tendency to read the word

So how do brain cells "talk" to each other

Communication is a process of sending and receiving electrochemical messages. Simply put, when a neuron responds to some excitation, or when it "fires," an electrical impulse, or message, travels down the axon to the axon terminals. The sacs in the axon terminals containing neurotransmitters burst and release their contents into the space between the neurons called the synaptic gap.

The Classical Theorists tend to take one side or the other on all of these, but _______________ Theorists now are more likely to accept both possibilities on them all.

Contemporary

looking-glass self

Cooley described the process of self-development as one that originates from observing the reflected appraisals of others, primarily attachment figures

Some Disorders Caused by Recessive Gene Alleles

Cystic fibrosis Duchenne's muscular dystrophy Hemophilia Thalassemia Tay-Sachs disease Sickle-cell anemia Cystic fibrosis Phenylketonuria (PKU)

1967-1969-John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth

Developed a theory of attachment that was fundamental to the understanding of social and emotional development across the lifespan and across cultures (e.g., Ainsworth, 1967; Bowlby, 1969/1982

_________________ is, of course, what makes observational learning, or modeling, possible (see Chapter 1). Once children can mentally represent and thus recall the actions of others, they have a cognitive skill that is critical for social learning. A toddler who has watched his big sister painting pictures might on his own open a jar of paint, dip a paintbrush into it, and then sweep the paintbrush across some available surface

Deferred imitation

______________this dimension of parenting can be either child centered or parent centered

Demanding parents

1920-Sigmund Freud

Developed a theory of child development retrospectively from adult patients' psychoanalyses; emphasized unconscious processes and incorporated biological influences on development (e.g., Freud, 1920/1955

1950-Eric Erikson

Developed a theory of development that spanned the entire lifespan; emphasized social contexts (e.g., Erikson, 1950/196

1923-Jean Piage

Developed theory of children's cognition, morality and language development using observational and empirical research methods; popularized constructivist views of development.

Incremental Change Theories (as opposed to Stage Theories

Development less of "leaps and bounds", more continuous (less like climbing steps, more like slowly climbing a mountain). Examples are the Learning/Social Learning Theories & Information Processing Theory. None are as over-arching in their extent over multiple areas of development as the stage theories. They are unable to try to explain adaptation & developmental reorganization as seen in the stage theories.

___________ is therefore closely linked to the field of prevention science, which aims at designing and testing prevention and intervention techniques for promoting healthy development in at-risk groups

Developmental psychopathology

What role does the gene/environment dance play in atypical development?

Deviations in either the genome or the environment can push the developing organism off course

Principle of Equifinality:

Different developmental pathways can lead to similar outcomes. Example is ADHD (can be due to biological factors or parenting style).

Occasionally, a zygote will form containing too many chromosomes, or too few, usually because of problems in the production of either the ovum or the sperm. Such zygotes often do not survive. When they do, the individuals usually have multiple physical or mental problems. Among the most common and well known of these disorders is

Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

methyl and acetyl

Each of these can affect how tightly histones and DNA are bound together.

Still, some of Freud's insights have been incorporated into other theories. These include the concept that

Early family relationships are important Some behaviors are unconsciously motivated Internal conflicts play a role in social functioning

Preoperational 2 to 6 or 7 years

Early representational thought tends to be slow. Thought is "centered," usually focused on one salient piece of information, or aspect of an event, at a time. As a result, thinking is usually not yet logical.

Electroencephalography

Electrodes attached to the scalp can allow recording of the electrical (EEG) activity of the cerebral cortex. Recordings from the electrodes graph the frequency and amplitude of brain waves. Event related potentials (ERPs), which are specific brain wave changes in response to sights, sounds, or other experiences, can be recorded as well, helping to identify areas of cortex that process the type of input used.

cross cultural child language learning differences

English speakers tend to begin their sentences with verbs but end them with nouns, whereas Mandarin speakers more often both begin and end their sentences with verbs (Tardif, Shatz, & Nagles, 1997). Also, the verbs Mandarin speakers use with young children often are highly imageable or highly specific in meaning, qualities that make words easier for young children to learn (see Chan et al., 2011). Such differences in child-directed speech apparently make verbs at least as easy to learn as nouns for children acquiring Mandarin and similar languages

Tay-Sachs disease

Enzyme disease; causes degeneration of the nervous system and death in the first few years of life.

It was ______________ in the 1950's who actually proposed that the development of personality is lifelong

Eric Erikson

___________________believed that identity & attitudes continue to evolve all the way through adulthood

Erikson

In the U.S., ______________theory of development extended for the whole lifespan (as we've already mentioned). Like Vygotsky and Dewey before him, Erikson specified the social contexts of development

Erikson's

_____________studies of identity development in two Native American groups, the Sioux in South Dakota and the Yurok on the Pacific coast, and of mainstream White culture revealed different struggles and different outcomes in each

Erikson's

_____________is sometimes used interchangeably with race, although this too is problematic. Shared ancestry, language, a common place of origin and a sense of belonging to the group are elements commonly used to describe membership in an ethnic group

Ethnicity

1911-John Dewey

Extended research on development to ecologically-valid settings like schools; emphasized the social context of development (e.g., Dewey, 1911)

As the infant becomes a toddler, gaining cognitive, communicative, and motor skills, there are new challenges for parents trying to be sensitive and responsive, to create a good fit between their care and the child's needs.

First, caregivers are faced with the need to grant some autonomy to the child. Second, also because the child's behavioral and cognitive skills are growing, the caregiver must begin to socialize the child, that is, to prepare the child to be a competent member of society

The picture that emerges from the Thomas and Chess study is complex

First, it suggests that infant temperament may show some persistence into childhood and beyond. Second, it provides some indication that infant temperament affects caregiving Third, it indicates that caregiving can change or at least moderate temperamental qualities . Finally, it suggests that some children, especially those with easy temperaments, can tolerate a wider range of caregiving responsiveness without developing emotional or behavioral problems later.

Vygotsky identified three stages in the movement of private speech to inner speech.

First, the child of about 3 years of age engages in running commentaries about his actions, intentions, objects of interest, and the like whether anyone is nearby to listen or not. Very often, young children manifest a kind of "parallel" conversation, playing side by side without really interacting As children reach about 6 years of age, this private speech becomes more subdued and idiosyncratic, often capturing only the general sense of the idea. Children may sub-vocalize the dialogue or only move their lips. Finally, around the age of 8, children truly internalize the dialogue, and it is no longer audible

Freud's theory no longer takes center stage in the interpretations favored by most helpers or by developmental scientists.

First, there is little evidence for some of the specific proposals in Freud's theory (Loevinger, 1976). Second, his theory has been criticized for incorporating the gender biases of early 20th-century Austrian culture

The preverbal to verbal example illustrates two features of stage theories.

First, they describe development as qualitative or transformational change. Second, they imply periods of relative stability (within stages) and periods of rapid transition (between stages). Metaphorically, development is a staircase

What must infants understand to "know" about objects—that is, to have an object concept?

First, they need to know that objects have properties that can stimulate all of their senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch

Wong, Caspi and their colleagues (Wong et al., 2010) studied a large number of both kinds of twins, taking cell samples when the children were 5 and 10 years old

For each child, the researchers measured the methylation of the regulatory DNA of three genes that affect brain function and behavior. You might expect a great deal of concordance (similarity between members of a pair of twins) in methylation, given that the members of each pair were exactly the same age and were growing up in the same families. Yet, the differences in the twins' experiences were enough to lead to substantial discordance (differences between members of a pair of twins) in methylation for both monozygotic and dizygotic twins. The investigators also found that gene methylation tended to change for individual children from age 5 to age 10. These changes sometimes involved increased methylation and sometimes involved decreased methylation

the distribution of attachment patterns varies from one country to another. secure

For example, infants in Japan ,Korea , and Israel are less likely to form avoidant attachments and more likely to form ambivalent attachments than infants in the United States, whereas German infants , are more often categorized as avoidant than secure

studies do suggest that ___________ parental behavior is significantly correlated with infant disorganized attachment

Frightening behavior

intersubjectivity

From a Vygotskian point of view, the scaffolding occurred in the intermental space between parent and child.

"__________________" across the stages, with both nature (brain maturation) and nurture (social experience) processes driving the growth and maturation

Functional continuity

Phallic 3 to 5 or 6 years

Genitalia are the source of greatest pleasure. Sexual desire directed toward the opposite-sex parent makes the same-sex parent a rival. Fear of angering the same-sex parent is resolved by identifying with that parent, which explains how children acquire both sex-typed behaviors and moral values. If a child has trouble resolving the emotional upheaval of this stage through identification, sex role development may be deviant or moral character may be weak

alcohol

Great variability in outcome. May include distinct facial structure, cardiac, skeletal, and urogenital abnormalities; dental abnormalities, growth deficiencies, metacognitive deficits, attentional problems, social perception problems, language deficits, and other learning problems.

another example of the value-laden Western-centric view is the distinction between holistic/interdependent ways that Eastern cultures interact and analytic/independent ways common to Western cultures. Research has shown differences in information-processing. It has been suggested that these differences arose from the West following ___________culture and the East following ancient Chinese culture. These differences may have been compounded by diversity in economies, geographical constraints and survival needs that led to a disparity in social organization & cognition.

Greek

Special programs that can be considered early interventions, like the federally funded, state administered ___________ and Early Head Start programs, are designed to enrich the social and educational experiences of infants and children from low-income families or who are disabled

Head Start

rate of spankings

Highest rates of spanking during the previous week were reported by Black mothers at kindergarten (40%) and 3rd grade (23%) interviews. At kindergarten, spanking during the previous week was reported by 28% of Hispanic, 24% of White and 23% of Asian mothers. At third grade, spanking was reported by 23% of Black, 21% of Asian, 14% of White, and 13% of Hispanic mothers

Kochanska found that toddlers' fearfulness is indeed an important ingredient in the effectiveness of mothers' discipline.

Highly fearful children, as expected, showed the most committed compliance if their mothers used gentle discipline. Harsh discipline was not as effective.

Transdiagnostic Risk Factors:

How risk factors other than the target one can actually modify the effects of the target factor, creating "divergent trajectories" (in other words, target risk factors can lead to different disorders).

That part of the self called "I" refers to the________________, as active agent, or as the knower. It is that part of the self that experiences a sense of subjective self-awareness

I-Self/self-as-subject

effects of teratogens on fetus

If, for example, exposure to some harmful substance occurs during the fourth or fifth week of gestation when the major organ systems are being laid down, the result may be major structural malformation. If the mother is exposed to the same teratogen during the last month of her pregnancy, possible neurobehavioral rather than gross structural deficits may occur. If the mother contracts rubella, or German measles, during the first trimester of pregnancy, the virus can cross the placental barrier and produce blindness, deafness, heart defects, and intellectual deficits in the fetus. However, if the infection occurs during the second trimester, less severe problems involving vision and hearing may result

Example of representations of interactions (RIGs)

Imagine the lesson learned by an infant who, when she coos and babbles, regularly attracts the smiles and responsive vocalizations of her caregivers. This baby's world, in some small way, begins to come under her control. She might encode the message, "When I am upset or need attention, my parent responds and takes care of me." Again, the infant does not represent these ideas linguistically, but rather encodes these kinds of organized sequences as procedural models or patterns of the self-in-relationship

Testosterone

In a skeletal muscle, it triggers protein production that affects the growth of muscle fibers; in the testes, it turns on genes that influence sperm production

breast-feeding has substantial advantages for healthy physical and cognitive development that bottle- feeding does not (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2012).

In comparison to baby formulas, breast milk is more digestible and more adequately balanced for infant nutrition. It contains antibodies that the mother carries, and it is sterile, a particularly important benefit in countries where water may contain disease organisms. Breast milk even c arries growth hormones and other

Erickson's The "Eight Stages of Man"

In each stage, the individual faces a different "crisis" or developmental task (see Chapter 9 for a detailed discussion of Erikson's concept of crisis). The crisis is initiated, on one hand, by changing characteristics of the person— biological maturation or decline, cognitive changes, advancing (or deteriorating) motor skills—and, on the other hand, by corresponding changes in others' attitudes, behaviors, and expectations. As in all stage theories, people qualitatively change from stage to stage, and so do the crises or tasks that they confront.

Donald Schon (1987), a modern pioneer in the field of reflective practice, describes the problem this way:

In the varied topography of professional practice, there is a high, hard ground overlooking a swamp. On the high ground, manageable problems lend themselves to solution through the application of research-based theory and technique. In the swampy lowland, messy confusing problems defy technical solutions. The irony of this situation is that the problems of the high ground tend to be relatively unimportant to individuals or society at large, however great their technical interest may be, while in the swamp lie the problems of greatest human concern

modeling

In this kind of learning, one person (the learner) observes another (the model) performing some behavior, and just from close observation, learns to do it too. The observer may or may not imitate the modeled behavior, immediately or in the future, depending on many factors, such as whether the observer expects a reward for the behavior, whether the model is perceived as nurturing or competent, and even whether the observer believes that the performance will meet the observer's own performance standards

genomic imprinting

In this process, a gene allele is deactivated by heavy methylation even before conception, in the sperm or the ovum. Imprinted gene alleles cannot influence the phenotype of the offspring, regardless of whether they are dominant or recessive. Some gene alleles are imprinted in ova, but not in sperm, and so can only be expressed if inherited from the father. Others are imprinted in sperm but not in ova, and so can only be expressed if inherited from the mother.

Cystic fibrosis

Inadequate mucus production; breathing and digestive problems; early death.

Oral Birth to 1 year

Infants develop special relationships with caregivers. Mouth is the source of greatest pleasure. Too much or too little oral satisfaction can cause an "oral fixation," leading to traits that actively (smoking) or symbolically (overdependency) are oral or infantile

Their model of themselves becomes one of incompetence with respect to communicating with a caregiver. ultimately these children learn they can trust neither their affect nor their cognitions. However, they may learn that escalation of affect often works best in getting their caregivers' attention. These children might develop highly coercive strategies (aggressiveness or tantrums) and very coy behaviors (disarming manipulation) to maintain proximity. The self incorporates messages that reflect its ineffectiveness in communicating its needs to caregivers. Their aggressive behavior threatens the caregiver ("You must listen to me!"), whereas their coy behavior disarms ("Please don't get angry at me"). This pattern has been hypothesized to represent the child's attempts to cope with an unpredictable and inconsistent parental environment. Parents of these children might describe them as "out of control."

Insecure-anxious infants

The infants of such mothers tend to show higher rates of unmodulated and anxious behavior

Intrusive

Some Major Issues with Classical Theories

Is development qualitative (stage-like) or quantitative (incremental)? * Does development occur only during critical (sensitive) periods, or can it occur at any time given the right environment/opportunities? * Are there continuities across the lifespan, or is everything always changing? * Is development an active (self-organizing) process or is it a passive process? * Is nature (heredity) or nurture (environment) more important to developmental changes? * Is development a universal process across cultures and/or time-periods, or is it more specific? ***The Classical Theorists tend to take one side or the other on all of these, but Contemporary Theorists now are more likely to accept both possibilities on them all.

Classic Theories and the Major Issues They Raise

Is developmental change qualitative (e.g., stagelike) or quantitative (e.g., incremental)? Are some developments restricted to certain critical periods in the life cycle or are changes in brain and behavior possible at any time given the appropriate opportunities? Are there important continuities across the life span (in characteristics or change processes) or is everything in flux? Are people actively influencing the course and nature of their own development (self-organizing), or are they passive products of other forces? Which is more important in causing developmental change, nature (heredity) or nurture (environment)? Are there universal developmental trajectories, processes, and changes that are the same in all cultures and historical periods, or is development more specific to place and time? Classic theorists usually took a stand on one side or the other of these issues, framing them as "either-or" possibilities

What constitutes the earliest environment beyond the cell?

It is the mother's womb, of course, but it is also everything outside of the womb—every level of the physical and social and cultural context

What specifically does the "I" comprise?

James proposed that this is the side of the self that experiences continuity over time. Even though we all grow and change, we know we embody core elements of the same "self" throughout our lifetime. The "I" also recognizes the distinctiveness of the self as a person compared to other persons. Finally, the "I" reflects agency or is that part of the self that engages in self-directed activity, self-control, and contemplation of the "Me."

George Herbert Mead (1934) expanded on Cooley's work, enlarging the scope of influence to include the role of language and society in shaping the self-system. He held that the self-idea, or self-concept, becomes internalized or "generalized" through repeated interactions with others of the same cultural group. For example;

Japanese were more likely to describe themselves by emphasizing their affiliations, such as family membership, whereas Americans used self-descriptors that emphasized their individuality. Children not only adopt descriptive information about the self from their cultural milieu, they also incorporate those standards, rules, and goals that their family and their culture have determined to be appropriate ways of behaving and thinking

The notion that children only gradually develop the cognitive and personality structures that will characterize them as adults first appeared in the writings of 17th and 18th-century philosophers, such as __________ in Great Britain and ___________ in France.

John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau

marijuana

Less well studied; some data to link its use to neurological effects; low birth weight, learning problems, etc.

, as early as age 2, a child can understand that if she is looking at a picture of a cat and you are standing opposite her, looking at the back of the picture, you will not be able to see the cat. In other words, the child can figure out that even if she can see something, you may not be able to see it. This is sometimes called "_________________," when a child knows whether an object can or cannot be seen from a particular perspective

Level 1 visual perspective taking

information processing theories

Like learning theories, these do not hypothesize broad stages, but emphasize incremental changes in narrow domains of behavior or thought. The mind works on information—attending to it, holding it in a temporary store or "working memory," putting it into long-term storage, using strategies to organize it or to draw conclusions from it, and so on.

Positron emission tomography (PE

Like the fMRI, a type of brain scan that detects changes in blood flow and metabolism in any part of the brain, and produces an image that shows the differential activity of brain areas. Requires either injection or inhalation of radioactive material.

Formal operational 12 years through adulthood

Logical thinking extends now to "formal" or abstract material. Young adolescents can think logically about hypothetical situations, for example

tobacco

Low birth weight due to constricted blood flow and reduced nutrition; prematurity; respiratory problems, cleft palate; learning problems, hyperactivity, disruptive behavior.

PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls)

Low birth weight, cognitive impairments.

Animals become extremely aggressive if the _____________ gene is deleted so that the enzyme cannot be produced

MAOA

____________zygotes have an X chromosome from the mother & a Y chromosome from the father

Male

The part called "Me" is that part of the self that is the object of self or others' observations, or in other words, the part that is known. One might think of the "Me" part of the self (Me-Self) as the _______________

Me-Self/self-concept.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Metabolism of phenylalanines in food is insufficient; gradually compromises the nervous system, causing mental retardation.

________________ causes tighter binding and reduces gene transcription

Methylation

_______________ is a particularly effective teaching strategy with young children, who can observe and replicate the behavior better than they can understand complicated instructions for how to do a task.

Modeling

________________ are a function of the number of risk factors, the severity of the risk factors, the duration of the effects of the risk factors, and the lack of protective factors

Negative outcomes

____________________diminished the deleterious outcomes of yelling and corporal punishment, but only by a bit.

Normativeness

What significance is there to having matched pairs of genes, one from each parent?

One important effect is that it increases hereditary diversity

Exposure to teratogens clearly can change the course of prenatal development, but what mechanisms account for these effects?

One possibility is that teratogens actually alter coded genes, that is, that they instigate mutations. Evidence for this kind of "mutagenic" activity has been found for some known teratogens, including some of the chemicals in cigarette smoke A second possibility, suspected for many and perhaps even most teratogens, is that they alter gene expression (Csoka & Szyf, 2009). Many drugs appear to have such epigenetic effects. For example, isotretinoin, a prescription drug used to treat chronic, severe acne, is a powerful teratogen. Even one dose can be catastrophic for the developing fetus. It can cause severe physical malformations, often resulting in prenatal death. Isotretinoin is believed to have such extreme effects because it can alter the expression of more than 500 genes!

many widely accepted assumptions about cognitive development are derived from_______________

Piaget

He assumed that normal adults are capable of thinking logically about both concrete and abstract contents but that this capacity evolves in four stages through childhood

Piaget

The idea that knowledge is constructed by the developing child (and adult.) is a_____________ view that has become an underlying assumption of much of the current research on cognitive development and educational practice

Piagetian

cocaine

Prematurity or stillbirth, low birth weight; drug withdrawal after birth including irritability, restlessness, tremors; medically and psychologically fragile; higher rates of later learning problems and ADHD.

lead

Prematurity, low birth weight, brain damage, mental retardation, physical deformities.

Recognition system

Present within a few days after birth.) Enhances special responsiveness to each other and encourages contact. Recognizes own infant from cry, touch, and smell. Prefers to look at own baby's face compared to other baby's face; viewing own infant's face induces positive mood. Shows clear preference for caregiver's voice and smell. Prefers to look at caregiver's face compared to that of a stranger

Primary Prevention (also called "Universal Prevention"):

Promotes health/wellness in the general population via group-oriented interventions (like mandatory vaccinations

______________ can either improve outcomes directly or more indirectly as moderating variables

Protective Factors

_______________ actually promote healthy development and/or moderate the negative effects of risk factors.

Protective Factors

_________________ in many forms and combinations influence physical and psychological characteristics and processes by affecting cell processes

Proteins

Kaffman & Meaney

Rat mothers differ in the care they give their pups, specifically, in how much licking and grooming (LG) they do. In a series of studies, discovered that variations in mothers' care during the first postnatal week alters the development of a rat pup's hippocampus. The hippocampus is a part of the brain with a central role to play in reactions to stress. The offspring of "high LG" mothers grow up to be more mellow—less reactive to stressful events—than the offspring of "low LG" mothers. They did a series of cross-fostering studies: They gave the offspring of high LG mothers to low LG mothers to rear, and they gave the offspring of low LG mothers to high LG mothers to rear. Rat pups reared by high LG foster mothers grew up to be more mellow than rat pups reared by low LG foster mothers.

The Buddhist concept of "no-self" (anatta) does not imply that our conventional use of "self" is not helpful or that you and I are not real in some way.

Rather, it emphasizes the transient nature of our phenomenological experience as human beings The self is constantly being constructed in the moment-to-moment flow of experience

__________________is the ability to bring to mind an experience that has happened in the past. It is different from recognition because the to-be- remembered experience is not presently occurring, but must be mentally represented

Recall

____________ does not just use objective techniques, but practitioners develop possible solutions using their own personal hypotheses and hypothesis-testing

Reflective Practice

Latency 6 years to puberty

Relatively quiescent period of personality development. Sexual desires are repressed after the turmoil of the last stage. Energy is directed into work and play. There is continued consolidation of traits laid down in the first three stages

Prevention

Research shows that it can reduce aggression, violence, & drug abuse. It can also increase positive outcomes like improving academic achievement & social skills/competence (leading to choose more positive peers).

One study (Hane & Fox, 2006) included 185 nine-month-old infants and their U.S. mothers who were videotaped at home during three periods of interaction: mother busy in the kitchen, snack time (spoon-feeding), caregiving and changing (change of clothes and applying lotion). All participating mothers (mean age of 32) were middle class, had at least a high school education, and were not considered high risk. Approximately ²∕³ of the sample was Caucasian and ¹∕³ African-American, Hispanic, Asian, or mixed ancestry

Results showed that infants in the low quality MCB group showed more negative emotions. Specifically, they showed more fearfulness, less joint attention with mother, and elevated right frontal activity compared to infants in the high quality group.

_______________can be internal to the individual, part of a person's developmental history, or be a part of the environment. The greater number of risk factors, the greater likelihood of a disorder.

Risk Factors

The environment, then, is like "a set of nested structures, each inside the next, like a set of_____________" (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In newer versions of his theory, Bronfenbrenner gives equal attention to the nested internal levels of the organism

Russian dolls

Life Span Developmental Theories

See developmental change as across the life span, as what it means to be alive. Adaptation occurs throughout life. The interaction of proximal and distal processes occur reciprocally both within the individual and the environment and between them

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Theory

Sees all development as a function of proximal processes, which are the reciprocal interactions between the person and other persons, objects, and symbols in their immediate external environment. Proximal processes are modified (or affected by) more distal processes, which can be within the person (like genes) or outside of the person (like the educational system or broader culture). All of this is interactive as the person or organism both influences and is influenced by their environment.

A benchmark event occurs in self-development roughly around the age of 18 months called _____________. It is typically manifested by the observer's display of selfdirected behavior upon viewing her reflection

Self-recognition

____________ is one of the key building blocks of personality, social, and moral development

Self-understanding

fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

Significant learning impairments are often found in children who have been prenatally exposed to alcohol even when they do not have the physical features or growth deficiencies of FAS children

What provokes the gene regulation mechanisms to get the transcription process going?

Some chemicals in the cells are transcription factors; they bind with the regulatory portions of the DNA, which initiates the uncoiling of the strands of DNA at the gene location. This allows mRNA production to begin

Are there longer-term behavioral consequences of inadequate prenatal nutrition?

Some research does reveal enduring effects. When the fetus is unable to build adequate stores of iron, for example, the infant is likely to show signs of anemia by 4 to 6 months of age, and even if corrected, a history of anemia has been shown to affect later school performance

_________________ describe periods of stability (no change), then rapid qualitative change

Stage theories

1872-Charles Darwin

Studied behavior of species using observational techniques; documented children's behavior in different cultures (e.g., Darwin, 1965/1872

1904-G Stanley Hall

Studied children's 'normal development' using scientific methods and wrote an influential account of adolescent development (e.g., Hall, 1904).

1934-Lev Vygotsky

Studied development of thought and language through the lens of culture; emphasized the social nature of learning; works originally in Russian became available in English in the 70s and 80s (e.g., Vygotsky, 1934)

1909-Alfred Bine

Studied individual differences and developmental changes in children's intelligence (e.g., Binet & Simon, 1916).

1984-Jerome Kagan/ Dante Cicchetti

Studied temperamental contributions to child development; explored questions of nature and nurture (e.g., Kagan,1984). Developed a theory that incorporated both normal and abnormal developmental trajectories called developmental psychopathology; studies the effects of maltreatment on children's development (e.g., Cicchetti, 1984)

1979-Urie Bronfenbrenner

Studied the contextual influences on development across cultures; popularized a multidimensional systems model of developmental processes (e.g., Bronfenbrenner,

2002-Michael Rutter

Studies the interaction of nature and nurture and its implication for public policy (e.g., Rutter, 200

1999-Michael Meaney and Moshe Szyf

Study the molecular processes involved in epigenetic transmission; study the effect of early experience on gene expression (e.g., Meaney, 2001; Ramchandani, Bhattacharya, Cervoni, & Szyf, 1999).

example of classical conditioning

Suppose a child calmly watches a dog approach her. For now, sight of the dog is a neutral stimulus. But the dog suddenly barks loudly, causing the child to automatically startle and pull back. Suppose that the next time the child sees the dog, it does not bark. Even so, just the sight of the dog triggers the same response as loud barking would: The child automatically startles and pulls back. The child has learned a new response, because the formerly neutral event (sight of dog) has been paired with an event (loud barking) that automatically causes a startle. Perhaps the startle reaction is also accompanied by feelings of fear. If so, the child has learned to fear this dog and will likely generalize that fear to other, similar dogs

example of mediating variables

Suppose that one factor appears to be a cause of some behavioral outcome. For example, when a child experiences early, pervasive poverty, she is at higher risk than other children for developing mental health problems and medical diseases in adulthood, from depression to cardiovascular disease to some cancers (Chen, 2004). Even if children's economic circumstances improve in later childhood or adulthood, the increased risk of adult problems persists. One mediating variable that links early poverty to later health vulnerability is a compromised immune system. Specifically, poor children are more prone to inflammation. Changes in the functioning of certain genes cause this "pro-inflammatory profile," which lasts into adulthood and can contribute to poor health, including some mental health problems like depression

Contemporary Multidimensional Systems Theories

Take into account the complexity of developmental processes Assume that in all domains (from personality to cognition to social/emotional), there are layers or levels of causes for change that interact. The relationships between causes are reciprocal (or bidirectional) Integrate many elements of classical theories by integrating/incorporating many types of change, whether qualitative, continuous/incremental, stage-like or domain-specific

highly insensitive mother

Take, for instance, undressing the infant prior to preparing the bath. This is not what most might consider an egregious parenting error. It is not abusive or neglectful. Yet, we have observed that the impact on quality of MCB can be considerable: The freshly disrobed infant is held with one arm as mother fills the bath and gathers supplies. Across this task, mother's arm becomes strained by the infant, and she shifts him awkwardly and frequently. The exposed infant is challenged by the chill of room temperature, and he squirms and cries. Mother's arm is further taxed by the aroused infant; her holding becomes less accommodating. Placement in the bath is more abrupt as mother is eager to free her arm. The infant's response to the water is more dramatic than it might have been, because his own body temperature has cooled, increasing the saliency of the water's warmth

Tertiary Prevention (also called "Indicated Prevention"):

Targets those already identified with established (or "sub-clinical", before actual diagnosis) disorders, providing intervention

_______________ can cross the placental barrier.

Teratogens

_________________ is primarily produced in the testes, and then it circulates widely through the body via the blood.

Testosterone

dual curriculum

The first is more formal and may be presented as a conglomeration of researchbased facts, whereas the second, often learned in a practicum, field placement or first job, covers the curriculum of "what is really done" when working with clients.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS) ( Selye)

The first is the alarm phase, when a threat is first recognized and when the body prepares for flight or fight. The second is the resistance phase, during which the body's stress response is active as it continues to resist the effects of the stressor. The third and final stage is exhaustion, which occurs if the struggle persists to the point of complete resource depletion. Depression, illness, or even death can occur after severe, prolonged stress

A few principles are helpful to understand in guiding your thinking about the operation of these causes of birth defects by teratogens

The first principle is that the kind of damage done is related to the stage of development during which the mother is exposed to the teratogen A second principle is that teratogenic effects are a function of the coaction of genes and environment A third principle is that adverse outcomes also depend on dosage amount. Larger amounts of a teratogenic agent over longer periods of time generally have more potent effects than smaller doses over shorter period

Piaget's Cognitive Stages of Development

The first stage (Sensorimotor) occurs from birth to around age 2, when the infant/toddler is thought to have no representational thought. This means that they have no "symbolic representation" (like images, words, language) of what they have experienced. Their behavior is reflexive and unintentional, although they are taking everything they can in through every sense. The second stage (Preoperational, meaning essentially pre-logical) occurs from age 2 to age 6 or 7. It roughly corresponds to the pre-school years. The focus here tends to be limited to one piece of information at a time. The third stage (Concrete Operations) is from age 7 to 11 or 12, roughly corresponding to elementary school years. Speedier thought and the ability to consider more than one thing at a time allow for the discovery of logical relationships. The fourth stage (Formal Operations) is from age 12 to adulthood and roughly corresponds to adolescence/adulthood. The logical thinking attained previously leads to the ability to process more formal or abstract concepts (like hypothetical situations).

oral fixation:

The girl might grow up to need oral pleasures more than most adults, perhaps leading to overeating, to being especially talkative, or to being a chain smoker. The grown woman might also exhibit this fixation in more subtle ways, maintaining behaviors or feelings in adulthood that are particularly characteristic of babies, such as crying easily or experiencing overwhelming feelings of helplessness. According to Freud, fixations at any stage could be the result of either denial of a child's needs, as in this example, or overindulgence of those needs

The intricate neural fireworks described earlier are going on all the time in your brain. Perhaps as you read this chapter, you are also listening to music and drinking a cup of coffee. Or you may be distracted by thoughts of a telephone conversation that you had earlier. _______________ in your brain is processing all these stimuli, allowing your experiences to be perceived and comprehended

The neuronal circuitry

1- to 3-year-old toddler faces the crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt

The new stage is initiated by the child's maturing muscular control and emerging cognitive and language skills. Unlike helpless infants, toddlers can learn not only to control their elimination but also to feed and dress themselves, to express their desires with some precision, and to move around the environment without help. The new capacities bring a strong need to practice and perfect the skills that make children feel in control of their own destinies. Caregivers must be sensitive to the child's need for independence and yet must exercise enough control to keep the child safe and to help the child learn self-control. Failure to strike the right balance may rob children of feelings of autonomy—a sense that "I can do it myself"— and can promote instead either shame or self-doubt

histones

The proteins that bind with DNA to make up the chromosomes.

Lewis and his colleagues used a mirror recognition technique to study infants and children (e.g., Lewis & Michalson, 1983).

The researchers placed the children in front of a mirror after marking their faces with a spot of rouge. Toddlers often showed mark-directed behavior, such as touching their faces, averting their gaze, and then turning back to look again. No children younger than 15 months had this reaction, and all children in the 24-month-old group displayed it. Between 15 months and 2 years children also began to distinguish their own images from those of age mates on videotapes (see Suddendorf, Simcock, & Nielsen, 2007).

Elements Common to All of Erikson's Stages

The responsiveness and sensitivity of caretakers/parents to the individual's needs allows for positive psychosocial development. Attitudes towards self and others occur simultaneously. For each crisis or developmental task, the right balance has to be found between positive and negative feelings, so that the positives essentially win out. When a crisis is resolved successfully, it is easier for future crises to be resolved. Like with Freud's theory, a crisis that remains unresolved can hold back progress and lead to maladaptive behavior. Among Erikson's assumptions is that a child/adult is active and self-organizing (or self-directed), needing only the right social context to progress positively.

proximal processes.

These are reciprocal interactions between an "active, evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons, objects and symbols in its immediate external environment" (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998, p. 996). In other words, proximal processes refer to a person's immediate interactions with people or with the physical environment or with informational sources (such as books or movies).

compulsive self-sufficiency .

These children are at risk because they appear so self-possessed. A closer look reveals their self-evaluations to be based on others' negative appraisals, including shaming for their expressions of dependency or needs for closeness

shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride (social or self-conscious emotions)

These emotions are different from the emotions of infancy because they require the ability to consider the self as separate from others and as the subject of others' judgments

mirror neurons

These neurons, located primarily in motor cortex, were activated (fired) not only when a monkey performed a particular action, like grasping, but also when the monkey saw someone else, a person or a monkey, perform that action on an object. These neurons appear to help monkeys understand the actions

Where Do Temperament Traits Come From?

They are assumed to be biologically based reactivity patterns, and evidence is accumulating for the importance of genetic and epigenetic contributions to the physiological processes involved

Siegler and Ramani

They developed a number board game, a little like Chutes and Ladders, where the object of the game is to advance along a series of 10 squares, each marked by a number. If lower SES preschoolers played the number board game repeatedly over a 2-week period, sure enough the children's "number line estimation" skills improved dramatically in comparison to children who played a similar game that did not include numbers.

exploratory play

They manipulate objects, check out their properties, sort and organize them. In so doing, children learn not only about the properties of objects, but also about spatial relations, numerical relations, categorical relations, and so on.

Concrete operational 7 to 11 or 12 years

Thinking has gradually become more rapid and efficient, allowing children to now "decenter," or think about more than one thing at a time. This also allows them to discover logical relationships between/among pieces of information. Their logical thinking is best about information that can be demonstrated in the concrete world.

parietal lobe

This area is responsible for the processing of somatosensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain

"MAOA" gene

This gene provides the cell with a template for production of the MAOA enzyme

compulsive caregiving

This is the pattern of taking emotional care of a caregiver.

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years

Through six substages, the source of infants' organized actions gradually shifts. At first, all organized behavior is reflexive—automatically triggered by particular stimuli. By the end of this stage, behavior is guided more by representational thought

Developmental Psychopathology in Practice

To be effective, treatments & interventions must be developmentally appropriate. This is not a "one size fits all". The timing of interventions is extremely important. Sensitive/critical periods of greater disorganization or disequilibrium may be the best times for individuals' openness to change. May fit better into newly evolving levels of behavioral, cognitive, and emotional organization. Interventions should take into consideration person's developmental level, quality of adaptation, contexts in which functioning, and availability of external supports

goal of prevention science

To promote positive, healthy outcomes for all, especially those most at risk of problems.

aids (Infection)

Transmitted through contact with maternal blood via the placenta or at delivery. Causes damage to immune system, facial abnormalities, growth problems, brain disorders, developmental delays; usually fatal.

Secondary Prevention (also called "Selective Prevention"):

Tries to reduce the incidence of disorders in high-risk populations or if identified early, to intervene in order to reduce the development of more serious psychopathology. This targets not the general population, but the population considered at-risk. (For example, remedial educational programs for students considered at-risk for dropping out of school.)

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Initiative vs. Guilt Industry vs. Inferiority Identity vs. Role Confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Ego Integrity vs. Despair

A good example of why disaggregation is important comes from a study of preschool children's everyday activities in four cultural communities (Black and White in the United States, Luo in Kenya, and European descent in Porto Allegre, Brazil). __________ and his colleagues (2006) observed everyday behaviors of preschool children, hypothesizing that each culture provides its young with the kinds of opportunities (e.g., school or work-related activities) deemed important for successful participation in their culture. Equal numbers of high and low SES children within each culture were included to study the intersection of culture and class. The Brazilian children engaged in fewer academic activities compared to White and Kenyan groups. Nonetheless, middle class Brazilian children were involved in more academic lessons than their working class counterparts. Kenyan children participated in significantly more work-related activities than all other groups. However, the working class Kenyan children engaged in twice as much work as those from all other groups, including middle-class Kenyan children.

Tudge

incremental models.

Unlike stage theories, some theoretical approaches characterize development as a more continuous process. Change tends to be incremental, metaphorically resembling not a staircase but a steadily rising mountainside. change is steady and specific to particular behaviors or behavioral domains. Incremental theorists, like stage theorists, tend to see "change for the better" as a key feature of development. So, adding words to your vocabulary over time would be a typical developmental change, but forgetting previously learned information might not.

In the 1930's in Russia, ________________examined how language and thought are developed via culture. Like Dewey, he specified the social nature of learning. Although his work was done in the 1930's, it wasn't translated into English for others to know and understand until the 1970's and 1980's. Sadly, he had died long before that, but research and interest in his theories continues to this day

Vygotsky

In the past, social science research has focused almost exclusively on a pretty homogeneous sample of_______________ (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) of subjects. Now, there is a greater focus of research on culture, race and ethnicity than ever before, despite the difficulties in their definition

WEIRD

Duchenne's muscular dystrophy

Wasting of muscles produces gradual weakness, eventual death

example of parent centered ( negative):

When 20-month old Jessie wants to feed herself her morning cereal, for example, at first her mother ignores her. When Jessie insists, her mother attends to her demands by making negative attributions, such as "You'll just make a mess" and "Why do you always make things so hard in the morning?" When Jessie accidentally spills the milk, her mother responds in frustration, "I told you that you couldn't do it yourself

example of unintentional behavior ( making interesting sights last)

When a mobile hanging over a baby's crib is tied to a baby's foot, the child will soon learn to shake her foot to make the mobile move. At some point, the baby appears to notice the connection, as if she were having an insight, and the baby shakes her foot more vigorously afterward

Example of allostatic load

When confronted with an emergency at work, blood pressure may rise temporarily to accommodate the challenge until the problem is resolved and things go back to normal. When work challenges are unremitting, high blood pressure can become maladaptive, creating allostatic load.

Female zygotes have 2 ____________ chromosomes

X

example of symbolic artifact

Young preschoolers have similar trouble with television (e.g., Troseth & DeLoache, 1996). When children younger than age 2 ½ watch a doll being hidden in a room on a video screen, the children will not be able to figure out where the doll is when they search for it in the real room. These children are able to respond directly to what they see on the screen. For example, they can follow the action and imitate what the actors do. However, they have trouble understanding that what they are watching symbolizes something that is happening somewhere else, other than on the screen. Curiously, children's performance improves if the edges of the video screen are covered and children believe that they are witnessing a scene through a window into a room. Then, even a 2-year-old will be able to find a doll hidden in a room after watching the hiding "through the window"! In this situation, the child does not have to perceive the screen events as symbolic of something happening elsewhere.

example of habituation paradigm

a baby is propped up in an infant seat in a darkened room in front of a large, blank video screen. Suddenly, a picture of a green circle flashes on the screen. The baby is likely to produce an orienting response to this new stimulus. She will look longer at the picture than she had at the blank screen. She will suck more vigorously on the pacifier in her mouth, and her blood pressure and her heart rate are likely to decrease from their previous base rate. If we repeatedly present the green circle, after a time the baby will seem to grow bored with the stimulus. Perhaps it now seems familiar, even "old." We call this response habituation, and it is indicated by shorter looking times, less vigorous sucking, and a return to base rate for heartbeat and blood pressure.

mutation

a change in the chemical structure of an existing gene. Sometimes mutations occur spontaneously, and sometimes they are due to environmental influences, like exposure to radiation or toxic chemicals

protein

a complex organic chemical, made up of smaller molecules called amino acids

Self-concept

a description of personal attributes

Oxytocin

a hormone that is released in the hypothalamus and modulates the transmission of impulses, is enhanced in pregnancy, labor, delivery, and lactation. It promotes physical proximity, responsive caregiving, empathy, and affection reduces stress and helps mothers deal with the physical and emotional challenges of childbirth and childrearing

example of negative reinforcement

a parent might tell her 4-year-old to go upstairs because it is time to go to bed. The little boy, detesting this interruption of his play time, begins to whine. The parent repeats her command several more times only to be met by continued resistance. The parent's patience begins to thin and she escalates into threats, which, according to Patterson's research, are usually not carried out. Instead, the parent appeases the child out of guilt or exasperation. The parent gives up and the child's noncompliance is reinforced. This pattern strengthens the child's coercive interaction style, which with time and repetition can become the predominant mode of communication

MAOA enzyme

a protein that metabolizes a number of important brain chemicals called neurotransmitters, like serotonin and dopamine. Its effect is to inactivate these neurotransmitters, a normal process in neurological functioning

narrative

a story or event description that conveys the full sense of an experience or gets at the point of an event while taking into account what the listener needs to hear to understand.

Erikson assumed that the child or adult is an _______________ individual who needs only the right social context to move in a positive direction.

active, self-organizing

This constructivist stance ( Piaget coginitive) takes the child to be an ____________ participant in the learning process, constantly seeking out and trying to make sense of new information. In other words, children are intrinsically motivated to learn—another idea that is widely accepted by modern developmental scientists

active

As the new information is assimilated, the child's existing knowledge may be modified somewhat, providing a better match or fit to what is new. The latter process is called _____________( Piaget cognitive)

accommodation

authoritative parenting has been associated with many positive outcomes in young children:

adaptability, competence and achievement, good social skills and peer acceptance, and low levels of antisocial or aggressive behavior. Of particular interest to us in this chapter, authoritative parenting seems to promote positive self-development, especially high self-esteem and the capacity for self-regulation.

children learn by a process of________________

adaptation

The DNA code is a long sequence of molecules of four bases (that is, basic chemicals, not acids): _______, identified as A, C, G, and T

adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

Moderating Variables:

affect the strength of the relationship between other variables, interacting with causal factors, may alter or eliminate the effect of causal factors on outcomes. An example here is a warm mother-child relationship

Children begin to describe themselves as "a boy" or "a girl" or as "big" or "little," and they begin to use appropriate personal pronouns to refer to themselves

after child's second birthday

Sterling and Eyer (1988) offered a decidedly more intricate explanation of stress processes in their model of ____________, which proposed that central nervous system (CNS) control over multiple interacting regulatory processes maintains "balance through adaptation."

allostasis

Instead of returning to a fixed set point, the best balance for each specific challenge is found, a dynamic process called ________________ (Ganzel et al., 2010). Nervous, immune, and endocrine systems are the primary interconnected networks that mediate this adaptive response

allostatic accommodation

Overall, core emotional areas of the brain are primarily involved in stress responding and are most affected by the wear and tear of chronic stress, called __________________

allostatic load

Intrusive mothers show higher levels of activation in the ______________ and less inhibitory functioning compared to sensitive mothers

amygdala

The ______________ rapidly assesses the emotional significance of environmental events, assigns them a threat value, and conveys this information to parts of the brain that regulate neurochemical functions. The structures of the limbic system have direct connections with neurons from the olfactory bulb, which is responsible for our sense of smell. It has been noted that pheromones, a particular kind of hormonal substance secreted by animals and humans, can trigger particular reactions that affect emotional responsiveness below the level of conscious awareness

amygdala

The hippocampus and the amygdala are_______________ connected, and together they regulate the working of the HPA axis

anatomically

Darwin (the first developmental studies) began his work originally with observational techniques of _______________ eventually documenting differences in child development between cultures.

animal species,

__________________ a structure in the middle of the brain above the corpus callosum. The ACC mediates cognition and affect. Impaired connections between the ACC and the amygdala are related to higher levels of anxiety and neuroticism, and lower ACC volume has been found in depressed patients

anterior cingulate cortex (ACC),

Straus and his colleagues (1997) asked mothers how often they had spanked their child in the last week when the children were between ages 6 and 9. The researchers measured children's antisocial behavior then and over the course of the next 2 years. More frequent spanking at the first assessment predicted increases in the children's __________________ over the next 2 years. This was true regardless of the family's social class, ethnicity, the child's gender, or maternal warmth. (See Gershoff, 2002, for a meta-analytic review of similar research.)

antisocial behavior

Baltes (Life Span) sees the interaction and influence of all on development as the "_______________" of biological and cultural supports. He sees biological supports as more important in childhood for adaptation, but cultural supports more important during adulthood for successful adaptation. These cultural supports include material, social, economic, and psychological resources. If children do not have adequate cultural supports, their biological "protective factors" allow them to develop in less than optimal environments.

architecture

endophenotypes

are biobehavioral processes that can be traced to genes. These processes serve as intermediary links between the actual genes that contribute to disorders and their expressed behavioral manifestations. The "pro-inflammatory profile" that serves as a mediator between early childhood poverty and later mental and physical health problems is an example of an endophenotype, because it has been found to result from epigenetic processes

authoritative style

are both highly responsive and highly demanding. So, they create a positive emotional climate for their children, promoting autonomy and supporting assertiveness and individuality. At the same time these parents accept responsibility for socializing their children by expecting mature behavior and setting and enforcing clear standards. parents are often openly affectionate; they encourage two-way communication with their children (that is, they genuinely listen and pay attention as well as talking themselves). Their communications about expectations and standards are usually clear and come with explanations that go beyond "You do it because I said so" to statements that help children make sense of their parents' demands. Thus, they are strong on behavioral control, but do not use psychological control

Pretensions

are goals that we choose to meet for ourselves because of their personal importance

Authoritarian parents

are low on responsiveness, but highly demanding. Thus they do not create a positive emotional climate nor encourage children's individualistic strivings or assertiveness, but they do tend to exercise considerable control, making maturity demands and requiring conformity to rules. usually communicate less effectively with their children than authoritative parents. Their communications are more one-sided ("I say what will happen; you listen"). They express less affection. And their control tends to be more restrictive, meaning that they tend to restrict their children's emotional expressiveness and other self-assertive behaviors. That is, they tend to exercise not just behavioral but also psychological control. They also are more likely to exercise control by using power assertion (see the section on parenting practices below) and are less likely to provide explanations that go beyond "Because I said so."

Permissive parents

are moderately to highly responsive to their children, but low on demandingness. Thus, they exercise less behavioral control than other parents, putting fewer maturity demands on their children, especially with regard to expressions of anger and aggressive behavior. They are more nurturing and affectionate than authoritarian parents, but usually not as nurturant as authoritative parents.

circuits

are part of larger organizations of neurons, called systems, such as the visual and olfactory systems. Join neurons

Symbols

are stand-ins for other things. Words are symbols; so are the props used in pretend play when they stand for something else, the way a broom stands for a horse when a child gallops around "riding" the broom. To use and understand such symbols, children must be able to mentally represent the things being symbolized. As babies' representational skills grow, especially over the 2nd year, language skill and pretend play begin to blossom

Moderating variables

are those that affect the strength of the relationship between other variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986). They interact with causal factors, altering and sometimes even eliminating their effects on outcome variables. For example, researchers have found that not all adults exposed to early poverty are characterized by a "pro-inflammatory profile" (Chen, Miller, Kobor, & Cole, 2011). Adults who suffered chronic early poverty but who report having a warm, supportive relationship with their mothers in childhood often have normal immune system functioning. Warm mothering appears to be a protective factor that moderates the impact of early poverty, a risk factor

Schon (1987)

argues against putting the cart before the horse. He states that true reflectivity depends on the ability to "recognize and apply standard rules, facts and operations; then to reason from general rules to problematic cases in ways characteristic of the profession; and only then to develop and test new forms of understanding and action where familiar categories and ways of thinking fail"

First, they interpret new stimulation in ways that fit with what they already know, sometimes distorting it as a result. This aspect of adaptation is called ______________. ( Piaget cognitive)

assimilation.

there is some likelihood that breast-feeding mothers will be more sensitive caregivers. But infants' ___________was not correlated with breast-feeding specifically; only the mother's sensitivity mattered

attachment

European American parents who tend to employ _____________ methods often use nondirective or inductive disciplinary practices—offering suggestions, making polite requests, distracting a child, giving explanations, and so on. These practices are related to beneficial child outcomes such as empathy and prosocial behavior in their children.

authoritative

The children of _______________ parents are likely to show higher levels of competence, self-esteem, and self-regulation than children exposed to other parenting styles.

authoritative

Beginning at the most ancient evolutionary level, the hindbrain structures of medulla, pons, cerebellum, and the reticular formation regulate _____________ functions that are outside our conscious control.

autonomic

The zygote contains 46 chromosomes, or more accurately, 23 pairs of chromosomes; one member of each pair came from the mother (ovum) and one from the father (sperm). Twenty-two of these pairs are matched and are called _______________.

autosomes

Although neurons come in various sizes and shapes, a typical neuron is composed of a cell body with a long extension, or _______________, which is like a cable attached to a piece of electronic equipment. The axon itself can be quite long relative to the size of the cell's other structures because it needs to connect or "wire" various parts of the brain, such as the visual thalamus to the visual cortex

axon

Babies begin _______________ at about 6 months, repeating consonant-vowel- consonant sequences such as bababa or doodoodoo. At first these babblings include most possible language sounds, but by 9 months babies are matching their babbling sounds to the sounds of their native language (or languages).

babbling

Darwin himself introduced an early approach to child study, the "_________________," writing a richly detailed account of his young son's daily changes in language and behavior

baby biography

breast-feeding affects the mother's production of hormones related to caregiving (Jansen, de Weerth, & Riksen-Walraven, 2011). For example,

baby's sucking stimulates the release of oxytocin in mothers, supporting milk production. As we have seen, animal studies and some human evidence suggest that increased levels of oxytocin tend to increase maternal caregiving and its rewarding effects for the mother.

On both sides of the thalamus are structures called the ______________. These structures, especially the nucleus accumbens, are involved in motivation and approach behavior

basal ganglia

The control dimension refers to parents' _______________ of their children,

behavioral control

Early reactivity is related to later measures of ________________, or shyness.

behavioral inhibition

demand characteristics

behavioral tendencies that often either encourage or discourage certain kinds of reactions from others. A child who is shy and inhibited, a trait that appears to have some biological roots (Kagan & Fox, 2006), may often fail to elicit attention from others, and may receive less support when she needs it, than a child who is open and outgoing

Learning theories, in what is called the______________, have a distinguished history in American psychology, having been the most widely accepted class of theories through much of the 20th century, influenced by many thinkers from John B. Watson (e.g., 1913) to B. F. Skinner (e.g., 1938) to Albert Bandura (e.g., 1974). These theories trace their philosophical roots from ancient Greece and the writings of Aristotle through John Locke and the British empiricists of the 17th and 18th centuries. In this philosophical tradition, knowledge and skill are thought to accumulate as the result of each person's individual experiences. The environment gradually leaves its imprint on one's behavior and mind, a mind that in infancy is like a blank slate. Locke described several simple processes—association, repetition, imitation, reward, and punishment—by which the environment can have an impact. Many of the processes Locke described were incorporated into behaviorist approaches to development.

behaviorist tradition

What happens at one level both causes and is caused by what happens at other levels. That is, the relationships among causes are reciprocal or __________. For example, increased testosterone levels at puberty (biological change) might help influence a boy to pursue an aggressive sport, like wrestling. The boy's success at wrestling may cause his status and social dominance to rise among his male friends (social change), and this social change can reciprocally influence his biological functioning. Specifically, it can lead to additional increases in his testosterone levels

bidirectional processes

This bilingual practice appears to sharpen executive functions such as attention regulation and inhibitory control (see Box 3.3). From early childhood, ______________consistently perform better on tasks that assess these abilities than monolinguals do, even when they come from similar socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds

bilinguals

Operant conditioning has also demonstrated that recognition skills are present from birth. For example, a 3-day-old infant will learn to suck harder for the reward of hearing its own mother's voice (rather than a stranger's voice), indicating that the baby recognizes the mother's voice (e.g., DeCasper & Fifer, 1980). The newborn's recognition of the mother's voice seems to be a result of opportunities to hear her voice before birth, suggesting that the capacity for recognition is already in place before ______________ (DeCasper & Prescott, 1984; DeCasper & Spence, 1986).

birth

Phonological development begins before _________________, and there are measurable advances long before babies begin to talk

birth

Learning Theory (Watson, Skinner) & Social Learning Theory (Bandura) tend to see the mind at birth as more like a "______________" (tabula rasa). It is the environment that impacts on learning through processes like association, repetition, imitation, reward & punishment

blank slate

Children who experience sexual abuse before the age of 5 often have_______________ cortisol responses compared to children whose abuse occurs after age 5

blunted

Atypical depression, for example, has been linked to ________________ functions

blunted cortisol

Bronfenbrenner,

born in Russia but educated in the U.S., developed a multidimensional systems model of developmental processes (to be discussed later). More specifically, he examined cross-culturally how context has an influence on development

Lenroot and Giedd (2011) artfully describe endophenotypes as "_____________" (p. 429). Study of these intermediary links can help us better understand the processes by which genetic information exerts influence on observable behavior

bridges between molecules and behavior

Lenroot & Gledd describe Biobehavioral processes as: "________________"

bridges between molecules and behavior

Power assertion

can involve physical punishment or the threat of physical punishment, ranging from spanking on the buttocks to harsh beating with objects. Or, it can involve withdrawal of privileges, from mild forms (such as time-out procedures with toddlers, see Box 5.1), to severe denial (e.g., withholding meals). Power assertion is usually effective for the immediate control of behavior.

It seems that ". . . ____________ talk not only guides . . . vocabulary learning, but also sharpens the processing skills used during real-time language comprehension"

caregiver

Intrusive (over-stimulating)

caregivers display more anger, irritability, coerciveness, and poorly timed responses. They fail to take their cues from the baby and often interfere with infant exploration

Down syndrome (also called trisomy 21)

caused by an extra copy of chromosome number 21. Children with Down syndrome experience some degree of mental retardation, although educational interventions can have a big impact on the severity of intellectual impairment.

Understanding epigenesis starts with the ____________

cell

Greeks, the forebears of Western societies, came to view the world by focusing on __________. In other words, the ancient Greeks inhabited a world where objects were typically perceived as relatively unchanging and detached from their contex

central objects

preoperational thought tends to be centered or focused on one salient feature of an experience or event at a time, a characteristic referred to as _____________

centration

The most recognizable aspect of the forebrain is the ______________, which comprises two thirds of the total mass

cerebrum

The forebrain is the largest part of the brain and includes the ______________________

cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system

Michael Rutter (out of England) is considered the "father of ____________________" in Great Britain. He was the first professor of child psychiatry there. His research and theoretical focus is on how nature and nurture interact, and the implications upon public policy.

child psychiatry

Baltes proposes that successful adaptation is benefited more by biological supports in ___________ than in adulthood. Cultural supports are important in childhood, but if not optimal, most children have biological supports (we could think of them as a complex of biological protective factors) that have evolved to optimize development in most environments

childhood

In social pretend play, ____________________

children enact roles, simulating the actions or characteristics of other people and interacting with other children playing other roles. As children's language skills improve, they may spend a good deal of time planning and negotiating who will do what and when. The more young children engage in social pretend play, the more rapidly they advance on theory of mind skills

By the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the first academic departments opened up in North American universities to specifically study ________________

children.

__________________ are the carriers of heredity

chromosomes

Neurons are not "wired together" randomly. Rather, they are joined via their synaptic connections into groups called ________________

circuits

When a neutral event or stimulus is associated with a stimulus that causes an automatic response, the neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus, meaning that it can cause the person to make the same automatic response in the future, called a conditioned response. This is__________________

classical conditioning.

Western cultures

classifying objects by functional associations (birds with nests) is a trademark of preschoolers' sorting behavior. Hierarchically organized taxonomic classification (e.g., collies and dachshunds grouped as kinds of dogs, dogs and birds grouped as animals) is more typical of elementary-school-age children. Piaget regarded taxonomic sorting to be an indicator of the logical thinking that emerges in middle childhood. But in some ethnic groups, such as the African Kpelle tribe, even adults do not sort objects taxonomically. They use functionally based schemes

Heredity and environment are engaged from the very beginning in an intricate dance, a process called _________________, so that neither one ever causes any outcome on its own

coaction

Genes are functional units or sections of DNA, and they are often called "_____________" sections of DNA

coded

Two different alleles will not necessarily have a dominant-recessive relationship. Sometimes alleles exhibit __________________, producing a blended or additive outcome. For example, Type A blood is the result of one gene allele; Type B blood is the result of a different allele. If a child inherits a Type A allele from one parent and a Type B allele from the other parent, the outcome will be a blend—Type AB blood.

codominance

In Jean Piaget's _______________, we see the influence of 18th-century philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (e.g., 1762/1948), who argued that children's reasoning and understanding emerges naturally in stages and that parents and educators can help most by allowing children freedom to explore their environments and by giving them learning experiences that are consistent with their level of ability

cognitive development theory

the Stroop Test makes you purposefully shift your goals or attention from what you are accustomed to, those dominant expectations and responses, to different ones, which is the hallmark of __________________

cognitive flexibility

Love et al. (2003)

combined data from the NICHD and Israeli studies, and reviewed findings from two other studies, and concluded that the quality of center care has an impact on mother-infant attachment independent of the sensitivity of mothers' care or of the amount of time infants spend in care. The best supported inference overall is that mothers and babies can, and usually do, form secure attachments, even if mothers work outside the home during the 1st year, as long as the mother provides her infant with quality care when she is with the baby and as long as the substitute care is also of high quality.

When a neutral event or stimulus is associated with a stimulus that causes an automatic response, the neutral stimulus can become a _______________, meaning that it can cause the person to make the same automatic response in the future, called a conditioned response. This is classical conditioning.

conditioned stimulus

DeCasper and colleagues

conducted an interesting study in which they directed pregnant women to recite a child's nursery rhyme out loud each day from the 33rd to the 37th week of pregnancy (DeCasper, Lecaneut, Busnel, Granier-Deferre, & Maugeais, 1994). During the 38th week, the women were asked to listen to a recording of either the familiar rhyme or an unfamiliar one while their fetuses' heart rates were being measured. The fetal heart rates dropped for the group who heard the familiar rhyme, signifying attention, but did not change for the group who heard the unfamiliar one. This result suggests that the fetus can attend to and discriminate the cadence of the rhyme

Internalization, in turn, is associated with the development of _______________, feelings of discomfort or distress when the violation of a rule is contemplated or carried out

conscience

The capacity for emotional response to wrongdoing is an important milestone, long considered to be the beginning of _________________

conscience development

knowledge does not just emerge from within as though preformed. Instead, children actively build their knowledge, using both existing knowledge and new information. This is a _______________ view of development.

constructivist (Piaget)

Like Erikson, Piaget believed that development requires active engagement, the ability to self-organize. It is an active process that requires both existing and new knowledge and information. As such, it is a _______________ theory of development

constructivistic

A crevice, or fissure, divides the cerebrum into two halves, like the halves of a walnut. Information is transferred between the two halves by a network of fibers comprising the ___________________

corpus callosum

parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

counteracts the sympathetic system's effects and down-regulates its activity once the threat has passed

Erikson 's 8 stages of man encompasses each with a "______________" or developmental task

crisis

Freud's stages have many of the properties of_______________ (or sensitive) periods for personality development. That is, they are time frames during which certain developments must occur. Freud's third stage, for example, provides an opportunity for sex typing and moral processes to emerge

critical

In operant conditioning, the child learns to produce a spontaneous behavior or operant (e.g., "da") in response to a _________ (e.g., the appearance of a dog) because the behavior was previously reinforced in that situation

cue

For adults, successful adaptation is more heavily dependent on ______________ supports or protective factors. "The older individuals are, the more they are in need of culture-based resources (material, social, economic, psychological) to generate and maintain high levels of functioning"

cultural

Goh et al. (2007) were actually able to demonstrate that what individuals pay attention to can have long-term effects on the brain over time. Repeated experience affects the brain such that it may lead to preferred or habitual ways of thinking and acting. This was shown via brain scans showing ________________

cultural shaping of visual processing.

Make sure to learn information about _____________, as it helps with greater understanding and empathy

culture

In recent years the gene responsible for Huntington's disease has been identified, and a test is now available that will allow early detection, before symptoms appear. Unfortunately, there is no _______________.

cure

Meaney & Szyf (out of Canada)

currently delve into more specifics of the nature-nurture issue: as in can early experience (nurture) impact on gene expression (nature). They examine the genetic/molecular level of transmission

Child care (or day care) programs may serve children from infancy through school age; they are traditionally considered "_______________," meaning that they protect children's health and safety while their parents are working

custodial

Chemical messengers of the immune system, called _______________, are produced during the immune response. These proteins can be either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory in nature.

cytokines

The ovum's nucleus is surrounded by a great deal of cellular material called ________________; the cytoplasm is loaded with a vast array of chemicals.

cytoplasm

Barrett and Fleming (2011) describe it in this way: "The interaction between a mother and her infant can be like a _______and take, there is unparalleled intimacy, there are often vast differences in skill level and motivation, there is learning . . . This dance can be beautiful, it can be tender, it can be awkward, it can be difficult. And sometimes it just does not occur!"

dance

_______________tends to tighten the bonds

deacetylation

Piaget assumed that there was a similar organization of thinking across domains within each stage. There could, however, be differences between domains within the same stage, which he called "____________________

decalages

Piaget argued that as children interact with the world and practice representing the events they observe, their thinking becomes more efficient, and eventually they are able to decenter, that is, to take into account multiple pieces of information simultaneously, a process referred to as ______________

decentration

One indicator of recall is_____________, in which children observe the actions of another on one occasion, and then imitate those actions sometime later.

deferred imitation

( Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Theory) What is important here is the quality and effectiveness (responsiveness) of the person's immediate environment (or caregivers/parents). Further to the interactive nature of this process, the person can also impact on the effectiveness of their environment or caregivers. An example of this is ______________, in that certain individual behavioral tendencies can encourage or discourage responses by others.

demand characteristics

maternal rearing, an environmental factor, changes the activity of the rat pup's DNA by __________________ it, which changes the pup's brain, affecting its behavioral response to stress.

demethylating

_________________ causes looser binding and more transcription.

demethylation

one group of investigators found significant _____________ of a gene that codes for "insulin-like growth factor II" (IGF2) in individuals exposed to the famine very early in gestation, when methylation of this particular gene usually occurs

demethylation

The chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell are made of a remarkable organic chemical called _____________ or DNA.

deoxyribonucleic acid

By 4 months, infants of________________ mothers are less active in face-to-face interactions with their mothers than infants of nondepressed mothers, and by 5 months they do less laughing and more fussing when their mothers interact with them

depressed

developmental science seeks to

describe people's behavioral characteristics at different ages, •identify how people are likely to respond to life's experiences at different ages, •formulate theories that explain how and why we see the typical characteristics and responses that we do, and •understand what factors contribute to developmental differences from one person to another.

Homeostatic views (set point)

describe reflexive, physiological feedback loops, primarily controlled by lower-level brain areas, that balance internal systems around a fixed set-point

zone of proximal

development is one of Vygotsky's most influential ideas. It describes the situation in which a learner is able to grasp a concept or perform some skill only with support or scaffolding from someone else. She would not yet be capable of the task on her own, but she can do it with assistance

An integrative new discipline, assumes dysfunctional/abnormal behavior also follows _____________, just like normal behavior. Maladaptive behaviors are also seen as attempts to adapt to the environment

developmental processes

Early education programs have a more academic purpose; they are intended to foster children's cognitive, social, and emotional development using "_________________" . They are usually open to children starting at age 3 and are the type that is likely to be offered by public schools

developmentally appropriate curricula

Polygenic influences have also been implicated in

diabetes, clubfoot, some forms of Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy

It may be, however, that difficult temperamental qualities, such as high reactivity, actually make infants more susceptible to environmental influences in general (__________________).

differential susceptibility

temperamental traits seem to make infants ______________susceptible to both optimal and nonoptimal care in the formation of attachments. Reactive, irritable infants seem to be both more vulnerable to low quality care, and more benefitted by supportive care, than babies with easier temperaments

differentially

70% of the _______________ babies eventually had some adjustment problems, ranging from learning difficulties to stealing to phobias.

difficult

Socialization pressure requires _____________ when parents limit or demand behavior using techniques that either exert or require control.

discipline,

Newborns show no sign of being able to tell the difference between green and yellow: They do not ___________to yellow after becoming habituated to green

dishabituate

The bizarre behavior of D infants is considered to be a reflection of stress that goes unmanaged. It demonstrates the absence of an organized pattern of emotion regulation, hence, the term ______________

disorganized

These proximal processes are modified by more __________________. Some of these are within the organism—such as genes. Others are outside the immediate environment—such as features of the educational system or of the broader culture.

distal processes

an important addition to cognitive-developmental work since Piaget is the idea that progress is often ___________. That is, development can proceed at different rates in different domains

domain specific

Once oxytocin is released by infant behaviors (crying, smiling, vocalizing, etc.), the subsequent release of _____________, a neurotransmitter associated with the rewarding aspects of caregiving, may serve to reinforce attachment behaviors.

dopamine

In animal studies, repeated maternal separation during infancy disrupts the_____________ of the animals in adulthood, resulting in more elevated stress responsivity, sensitivity to psychostimulants, and propensity to addiction (Strathearn, 2011).

dopamine system

The medulla and the pons are also especially sensitive to an overdose of _____________. Drug effects on these structures can cause suffocation and death

drugs or alcohol

Most of the situations helpers face are confusing, complex, ill-defined, and often unresponsive to the application of a simple, specific set of scientific principles. Thus, the training of helping professionals often involves a "_______________."

dual curriculum

Secure social bonds are constructed through _____________interaction using an emerging set of skills that grow and expand over the course of the relationship.

dyadic

Piaget put less emphasis on stages and more on the _________quality of repeated assimilation and accommodation in the context of feedback from the environment

dynamic

According to ( Reflective Practice) Schon (1982), this ___________ first tries to apply general rules, then for problem cases, it expands to create, generate, and test new information and strategies. Here, background information is important, but when it comes to intervention, it is to be applied contextually

dynamic process

Now the definition of ethnicity/cultural identity is seen as less static and more ______________

dynamic, process-oriented.

Piaget's theory is another classic stage model. First, cognitive abilities are qualitatively similar within stages. If we know how a child approaches one kind of task, we should be able to predict her approaches to other kinds of tasks as well. Piaget acknowledged that children might be advanced in one cognitive domain or lag behind in another. For example, an adolescent might show more abstract reasoning about math than about interpersonal matters. These within-stage variations he called ______________

décalages

In a study of German, Camaroon and urban and rural Indians, children from cultures that emphasized autonomous socialization goals like independence achieved mirror self-recognition a little _________________ than those growing up in cultures that had more relational goals like interdependence

earlier

Love withdrawal—such as a parent's withdrawing attention or affection, expressing disappointment or disillusionment with a child, turning away from a child, cutting off verbal or emotional contact, or enforcing separations—is rarely used alone by parents, but when it is used, it seems to generate high anxiety and is more ___________________

effective in eliciting immediate compliance than any other method

The _________ begins to develop as cognitive and physical skills emerge. In Freud's view, some psychic energy is invested in these skills, and a rational, realistic self begins to take shape. The id still presses for fulfillment of bodily needs, but the rational ego seeks to meet these needs in sensible ways that take into account all aspects of a situation.

ego

The goal of the _____________ is to somehow meet the needs of the id without upsetting the superego (which would cause guilt, which Freud was all about when it came to adult emotional issues).

ego

Erikson described____________ psychosocial stages. The first five correspond to the age periods laid out in Freud's psychosexual stages, but the last three are adult life stages, reflecting Erikson's view that personal identity and interpersonal attitudes are continually evolving from birth to death

eight

that children's autobiographical memories improve when parents engage them in___________________conversations about past experiences

elaborative

An interesting twist is that mothers who engage their children in this kind of high-quality narrative practice also have children who remember past events in their own lives better

elaborative style

Over a period of about two weeks, the growing organism migrates down the mother's fallopian tube, into the uterus, and may succeed in implantation, attaching itself to the uterine lining, which makes further growth and development possible. Now it is called an__________________

embryo

It is absolutely essential to recognize that _______________ underlies any ability to control behaviors

emotion regulation

children's anxiety or ________________l seems to play a role in their willingness to comply and in the internalization of standards

emotional arousa

The material ( me self) self

encompasses a person's physical characteristics and material possessions.

elaborative style

engaging in lengthy discussions about children's past experiences, providing lots of details, asking questions and encouraging children to provide details as well, their children's narratives tend to be more adequate and informative

Rather than relying solely on objective technical applications to determine ways of operating in a given situation, the reflective practitioner constructs solutions to problems by __________________

engaging in personal hypothesis generating and hypothesis testing

Biologists first used the term ________________ just to describe the emergence of specialized cells and systems of cells (like the nervous system or the digestive system) from an undifferentiated zygote

epigenesis

Biologists now define ________________ more specifically as the set of processes by which factors outside of hereditary material itself can influence how hereditary material functions. These "factors" are environmental. These include the chemicals in the cytoplasm of the cell (which constitute the immediate environment surrounding the chromosomes) to factors in the cells and tissues adjacent to the cell, to factors beyond the body itself, such as heat, light, and even social interaction

epigenesis

Gottlieb (e.g., 1992, 2003) emphasizes coaction in his ______________ model of development, a multidimensional theory. He expands the concept of epigenesis, describing it as the emergence of structural and functional properties and competencies as a function of the coaction of hereditary and environmental factors, with these factors having reciprocal effects, "meaning they can influence each other"

epigenetic

The study of ______________, the alteration of gene expression by the environment, has led to a radically new understanding of some mechanisms of gene-environment interaction. Epigenetic changes have long-term, important effects on development, and some epigenetic changes can even be transmitted transgenerationally

epigenetics

The __________________ is the full set of factors, from the cell to the outside world, that controls the expression of hereditary material. "The activity of the genes can be affected through the cytoplasm of the cell by events originating at any other level in the system, including the external environment"

epigenome

principle of ___________ specifies that different early developmental pathways can produce similar outcomes. For example, Sroufe (1989) has demonstrated two pathways, one primarily biological and one primarily related to parenting style, that lead to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD

equifinality

culture, which can also include shared values, rituals, psychological processes, behavioral norms and practices is frequently used as a proxy for _____________

ethnicity

stress can be noxious as well as positive, something he called _________________ or positive stress.

eustress

Intentionally controlling our own behavior and thought—setting goals, determining what we will pay attention to, and choosing to make one response rather than another—are among a set of cognitive processes that researchers today refer to as_____________(EFs) (see Box 3.3). These functions heavily engage areas of the prefrontal cortex, which as we noted earlier, shows maturational gains late in the first year.

executive functions

Suppose you see this word: Green. And suppose I ask you to tell me what the word says. Your response would be immediate: You would automatically read the word. Now suppose that I ask you to tell me the color of the ink the word is printed in. Your response in this case would probably be a little slower and would require more effort. Most people feel that they have to inhibit the automatic tendency to read the color named by the word in order to name the color of the ink. This kind of voluntary inhibition of a dominant response is an example of ______________

executive functions

Permissive parents are more likely to have children who

exhibit uncontrolled, impulsive behavior and low levels of self-reliance. They are low on cognitive competence and social agency, and high on aggression, especially in family interactions. In some studies they have had high self-esteem, apparently when parents exhibit high levels of warmth, but many studies suggest that warmth combined with demandingness is more certain to be associated with self-esteem

The next level of the environment, the _______________, includes settings that children may not directly interact with but that influence the child nonetheless. For example, a teacher's family life will influence the teacher and thereby the child. Or a child's socioeconomic status influences where her family lives, affecting the school the child will attend, and thus affecting the kinds of experiences the child has with teachers.

exosystem

In contrast to overproducing synapses in anticipation of later experience, some synaptic growth occurs as a direct result of exposure to more individualized kinds of environmental events. This type of neural growth is called _________________

experience-dependent.

many animal species, as well as humans, go through a predictable sequence of activities designed to provide information for the brain to use in the development of vision. These include opening eyes, reaching for and grasping objects, and so on. This type of development depends upon environmental input that is_____________because it is experience that is part of the evolutionary history of the organism and that occurs reliably in most situations. Hence, it is "expected."

experience-expectant

Fertile women usually release an ovum from one of their ovaries into a _________________ tube during every menstrual cycle

fallopian

Children's performance on________________ illustrates how difficult they find it to escape their own perspective when it comes to what they know

false belief tasks

A highly defended or "________________" (Kernberg, 1976; Miller, 1981; Winnicott, 1965) may result from the inhibition of affect because the child distorts or mistrusts the evidence of her feelings. This situation effectively reduces the information that the young child can access in constructing the self. The message the child encodes is that feeling anger or distress is unacceptable and should be avoided because the expression of these feelings distances the caregiver, emotionally if not physically

false self (insecure-avoidant)

The rapidity with which young children add new words to functional vocabulary after only one or two exposures is described as ___________.

fast mapping

Children exposed to smaller amounts of alcohol prenatally do not necessarily have to meet the diagnostic criteria of FAS to exhibit deficits. Such children are said to exhibit ____________

fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

two alleles of the same gene can have a dominant recessive relationship, with only the ______________ affecting the phenotype, the impact of the second gene allele is essentially overpowered by the impact of the first allele, so that the phenotype does not reflect all aspects of the genotype

first

How does behavior regulation ( self control) come into being?

first, representational thought, and second, emotional response to wrongdoing.

Self-control refers to two things: According to Kopp (1982),

first, the child's ability to stop herself from performing a proscribed act, as when a toddler can pull her hand back from the cookie jar after being told "No cookies before dinner"; second, her ability to make herself perform an act that she may not feel much like doing, such as giving Aunt Matilda a required kiss on the cheek.

How do young children overcome their problems with perspective taking and build a more realistic theory of mind? Piaget credited two processes:

first, the gradual improvement in a child's ability to hold in mind multiple ideas at the same time (decentering), and second, the continual give and take of social interaction in which a child repeatedly confronts feedback from other people, indicating that others do not always share the child's feelings, desires, or knowledge

Peterson, Slaughter, and Wellman (2011)

found that middle class children in China and Iran made somewhat slower progress on theory of mind tasks than children in Australia or the United States, even though, at least in China, children's executive functions progress a bit more quickly than in the United States

Piaget was influenced by JJ Rousseau (18th century philosopher) that the reasoning and understanding of children naturally emerges in stages and that the best parents and educators can do is allow children the _____________to explore their environments, as well as providing them learning experiences that fit their developmental level

freedom

the_____________, situated at the top front part of each hemisphere, controls voluntary muscle movements and higher level cognitive functions.

frontal lobe

The most important thing to take from this chapter is that developmental approaches to counseling & therapy take into account the clients' level of _____________. This information is extremely important to help in assessment and treatment of problems

functioning

There is a "______________" between the science of lifespan development (research) and the practice/application of lifespan development. The problem here is that science assumes that human nature operates on universal principles to help predict behavior. But in practice, client problems are often more complex, ill-defined, and confusing (not so easily explained).

gap

Meltzoff and Borton (1979)

gave 1-month-olds an opportunity to suck on either a smooth pacifier or a bumpy one, without letting the infants see the pacifiers. Then, the researchers used the preferential looking paradigm to explore whether the babies had learned anything about the visual characteristics of the pacifiers that they had sucked on but had never seen. The babies looked at a split video screen. On one side was a picture of the smooth pacifier, on the other side a picture of the bumpy pacifier. A camera recorded the infants' eye movements. The babies spent more time looking at whichever pacifier they had previously sucked—suggesting that they were capable of identifying the appearance of the pacifier from their tactile experience of it. (intersensory integration (also referred to as cross-modal matching or intermodal perception)

The entire transcription through translation process is referred to as ________________.

gene expression

How and when a gene's code will be transcribed is partially regulated by sections of intergenic DNA, sometimes referred to as noncoded genes, because they do not code for protein production. They function to either initiate or prevent the gene's transcription. This process is called _______________

gene regulation.

Broader changes can occur by ______________. If new events are experienced that are very similar to events in the original learning context, the learned behaviors may be extended to these new events. For example, the child who learns to say "da" when a particular dog appears may do the same when other dogs appear, or even in the presence of other four-legged animals. Or a child who observes a model sharing candy with a friend may later share toys with a sibling

generalization

The process of _______________ allows for broader/greater changes as learned behaviors are extended or "generalized" to new situations or stimuli.

generalization

George Herbert Mead (1934) enlarging the scope of influence to include the role of language and society in shaping the self-system. He held that the self-idea, or self-concept, becomes internalized or "____________" through repeated interactions with others of the same cultural group. The individual adopts the perspective of others who share the same societal perspective, producing a kind of ecological self

generalized

Gene-environment associations:

genes can't function without environmental input & genetic constraints shape environmental effects ie) identical twins: due to both heredity & environment

Contemporary neuroscientists recognize that "there is no period when the brain and its functions are static; changes are continuous throughout the lifespan. The nature, extent and the rates of change vary by region and function assessed and are influenced by _____________

genetic as well as environmental factors"

Children with difficult temperaments may be exhibiting _______________ (also referred to as diathesis-stress),

genetic vulnerability

medulla contains nuclei that control basic survival functions, such as ______________. Damage to this area of the brain can be fatal

heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration

Induction refers to parents' use of explanation:

giving reasons for rules ("If everybody touched the paintings they would soon be very dirty from fingerprints") and appealing to children's desires to be grown-up ("Big girls don't take toys away from babies"). "Other-oriented" explanations seem to be especially powerful in promoting empathy ("When you hit people, it hurts them and makes them sad"). Using induction seems to be the most effective way to promote the internalization of rules, so that children regulate their own behavior by the standards they have learned regardless of whether authorities are present and whether immediate consequences are likely

Supporting cells called __________cells, stretching from the inside of the neural tube to its outside, provided a type of scaffolding for your neurons, guiding them as they ventured out on their way to their final destinations

glial

What differentiated the 70% with later problems from the 30% who seemed well adjusted, however, was the "_______________" that the parents were able to achieve between their caregiving and the child's needs. If the parents were consistent and patient, difficult babies often became less irritable and more adaptable in time, and they were less likely to have adjustment problems as they got older.

goodness of fit

No perfect prediction, but rule of thumb is: more risk factors & fewer protective factors = __________

greater likelihood of problems in adjustment.

Look at the sequences of stages as ______________.

guidelines

Feelings of _____________ have been associated with increases in other-directed empathy, positive reparative action, constructive problem solving, and low defensiveness and anger

guilt

If we repeatedly present the green circle, after a time the baby will seem to grow bored with the stimulus. Perhaps it now seems familiar, even "old." We call this response _______________, and it is indicated by shorter looking times, less vigorous sucking, and a return to base rate for heartbeat and blood pressure

habituation

studies using procedures such as the _______________ have indicated that babies may have some understanding of object permanence, and therefore, perhaps, some representational thinking skills, much earlier in infancy.

habituation paradigm

culture

having shared values, rituals, psychological processes, behavioral norms & practices

cells located in the anterior portion of an embryo develop into parts of the _____________, whereas cells located in the embryo's lateral portion develop into parts of the back, and so on

head

Genetic counselors

help screen candidates for such testing, as well as provide information and support to prospective parents, helping them to understand genetic processes and cope with the choices that confront them—choices about testing, childbearing, and parenting

North Americans viewing intelligence as _____________ (nature), whereas Japanese tend to view it more as due to effort and opportunity.

hereditary

Piaget invented the________________to assess object permanence. An interesting object, like a small toy, is placed in front of a baby, within her reach. As the baby watches, we cover the object with a cloth, so that it is out of sight. What we want to know is, will the baby search for the object under the cloth, or does the baby act as if the object's disappearance means that the object no longer exists?

hidden object test

even though progress through the stages could move more or less quickly depending on many individual and contextual factors, the stages unfold in an invariant sequence, regardless of context or culture. The simpler patterns of physical or mental activity at one stage become integrated into more complex organizational systems at the next stage (________________________)

hierarchical integration (Piaget)

_______________ U.S. infants show more extreme avoidance or distress than most other infants. These infants also tend to have relatively high heart rates before birth and in some contexts after birth.

high reactive

children from lower SES homes, _____________ preschool substantially improves school readiness, reduces a child's chances of a "special education" placement, increases chances of high school graduation, reduces crime and incarceration rates, and benefits later earnings

high-quality

Among the many long-term consequences of prenatal exposure to the famine are:

higher rates of obesity by young adulthood; increased risk of schizophrenia and mood disorders, such as depression; more high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, and type II diabetes by age 50

Those neurons that developed first migrated only a short distance from your neural tube and were destined to become the _________________. Those that developed later traveled a little farther and ultimately formed the midbrain. Those that developed last migrated the farthest to populate the cerebral cortex of the forebrain

hindbrain

The complex human brain can be partitioned in various ways. One popular way identifies three main areas that track evolutionary history: ______________________

hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

Around the 25th day of your gestational life, your neural tube began to take on a pronounced curved shape. At the top of your "C-shaped" embryonic self, three distinct bulges appeared, which eventually became your_____________

hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

In general, the amygdala activates this stress response system while the ________________ inhibits it

hippocampus

Other limbic structures, notably the __________________, are critical for learning and memory formation. The hippocampus is especially important in processing the emotional context of experience and sensitive to the effects of stress

hippocampus

Limbic structures (______________________) are connected by a system of nerve pathways (limbic system) to the cerebral cortex

hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and cingulate cortex

Long strands of DNA are combined with proteins called __________, wrapped and compacted to make up the chromosomes that we can see under a microscope.

histones

Vocabulary differences are usually related to children's _______________

home and preschool environments

Adaptive processes were seen as functioning like a thermostat to maintain internal balance. This view, called ________, has been a prominent model in research and thinking about human adaptation and stress

homeostasis

Some play a major role in activating (amygdala) or inhibiting (hippocampus) the ____________________, which is a major stress managing apparatus

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

It is also important in the regulation of emotional, stress related responses. The _______________functions as an intermediary, translating the emotional messages received from the cortex and the amygdala into a command to the endocrine system to release stress hormones in preparation for fight or flight.

hypothalamus

Lesions in areas of the_________________ have been found to produce eating abnormalities in animals, including obesity

hypothalamus

The ___________________, situated below the thalamus, is a small but important area that regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and breathing rate.

hypothalamus

The________________subsequently communicates the danger message to the pituitary gland by means of the chemical messenger corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). The message is read by the pituitary as a sign to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), into the bloodstream.

hypothalamus

Caspi et al.

hypothesized that child rearing environment might affect how different gene alleles function. Specifically, they hypothesized that early abusive environments might make some MAOA alleles more likely to have negative effects on development. They studied a sample of New Zealand residents who had been followed from birth through age 26. They identified each person's MAOA alleles and looked at four indicators of antisocial, aggressive behavior, such as convictions for violent crimes in adulthood. Finally, they looked at each person's child-rearing history. Caspi et al. did find a link between gene alleles that result in low levels of MAOA enzyme production and aggression, but only when the individual carrying such an allele had experienced abuse as a child.

the ____________, is the biological self, the source of all psychic energy. Babies are born with an id; the other two aspects of personality develop later. The id blindly pursues the fulfillment of physical needs or "instincts," such as the hunger drive and the sex drive

id

highly sensitive mother

identifies the components of the bath that her infant finds aversive and attenuates their negative consequences. She prepares the bath in such a way that the water is warm and sufficiently covering the body. She removes clothing and applies soap gently, so the infant is not overly stimulated. She skillfully maneuvers the necessarily invasive washing of the face, particularly around the eyes. She prepares the clothing before application by readying the sleeves and opening the neck widely, to minimize pulling and tugging. This style of maternal caregiving may be 'optimal' simply because it prevents infant discomfort, eliminating the need for the infant to mount a defensive response while being cared for. Mother is protecting the infant's comfort in nuanced, subtle, and remarkably ordinary ways.

example of the ego

if you were hungry, and you saw a child with an ice cream cone, your id might press you to grab the cone away from the child—an instance of blind, immediate pleasure seeking. Of course, stealing ice cream from a child could have negative consequences if someone else saw you do it or if the child reported you to authorities. Unlike your id, your ego would operate on the reality principle, garnering your understanding of the world and of behavioral consequences to devise a more sensible and self-protective approach, such as waiting until you arrive at the ice cream store yourself and paying for an ice cream cone

important to help young children make the right connection between their behavior and its consequences.

immediacy and consistency

Over a period of about two weeks, the growing organism migrates down the mother's fallopian tube, into the uterus, and may succeed in____________, attaching itself to the uterine lining, which makes further growth and development possible. Now it is called an embryo

implantation

We all already have ______________theories and beliefs that can affect the solutions we suggest for clients. SO, self-monitor, be self-aware.

implicit

________________alters the process of genetic expression, such that "parent of origin" becomes an important factor in whether a gene will influence development

imprinting

the children of neglecting/uninvolved parents are likely to be

impulsive, to show high levels of both externalizing problems (e.g., aggressiveness) and internalizing problems (e.g., depression), and to have low self-esteem.

Bowlby & Ainsworth

in the U.S. focused their attention on attachment, developing a theory of how it impacts on social and emotional development. Their work not only looked at its impact across the lifespan, but also cross-culturally

preferential response paradigms

in which multiple stimuli are presented to the infant and we record which the baby seems to respond to most

Individual Characteristics

include genetic & biological factors, temperament & traits, cognitive capacity, social skills, attitudes, beliefs, etc.

Environmental Factors

include socioeconomic status (SES), neighborhood safety, school quality, family history & culture, parental nurturing & monitoring, peer attitudes, friendships, marital & community supports, cultural dynamics (including race, & ethnic processes), etc.

Social Learning Theory

include the conditioning processes, but tend to focus more on "observational learning" (modeling). The focus here is more on the development of personality characteristics and social skills.

The social self ( me self)

includes her social standing, her reputation, and those personal characteristics that are recognized by others, such as gregariousness or stubbornness.

A basic feature of the self, then, is that it _________________

incorporates both the private and the more public sides of our nature, accommodating our ability to keep our own counsel and still be known to others by virtue of our interactions with them.

Two primary goals of developmental psychopathology are to.

increase the probability of successfully predicting problematic outcomes and to find ways of preventing them

Social learning theory and most information processing theories are among the many ______________ models available to explain development

incremental

Risk & Protective factors seen as _________________

independent

Anglo mothers appeared to emphasize "__________________" or autonomy as a long-term socialization goal, valuing assertiveness and self-reliance

individualization

Authoritative parents, for example, are often characterized by extensive use of _____________, regardless of what other practices they might sometimes use

induction

Using _________________seems to be the most effective way to promote the internalization of rules, so that children regulate their own behavior by the standards they have learned regardless of whether authorities are present and whether immediate consequences are likely

induction

In Adult Attachment Inventory (AAI), Parents described their memories of the parenting they had received and their beliefs about whether that parenting influenced their own personalities. The "security" of their attachment representations was related to the quality of attachment they had established with their own _________________

infants.

From this perspective, private speech eventually becomes internalized or transformed into _____________, the kind of internal dialogue that facilitates thinking.

inner speech

Specific temperamental characteristics seem to affect the kind of ___________ attachment that forms

insecure

. These infants are, in fact, punished for their emotional displays, so these children come to actively avoid or block ( inhibition of affect) out perceptions that arouse their feelings because of the aversive consequences

insecure-avoidant

Scientific studies can provide valuable knowledge for clinicians. It supports an ____________ approach to mental health treatment

integrative

In France, Binet examined individual differences in children's intellectual development, developing the first __________ for children (having been commissioned by the French government as to how to understand and educate lower-functioning students). His work was ground-breaking and the now Stanford-Binet continues to be used and evolve

intelligence

it is thought that the two ( Nature, Nurture) are ______________ (for example, some genes operate differently in different environments & some environments are experienced differently with different genetics). This is where epigenetics, the study of how genetic expression is altered by the environment, has come into existence. It truly examines the interaction between genetics and environment

interdependent

Most often, abusing parents are themselves the victims of adversity and a variety of mental health problems. Many abusive parents are repeating with their children the patterns of trauma, rejection and maltreatment that shaped their own lives. This is the phenomenon of _________________

intergenerational transmission

coded genes make up only a small portion (2% to 3%) of the DNA in a chromosome; the rest is called "______________" DNA

intergenic

The superego is the last aspect of personality to emerge. Freud believed that this happened around the preschool age, as children develop guilt for transgressing parental rules. He characterized it as the "_________________".

internalized parent

when young babies perceive an object in one way, they can construct some notion of the object's other perceptual characteristics. This quality of ____________________

intersensory integration (also referred to as cross-modal matching or intermodal perception)

The children of authoritarian parents are more likely to be

irritable and conflicted, showing signs of both anxiety and anger. They are conforming (self- controlled) with authority figures, but are not socially skillful and are susceptible to being bullied (e.g., Ladd & Ladd, 1998). They tend to have low self-esteem, and although they exhibit self-control with authorities, they may lack self-regulation when they believe that authorities are not monitoring them.

progeria

is a fatal disorder that causes rapid aging, so that by late childhood its victims are dying of "old age."

glutamate

is an excitatory transmitter that's important for transmission in the retina of the eye

Intention

is an internal mental state, such as a plan or a desire, that is the source of an action.

melancholic depression

is associated with elevated cortisol levels

Socioeconomic status

is based on social standing or power, and is defined by characteristics of the adults in a household, including educational background, income, and occupation

Recognition memory

is the ability to differentiate between experiences that are new and experiences that we have had before.

Working memory

is the part of our cognitive system that holds information that we are actively thinking about at the moment. You can also think of it as "short-term memory."

Neuroplasticity

is the process or ability that the brain has to make changes due to practice or experience. It is that ability that allows people who have had strokes that destroyed parts of their brain or people who have had accidents causing traumatic brain injuries (TBI's) to have other areas of the brain take over the jobs of the areas injured or destroyed. Neurons, the basic building blocks of the brain and nervous system, reorganize, resulting in memory and new learning.

Object permanence

is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed (seen, heard, touched, smelled or sensed in any way). ... According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence.

placenta

it exchanges blood products with the baby through the umbilical cord. The placenta allows nutrients from the mother's blood to pass into the baby's blood and allows waste to be removed by the mother's blood, but otherwise it keeps the two circulatory systems separate

Prevention Science

its goal is to both design & test prevention (beforehand) and intervention (afterwards) strategies aimed at at-risk populations.

We have known for decades that children who suffer severe protein and calorie shortages at any age may develop ____________, characterized by stunted growth, a protuberant belly, and extreme apathy

kwashiorkor

The most important tool for Vygotsky was______________

language.

These halves are referred to as the left and right hemispheres. Research on hemispheric specialization (also called______________), pioneered by Sperry (1964), demonstrated that the left hemisphere controls functioning of the right side of the body and vice versa

lateralization

Demanding parents

leads parents to impose discipline. require their children to curb some of their behaviors and insist that they perform other behaviors that are suitable to their level of maturity (sometimes called maturity demands) impose standards and rules and enforce them.

Insecure-anxious infants

learn that their displays of distress elicit unpredictable results, sometimes positive and sometimes negative. They essentially lack a method of communicating with the caregiver that works reliably, possibly because of inconsistent or sometimes neglectful parenting. consequently, they experience the "anxiety of unresolvable arousal in which desire for the attachment figure, distress at her absence, and aggression toward her are all felt concurrently"

Language functions such as vocabulary knowledge and speech are usually localized in the ________________, and visual-spatial skills are localized on the right

left hemisphere

demethylation

methyl groups may detach from DNA. In this case, gene transcription is likely to increase.

Time-out needs only to be long enough to get the point across. The younger the child, the ______________ time is appropriate. One rule of thumb is 1 or 2 minutes for each year of age, so that the maximum time-out for a 2-year-old would be 4 minutes

less

These intriguing questions represent a sampling of the kinds of topics that developmental scientists tackle. Their goal is to understand ____________________: human behavioral change from conception to death

life span development

In _____________________, the same developmental processes that produce the transformation of infants into children, and children into adults, are thought to continue throughout adulthood until death.

life span developmental theories

Protective Factors:

like individual's strengths & environmental supports, help support healthy outcomes

Risk Factors:

like individual's vulnerabilities & environmental stressors, interfere with healthy development

Piaget looked at his newborn's reflexive responses ( sensorimotor) to sensory stimuli—__________________________________—were examined under many different stimulus conditions.

like looking and following when a visual stimulus moves across the visual field, head turning in the direction of a sound, grasping at a touch to the palm, and sucking at a touch to the lips

Often referred to as the "emotional brain," the_________________ supports social and emotional functioning and works with the frontal lobes of the cortex to help us think and reason

limbic system

Mediating Variables:

link one factor to behavioral outcomes. For example, with regards to the impact of chronic poverty in early childhood, changes in the immune system (positive & negative) can impact on adult health problems

warmth dimension (positive parental responsiveness):

listening to the child, being involved and interested in the child's activities, accepting the child, making positive attributions toward the child, being "tuned in" and supportive

Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex can be further divided into ______________, or areas of functional specialization

lobes

Piaget's focus was on cognition, in particular "_______________", which he called operational thought. This included both with regards to concrete and abstract concepts.

logical thinking

Kagan has proposed that the behavioral and physiological characteristics of high reactive infants may indicate a ____________than average threshold of excitability in parts of the brain—the amygdala and many of its associated structures—that mediate stress responses

lower

hindbrain

lower part of the brainstem, comprising the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata and reticular formation

Some chemicals in the cells are transcription factors; they bind with the regulatory portions of the DNA, which initiates the uncoiling of the strands of DNA at the gene location. This allows _______________ production to begin

mRNA

the _____________, including the customs and character of the larger culture that help shape the microsystems. For example, cultural attitudes and laws regarding the education of exceptional students influence the operation of a school and therefore a child's interactions with teachers

macrosystem

In a series of studies using "________________," Gelman showed children two plates, each with a row of toy mice, two mice on one plate, and three mice on the other. For some children, the rows of mice were of equal length but of unequal density; for other children, the rows of mice were of unequal length but equal density. First, the children were trained to pick the "winner" plate (the one with three mice) by giving them lots of trials and telling them whether they were right or wrong. Once they had learned to pick the correct plate without error, the researcher surreptitiously changed the appearance of the plates. For example, if the rows of mice had been of equal length, they were changed to be of equal density. Children tended to register surprise when the changed plates were revealed, but they still correctly picked the winners. Thus, it was clear that they had learned to select the correct plate on the basis of number

magic number games

white matter

mainly refers to bundles of myelinated axons

If one of these behaviors accidentally produces an interesting event, a child is likely to notice the effect and repeat the action, as if she were hoping to repeat the effect. Piaget called this ________________

making interesting sights last ( unintentional behavior)

the Korean concept of ___________, a belief that mothers have an invisible, powerful bond with their infants, a kind of oneness that even confers "special healing powers"

maternal dew

genetic vulnerability (also referred to as diathesis-stress),

meaning that their physiological makeup (diathesis) makes them more prone to the negative effects of unsupportive parenting or other negative environmental influences (stress) than other children

By 8 to 12 months, Piaget reported that babies will engage in ______________: They will divert their attention from a goal, such as grasping a toy, to produce another action that will help achieve the goal. For example, a baby might try to grasp a rattle that is behind a clear Plexiglas screen. When her hand touches the screen, the baby redirects her attention to the screen, perhaps pushing it aside, before focusing again on the rattle.

means-end behavior

Kochanska (1998)

measured infants' fearfulness and mothers' responsiveness when babies were 8 to 10 months and when they were 13 to 15 months. She measured attachment security with the strange situation test at the later time as well. Maternal responsiveness predicted whether babies would be securely or insecurely attached. But for insecurely attached infants, fearfulness predicted the type of insecurity. More fearful infants tended to be ambivalent; less fearful babies were more often avoidant. Even the tone of secure attachment behavior was related to the babies' fearfulness, with more fearful babies more highly aroused in the separation and reunion episodes

Vygotsky claimed that a child's use of such tools or signs actually transforms thinking and shapes it into new kinds of thought. The idea of ___________________

mediated learning

Previously, right up to _______________, children were viewed and treated as adults. Children had no adult responsibilities until past preschool age, but there was also not the same level of nurturance and protection towards children as there is now. By age 6 or 7, boys and girls were expected to assume adult roles

medieval times

In other words, thinking that involves _____________, such as forming mental images, is necessary for recall

mental representation

Children with FAS are likely to suffer from ___________________

mental retardation and behavior problems.

Babies interact primarily with family members, but as children get older, other microsystems, such as the school, the neighborhood, or a local playground and its inhabitants, become part of their lives. Relations among these microsystems—referred to as the ________________—modify each of them

mesosystem

A variety of biochemicals can attach to, or detach from, histones, such as _________ groups (methylation and demethylation) and _______ groups (acetylation and deacetylation) (e.g., Grunstein, 1997). Each of these can affect how tightly histones and DNA are bound together.

methyl, acetyl

If you have the defective gene or genes you will develop the associated disorder. Yet epigenetic effects can alter the course of events. The disorder may not develop if epigenetic processes prevent the transcription of defective alleles. These could be processes such as _________ of the coded gene or the regulatory DNA for that gene

methylation

One epigenetic change that can affect the expression of a gene is ________________, the addition of a methyl group (an organic molecule) to DNA, either to the coded gene or to regulatory DNA

methylation

_________________makes transcription of the gene more difficult. Heavy methylation may even turn off a gene for good. Methylation is persistent, and it is passed on when chromosomes duplicate during cell division

methylation

if cellular events lead to heavy ___________ of a dominant allele, so that it is not expressed, a carrier of a recessive allele may develop the recessive trait.

methylation

In earlier versions of his theory, Bronfenbrenner characterized in detail the many levels of environment that influence a person's development. He referred to the immediate environment, where proximal processes are played out, as the______________

microsystem

By the 18th and 19th centuries, the Industrial Revolution led to the growth of _____________" occupations (e.g., merchandizing) that required an academic education: training in reading, writing, and math. The need to educate large numbers of children sharpened the public's interest in understanding how children change with age

middle-class

Hoffman (1983) proposed that a parent's discipline causes a child to feel anxious arousal. He proposed that ______________ arousal helps the child pay attention but is not really upsetting

mild

Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004) explain it this way: Each time an individual sees an action done by another individual, neurons that represent that action are activated in the observer's premotor cortex. This automatically induced, motor representation of the observed action corresponds to that which is spontaneously generated during active action and whose outcome is known to the acting individual. Thus, the mirror system transforms visual information into knowledge (p. 172

mirror nuerons

You may have read reports in the popular press of genetic "breakthroughs" suggesting that scientists have identified a gene for a trait or condition, such as depression or obesity. These reports are extremely ________________

misleading

cell division process is called ________________

mitosis

All of these studies demonstrate that adults' reactions are _____________ by the characteristics or behaviors of the particular child with whom they are interacting.

moderated

Each of the two clusters of cells can develop into a complete organism, producing identical, or ___________twins. Yet, even though they have the same genotypes, their environments may diverge, even prenatally

monozygotic

Streissguth and Dehaene (1993) report that ____________ (identical) twins, who are alike genetically, show more similar patterns of alcohol-related birth defects than dizygotic (fraternal) twins, who share only about half of their genes

monozygotic

Oddly enough, however, with Down syndrome, the increased risk with parental age holds only for ____________. Older fathers are actually less likely than younger fathers to produce sperm carrying an extra chromosome number 21

mothers

McLoyd and Smith looked at outcomes across a 6-year period in nearly 2,000 American children. Once again, for all children, African American, European American, and Hispanic, amount of spanking in the home predicted the level of children's externalizing behavior over time. But ___________________support of their children moderated this link in all three groups.

mothers' emotional

Piaget's research with infants, done primarily with his own three children, focused on detailed analyses of babies' _______________ with the environment.

motor interactions

Make sure to take a ____________ view of clients' problems.

multidimensional

Modern developmental theories, which we refer to as _____________theories, explain and describe the enormous complexity of interrelated causal processes in development. They generally assume that in all behavioral domains, from cognition to personality, there are layers, or levels, of interacting causes for change: physical/molecular, biological, psychological, social, and cultural. What happens at one level both causes and is caused by what happens at other levels

multidimensional or systems

The principle of_____________ is that individual pathways of development may result in a wide range of possible outcomes. For example, children exhibiting conduct-disordered behavior in the elementary school years may as adults display one or more of several different disorders, including antisocial personality, depression, substance abuse, and so on

multifinality

For ADhD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), a ______________treatment that included medication and behavioral (including parent management) treatment demonstrated an advantage over medication alone for children with comorbid conditions (anxiety or conduct problems), for children with more highly educated mothers, for members of minority groups, and for families who learned to improve their discipline techniques via this training (as cited in Arnold et al., 2004). The principles involved in parent management training have also been effectively adapted to classroom management for teachers

multimodal

If the message is to fire, the speed of the resulting electrical impulse is increased when glial cells wrap themselves around the axon, thus facilitating conduction. This phenomenon, called _______________

myelination

researchers see perspective taking (or its failure) as aspects of one's theory of mind or "______________," that is, the understanding that people's behavior is a function of their internal, subjective mental states—such as desires, emotions and beliefs. Such understanding is critical for developing satisfactory relationships with others.

naive psychology

Katherine Nelson (e.g., 2007) has proposed that_____________ practice is a key ingredient in the development of autobiographical memories.

narrative

Principle of Multifinality: I

ndividual (same) pathways of development may result in a wide range of outcomes. For example, some children who have been abused in childhood may become depressed or may become substance-abusers (but not all).

Patterson who studied the development of defiance in children, maintains that an intermittent (or inconsistent) schedule of reinforcement sustains the coercive child's behavior problems. A pattern of ____________________

negative reinforcement

Erikson began as a "______________", having studied with Freud's daughter Anna, but began to see the id as less important and the ego as more so

neo-Freudian

Within the primitive neural tube, important events were occurring. Cells from the interior surface of the neural tube reproduced to form ____________ or nerve cells, that would become the building blocks of your brain

neurons,

In an ingenious study demonstrating the interrelated effects of culture, development, and ____________, Goh et al. (2007) show that what you pay attention to makes a subtle yet enduring difference in your brain over time. Repeated practice results in changes in the brain that become our preferred modes of thought and action

neuroplasticity

Studies such as these have shown that the brain is amazingly malleable and demonstrates great ____________, particularly during early stages of development. In time, however, most cells become specialized for their activity, and it is harder to reverse their operation even though neuroplasticity continues to exist throughout life.

neuroplasticity

These changes are now known to be continuous, occurring throughout life. The change is acknowledged as due to both genetic and environmental factors. Modern/contemporary multidimensional theories in fact describe lifelong ___________________

neuroplasticity.

At the end of the axon are the axon terminals, which contain tiny sacs of chemical substances called _____________Growing out from the cell body are smaller projections, called dendrites, resembling little branches, which receive messages or transmissions from other neurons

neurotransmitters

When you were just a 2-week-old embryo, your very existence still unknown to your parents, cells from the embryo's upper surface began to form a sheet that rearranged itself by turning inward and curling into a neural tube. This phenomenon, called ____________, signaled the beginning of your central nervous system's development.

neurulation

We should note that babies imitate some immediate actions as early as the______________ period (deferred imitation). For example, if you stick out your tongue at a newborn, you are likely to see the baby's tongue protrude as well (Meltzoff & Moore, 1977), an action that is often interpreted as a reflexive response to a looming stimulus

newborn

we are now confident that ______________ are capable of recognition.

newborns

Comparison studies of maltreated and non-maltreated children show _______________differences in the timing of self-recognition

no

How and when a gene's code will be transcribed is partially regulated by sections of intergenic DNA, sometimes referred to as __________genes, because they do not code for protein production. They function to either initiate or prevent the gene's transcription. This process is called gene regulation.

noncoded

In general, children from minority groups tend to develop racial awareness faster than do ________________

nonminorities.

Selye's use of the word stress, which almost immediately gained worldwide popularity, is best defined as a ________________

nonspecific response to any demand

SES (or socioeconomic status) has been intermingled/intertwined with race, ethnicity & culture, but the expected directions of the impact of SES are _______________ universally seen in other cultures as they are seen in Western cultures. The outcomes cross-culturally do not fit with expectations based on Western culture.

not

The term __________________here refers to a cluster of cells creating a structure, rather than to the kind of nucleus that is found in a single cell. An example is the nucleus accumbens, part of the basal ganglia in the brain's interior.

nucleus

Piaget (1952) launched the systematic study of children's number skills by inventing the _____________________

number conservation task

Stipek, Gralinski, and Kopp (1990) reported that toddlers appear to believe both _______________ claims about themselves, apparently because the claims come from an authoritative source. In other words, young children cannot discount the negative part of the parental evaluation "bad girl" as due to parental bias or temporary bad mood

objective and subjective

Traditionally, the modern, university-based educational process has been driven by the belief that problems can be solved best by applying _________________ amassed from laboratory investigations

objective, technical, or scientific information

A core value of Western scientific method is a pursuit of ______________, so that scientists are committed to continuously evaluating their theories in light of evidence. As a consequence, scientific theories change over time

objectivity

The _____________, located at the back of the head, handles visual information

occipital lobe

Dizygotic twins

often called fraternal twins, are conceived when a mother releases two ova in the same menstrual cycle, and each ovum is fertilized by a separate sperm. Thus, these twins develop from two separate zygotes, and like any two siblings, they share about 50% of their genes on average

the ______________the parent, the more likely that an ovum or sperm will contain a chromosomal abnormality

older

false belief tasks

one person has correct knowledge of a situation, but another person (or the same person at another time) has incorrect knowledge, or a "false belief." Suppose a child is aware that a box of candy has been removed from its original location and is now hidden in a cabinet. The child is asked where a second person, let's call him Sam, will look for the candy. Even though the child knows Sam was not present for the hiding, the child does not attribute a false belief to Sam but assumes that Sam will search in the appropriate hiding place, as if Sam must know what the child knows to be true

self-esteem

one's evaluation of these attributes, or the positive or negative valence associated with those attributes.

The Nature/Nurture Issue: Nowadays, there is no "_____________", but it is seen as Nature and Nurture.

or

Pretend play,

or make believe, generally begins at about age 2. It is a kind of "as if" behavior, where objects or people may be treated as symbols, "as if" they were something or someone else

allostatic load

or overload is the cost of accommodation, the cumulative burden on systems that need to adjust constantly to psychological or environmental demands

in the _____________, corresponding to the first year of life, Freud argued that the mouth is the body part that provides babies with the most pleasure. Eating, drinking and even nonnutritive sucking are presumably more satisfying than at other times of life

oral stage

The stages of the Psychanalytic Theory are:

oral stage (aged birth to 1), anal stage (aged 1 to 3), phallic stage (aged 3 to 5), latency stage (aged 6 to puberty), & genital stage (aged puberty to adult)

The conflicts that arise between the 3 aspects of personality can result in defense mechanisms (such as repression, suppression, intellectualization, reaction formation, etc.). Denial of needs or pleasures can lead to fixation or _______________

overindulgence

You probably know that the inheritance of traits begins with conception, when a man's sperm fertilizes a woman's egg, called an ________________

ovum.

Mothers who report early emotional neglect have significantly lower levels of__________, pointing to one potential mechanism for the transmission of attachment across generations

oxytocin

At the top of each hemisphere, behind a fissure called the central sulcus, is the ________________

parietal lobe

Reflective Practice practitioners use theory as a "_____________ through which to consider a problem" (Nelson & Nelson, 1998). The other "partial lens" is through the practitioner's personal and professional life experience

partial lens

One core condition of reflective practice is that practitioners use theory as a "___________________"

partial lens through which to consider a problem

The energy levels and biological instincts of the id initiate and drive each stage. At each stage, there is too much id energy to satisfy the needs in each are of the body that is targeted. The focus is on pleasure in that body part or area of the body. The individual's experiences in the goal to satisfy these needs can affect _____________________

personality development

Epigenesis is one reason that identical twins can have the same genotype (the full complement of an organism's genes), but not have identical _______________ (physical and behavioral traits).

phenotypes

when children learn language they are learning its _________________, that is, the sound system of the language

phonology

Cicchetti

pioneered research on developmental psychopathology, taking into account both normal and abnormal development (especially the effects on child development due to childhood maltreatment).

The fetus is surrounded by a __________________________, an organ that develops from the zygote along with the embryo

placenta

The cerebellum is involved in the ______________________ such as hitting a tennis ball or dancing, in addition to other sensorimotor functions.

planning, coordination, and smoothness of complex motor activities

The ID is irrational, driven by the _______________, that is, by the pursuit of gratification. Its function is to keep the individual, and the species, alive, although Freud also proposed that there are inborn aggressive, destructive instincts served by the id

pleasure principle

Height, skin color, and a host of other physical traits are ____________, and most genetic influences on intelligence, personality, psychopathology, and behavior appear to be of this kind as well

polygenic

Most forms of muscular dystrophy are disorders of this type.

polygenic

genetic effects on behavioral traits are usually _____________. This appears to be true for many mental illnesses and behavioral disorders as well, such as alcoholism, criminality, schizophrenia, and clinical depression

polygenic

A reinforcement is a consequence of the operant behavior that maintains or increases the likelihood of that behavior when the cue occurs again (Sparzo, 2011). The mother's approving reaction is an example of a _________________

positive reinforcement

Children often show self-control when they feel threatened. But there can be unwanted side effects. Harsh or severe ____________ has been linked to high levels of anger and anxiety in children, and children whose parents use harsh, punitive practices tend to be more aggressive than other children

power assertion

method of control

power assertion, love withdrawal, and induction

children must learn the ___________ of language use, that is, how to use language effectively to communicate. Knowing how to put together a proper sentence, or knowing the labels for things, is not enough

pragmatics

Meltzoff (1990) argues that from the regularity and reliability of caregiver-infant interactions babies extract notions of "self-invariance" and "other invariance," which precede self-awareness. We might say that the infant comes to possess a ______________ composed of early inklings of the permanence of her body, its separateness from others, and the rhythms of interpersonal connections. ( birth through the first half year of life)

pre-self,

The______________(PFC) is that part of the frontal lobe that occupies the front or anterior portion. This area is involved in processes like sustained attention, working memory, planning, decision making and emotion-regulation. Generally, the PFC plays a role in regulation and can moderate an overactive amygdala as well as the activity of the HPA axis.

prefrontal cortex

In his "three mountains task," a three-dimensional model of three mountains was shown to children from several different angles. Children then had to select a picture of how the scene looked to them, as well as a picture of how it looked to another observer on a different side of the display. Until about age 7, children tended to select the same picture both times, suggesting that they believed that other observers shared their perspective. Piaget believed children's poor perspective-taking skills reflected ___________________

preoperational egocentrism

preoperational egocentrism

preschoolers can think about only one thing at a time, they are centered on their own perspective and have no awareness of the possibility of a different perspective.

The best ___________ follows well-researched, developmentally-appropriate approaches that show lasting effects over time. Best approaches are multidimensional & interdisciplinary, increasing protective & reducing risk factors. They are culturally-relevant & include community involvement across generations. They also need to target multiple levels of functioning.

prevention

In _____________, If risks can be identified and changed or reduced in a population, can reduce mental health problems, increase work productivity, & reduce needs for health/social/correctional services. Great health & economic benefits

prevention science

The relatively new and evolving discipline of_____________takes an empirical approach to designing and testing effective intervention strategies for limiting or eliminating mental health problem

prevention science

One difference between Piaget's and Vygotsky's ideas concerns the role of egocentric or ______________ in cognitive development

private speech

The allostatic model

privileges the brain with a primary role because it is the organ that determines the nature of the demand: dangerous threat or interesting challenge? The brain is the top-down manager

When the disease occurs, it is caused by a genetic mutation during the embryonic period of prenatal development, so that while it is precipitated by a genetic defect, it does not run in families

progeria

Two main types of neurons populate these systems, __________________

projection neurons, interneurons,

The individual's strengths and the environment's supports are ________________, helping to promote healthy outcomes

protective factors

Rush, Stein, and Susser (1980)

provided nutritional supplements to pregnant women whose socioeconomic circumstances indicated that they were likely to experience inadequate diets. At age 1, the babies whose mothers received a protein supplement during pregnancy performed better on measures of play behavior and perceptual habituation (which is correlated with later intelligence) than those whose mothers received a high-calorie liquid or no supplement at all

In Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory, he and his colleagues described all developments—including personality and cognitive change—as a function of _____________

proximal processes.

Sigmund Freud's ________________ both describes the complex functioning of the adult personality and offers an explanation of the processes and progress of its development throughout childhood

psychoanalytic theory

In Freud's view, the complexities of the relationships and conflicts that arise among the id, the ego, and the superego are the result of the individual's experiences during five developmental stages. Freud called these _________________stages because he believed that changes in the id and its energy levels initiated each new stage.

psychosexual

Erikson's ___________ theory focuses on attitudes and feelings towards the self and others. It is seen as more useful for helping professionals than Freud's theory

psychosocial

Hastings and Grusec (1998) found that parents expressed more parent-centered concerns (such as wanting to be in control) when disciplining their children in ______________, but more child-centered concerns (such as teaching a child not to give up easily) in private interactions.

public

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

published his first scholarly paper at the age of 10. At 14, after producing a series of scientific reports, he was offered a position as curator of a museum of natural history—an offer promptly withdrawn when his age was discovered. Piaget completed a bachelor's degree by age 18 and a PhD by 22, despite spending a year away from school when he suffered a nervous breakdown (which he later attributed to his study of philosophy). His early education, research, and writing ranged widely from biological science (his first published article reported his observations of an albino sparrow), to mathematics and logic, to experimental psychology, to psychoanalysis, to psychopathology

Development is seen as ______________ (like a leap), is transformational (no going back, impacts on all areas of development), and is highly complex

qualitative

Erikson proposed _______________ changes between stages. It is changes in the person that initiate the crisis, as well as the resultant changes in others' behaviors, attitudes, and expectations. Changes in the person can include maturing muscle control, cognitive, and language skills, among others.

qualitative

What Makes a Preschool Program "High Quality"?

quality of teacher-child interactions

Mix, Moore, and Holcomb (2011)

quite elegantly demonstrated the direct benefits of children's exploratory play for learning about number equivalence. First, they tested 3-year-olds for their ability to match one set of items (e.g., 3 turtles) with an equivalent set of other items (e.g., 3 flowers). Only children who failed the original test were included in the remainder of the study. Mix et al. (2011) gave the children sets of toys to take home and play with over the course of 6 weeks, with no instructions regarding what to do with the toys Parents were asked to make sure the toys were continuously available and to keep a log of what children did with them. One group of children received "objects with slots" that made one-to-one correspondence play easy, such as six balls and a muffin tin—the balls fit just right into the six slots of the muffin tin. Another group of children received "objects with objects," such as six balls and six toy frogs (see Figure 3.2). Children who were given "objects with slots" engaged in much more one-to-one play as reported in parent logs, and when they were tested after 6 weeks, many of these children showed substantial improvement on the numerical equivalence matching test. Clearly, play is a medium for learning.

The ego develops as cognitive and physical skills emerge and mature. It is the _______________. While the id still needs fulfilment of its needs, the ego tempers how it tries to fulfill these needs so that efforts are more sensible. It follows the "reality principle

rational, realistic self

Genes provide a code that a cell is capable of "__________" and using to help construct a protein, a complex organic chemical, made up of smaller molecules called amino acids

reading

your ego operates on the _________________, garnering your understanding of the world and of behavioral consequences to devise a more sensible and self-protective approach, such as waiting until you arrive at the ice cream store yourself and paying for an ice cream cone

reality principle

One of the most promising of these alternatives for helping professionals is the concept of _________________

reflective practice.

In contrast to the early and rapid development of recognition memory, ________________ seems to emerge later in infancy.

recall

transcription factors cannot bind to the regulatory DNA unless they first bind to another chemical called a _______________

receptor

A ______________ gene allele causes the malformed blood cells. If one normal gene allele is present, it will be dominant, and the individual will not have sickle-cell anemia

recessive

If a child receives two recessive alleles, one from each parent, the child will have the_____________trait

recessive

Today's researchers typically use the habituation paradigm to assess infant _______________

recognition

When you see a face across a room and say to yourself, "I've seen that person before," you are demonstrating ____________

recognition memory

grey matter

refers to bundles of cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated neurons

Neuroplasticity

refers to changes in the brain that occur as a result of some practice or experience. Neurons, the basic cells of the nervous system, get reorganized as a result of such practice, resulting in new learning and memory

Agency

refers to the ability to act without an external trigger. People and animals have agency because they can act without being pushed or "launched" by some other force, whereas objects require launching.

Valence

refers to the affective value of a characteristic, either good, bad, or neutral.

The antidote to this dichotomous pedagogy, Schon (1987) and his followers suggest, is _____________. This is a creative method of thinking about practice in which the helper masters the knowledge and skills base pertinent to the profession but is encouraged to go beyond rote technical applications to generate new kinds of understanding and strategies of action

reflective practice

The idea of "______________" derives from Dewey's (1933/1998) view of education, which emphasized careful consideration of one's beliefs and forms of knowledge as a precursor to practice.

reflectivity

This neuroplasticity belief may be tempered by "_________________", suggesting that for some domains or areas, there may be critical/sensitive periods after which the brain has changed, making learning more difficult. Your text gives examples of 2nd-language learning being more difficult after age 5 or so, as well as hearing-impaired individuals learning ASL later in life

region and function

Operant conditioning is different. First, a person performs some behavior. The behavior is an operant, any act with potential to lead to consequences in the environment (that is, to "operate" on the environment). Immediately after the operant occurs, there is a "reinforcing event," or ___________, something that is experienced by the person as pleasurable or rewarding.

reinforcement

sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

releases important chemicals such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) that send a burst of energy to those organs necessary for fight or flight (e.g., heart, lungs) while diverting energy from less necessary systems (e.g., growth, reproduction). Adrenaline is instrumental in causing the well-known effects of arousal, such as racing heart and sweaty palms

The capacity to think about things or events that are not currently stimulating our senses is called __________________

representational thought

The regularity with which the caregiver is available and sensitive or unavailable and insensitive is stored in memory in what Stern (1985) calls_______________

representations of interactions (RIGs).

Chromosomes can________________themselves, because DNA has the extraordinary property of self-replication.

reproduce

Protective Factors a large focus of research, due to _____________ (the ability of some who have experienced great risk, trauma, or adversity to succeed against all odds).

resilience

classical conditioning is also called ____________________ conditioning

respondent

Within the core of the brainstem (medulla, pons, and midbrain) is a bundle of neural tissue called the ______________ that runs up through the midbrain. This, together with smaller groups of neurons called nuclei, forms the reticular activating system

reticular formation

In a process called transcription, intertwined strands of DNA separate, and one of the strands acts as a template for the synthesis of a new, single strand of messenger _________

ribonucleic acid or mRNA

Field and her colleagues (1995) reported asymmetrical electrical activity in the _____________ area of 3- to 4-month-old infants of depressed (withdrawn) mothers. As discussed earlier, heightened right frontal activation and lowered left frontal activation is consistent with the patterns observed in extremely fearful and inhibited children and in chronically depressed adults, suggesting the felt experience of more negative than positive emotions

right frontal

The ___________ is more active than the left in processing threat-related stimuli and has strong anatomical links to stress-related systems like the HPA axis

right hemisphere

the _______________located in the internal region of the right frontal lobe, has been identified as a primary brain region involved in social bonding and emotion regulation

right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)

the individual's vulnerabilities and the environmental stressors she experiences are ___________ that can interfere with healthy development

risk factors

Consequently, as the U.S. Surgeon General has warned, there is no _____________ level of alcohol consumption during pregnancy

safe

For each member of a pair of chromosomes, the number and location of genes are the _____________. So genes, like chromosomes, come in matched pairs, half from the mother (ovum) and half from the father (sperm).

same

Vygotsky believed that more advanced thinkers or more capable members of a culture provide novice learners with ____________________ (a term coined by Wood & Middleton, 1975) that enables the novices to reach higher levels of thinking

scaffolding

In France, Piaget used observations (kind of like Darwin), as well as more "______________" research methods to develop his theory (which is still very much alive!) of children's language, moral, and cognitive development.

scientific

Vygotsky placed great importance on the transmission of formal knowledge because he believed that learning culturally defined concepts, which he referred to as _______________, presented the learner with an internal organizational system for ideas and allowed the learner to utilize the ideas more efficiently

scientific concepts

temperament traits are linked to the formation of ______________ by the end of the first year, but their effects are largely the result of their influence on the quality of caregiving that infants are likely to experience

secure versus insecure attachments

Across cultures, the majority of infants studied have been categorized as_______________ to their mothers (van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999). In the strange situation test, they use their mothers as a secure base for exploration, they become distressed when separated from her, but are comforted and return to exploration when she return

securely attached

neither gentle nor harsh discipline was more effective in promoting compliance for the most fearless toddlers! For them, only the _________________of their attachment to their mothers made a difference.

security

neglecting-uninvolved parents

seem to neglect their responsibility to socialize the child, but they also express less affection and are not likely to be responsive to their children's needs, perhaps even expressing hostility or making negative attributions to their children. When they do impose limits on their children, they tend to use power assertive techniques and little explanation.

self-system includes aspects related to the self, such as

self-concept, self-regulation, and self-esteem.

self-regulation is a more advanced and flexible version of _____________

self-control

Among Erikson's assumptions is that a child/adult is active and self-organizing (or __________________), needing only the right social context to progress positively.

self-directed

Self-concept, as defined here, is distinct from _______________

self-esteem

The best antidote to misapplication of our personal views is _____________________: being aware of what our theories are and recognizing that they are only one of a set of possibilities

self-monitoring

According to Piaget, developmental progress depends on children's active engagement with the environment. This active process suggests that children (and adults) build knowledge and understanding in a _______________way

self-organizing

On the whole, power assertion does not seem to be particularly effective in promoting____________________

self-regulation

simon says games are often used to assess ________________

self-regulation

writers have begun to use the term__________ to replace "self," because the latter seems too unidimensional

self-system

Two domains in which both the quantity and the quality of experience have been linked to quality of learning are _________ development in the learning of vocabulary, and ____________ development in the production of narratives.

semantic, pragmatic

when children learn language they are learning which words and word parts express what meanings. This is referred to as the____________of a language

semantics

the first ____________stage, lasting for about 2 years, is characterized by an absence of representational thought (see Chapter 3). Although babies are busy taking in the sensory world, organizing it on the basis of inborn reflexes or patterns, and then responding to their sensations, Piaget believed that they cannot yet symbolically represent their experiences, and so they cannot really reflect on them. This means that young infants do not form mental images or store memories symbolically, and they do not plan their behavior or intentionally act. These capacities emerge between 18 and 24 months, launching the next stage

sensorimotor

Searching for a hidden object, which begins at about 8 months of age, can be seen as a sign not only that a child believes in the object's permanence but that the child recalls the object. A particularly important sign of such recall is the beginning of ______________

separation anxiety.

Because their thought is centered, Piaget argued, preoperational children tend to link observations in _____________ order, rather than discovering and representing the more complex relationships among them.

serial

neurotransmitters

serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine

private speech

serves an eminently useful purpose in human development (Vygotsky & Luria, 1930). It is construed as the precursor to problem solving, planning ability, and self- regulation—what we today consider to be aspects of, or products of, executive functions

Scaffolding

serves as a temporary prop until the child has mastered a task

A child's ability to describe herself as "smart" or "funny" will not be apparent until ________________years after birth.

several

The chromosomes of the 23rd pair are called _____________chromosomes, because they have an important role to play in sex determination

sex

_____________is linked to hiding or denying wrongdoing, elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines, heightened self-focus, blaming other people or situations, displaced aggression, externalizing behavior, low self-esteem, and a range of psychiatric disorders

shame

social or self-conscious emotions

shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride

code switching

shifting from using, say, slang with friends to using more polite forms with teachers. They also learn, eventually, to distinguish between what people really mean and the literal meaning of their words. Everyday expressions such as "What do ya' know" or "That's cool" are not to be taken literally in most social exchanges. And many such expressions require similar idiomatic responses. For example, today a greeting like "What's happening?" is usually followed by "Nothing much!"

Meltzoff (1988)

showed babies an interesting box, then demonstrated that pushing a button on the box would produce a beep. The next day, the babies were given the opportunity to play with the box themselves for the first time. Nine month-old babies who had watched the button pushing the previous day were much more likely to push the button themselves than were babies who had not previously observed the action.

Aguiar and Baillargeon (1999, 2002)

showed infants a display with a doll standing to the left of one screen (see Figure 3.1). To the right of the screen was a space and then another screen. Babies watched as the doll moved toward the first screen and disappeared behind it. Even 2 1⁄2-month-olds acted surprised if the doll reappeared to the right of the second screen, without ever being visible in the space between the screens. You and I would be surprised as well, expecting the doll to follow a normal trajectory, emerging from behind the first screen, continuing to move to the right before disappearing again behind the second screen, and then emerging at the far right. If 2 1⁄2-month-olds expect hidden objects to follow that trajectory as well, perhaps young babies understand that objects continue to exist when they cannot be seen

Although the development of the self is obviously influenced by many factors and is extraordinarily complex, Cooley believed that it was largely the product of ____________

social influences

Vygotsky's ideas have had a major impact on education in large measure because of their applicability to the .

teaching-learning process

"Insecure" parents

showed several patterns. In one, attachment relationships were not readily recalled, not valued, and not seen as influential. Infants tended to have avoidant attachments with parents who showed this "dismissive" pattern. Another group of parents ("preoccupied-entangled") were preoccupied with their own parents, often still struggling to please, and they seemed confused, angry, or especially passive. Their infants' attachments to them were typically ambivalent. Finally, an "unresolveddisorganized" pattern characterized parents who made irrational and inconsistent comments, especially when discussing traumatic experiences. For example, they might talk about a dead parent as if he were alive. Infants whose parents showed this pattern tended to be disorganized-disoriented in the strange situation test.

child centered (positive)

sidelining parental needs (for time, convenience, and coordinated outfits) to meet Amanda's developmental needs

Tools, or _____________ as Vygotsky came to refer to them, meant anything that people used to help them think and learn, such as numbering or writing systems. The most important tool for Vygotsky was language.

signs

The pons, situated above the medulla, is involved in the regulation of the _______________. Individuals with sleep disturbances (insomnia) can sometimes have abnormal activity in this area.

sleep-wake cycle.

Working out the full details of a word's meaning usually requires multiple exposures and is described as _______________

slow mapping

babies who are exposed to alcohol prenatally may be born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which is identifiable in its victims by virtue of their unique facial configuration _______________

small head, widely spaced eyes, flattened nose, and so on

Early studies often represented culture as a kind of "________________" (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) with gender, race, religion, age, language, ethnic heritage and socioeconomic status as labels signifying some cultural group membership

social address

The growth of emotions often linked to violations of standards for everyday behavior appears to begin late in the 2nd year. Called __________________, shame, embarrassment, guilt, and pride take their place in the child's emotional repertoire after objective self-awareness, or self-recognition, has been attained

social or self-conscious emotions

Many studies have found a link between ______________ and theory of mind development

social pretend play

Puerto Rican mothers appeared to be more concerned about "__________________" or relational outcomes, focusing more on wanting children to recognize their obligations and their connectedness to others

sociocentric

Vygotsky is arguably best known for his emphasis on the critical role that the culture or society into which one is born plays in the transmission of knowledge. Hence, his theory is called "________________." He also stressed that human thinking was mediated by the tools humans use

sociocultural

We have seen that many theories suggest universality (even stage theories, like Freud's), but some take into consideration _____________ influences. An example of these is Erikson's psychosocial theory. He actually studied differences between Native American and white culture in how they deal with the identity struggles from adolescence to adulthood

sociocultural

Vygotsky posited two kinds of "developmental lines" that accounted for cognitive development, one that was "______________" or cultural, and one that was "___________," coming from within the infant

sociohistorical, natural

The _______________, in contrast, is a tiny cell, but it too carries 23 chromosomes: the father's contribution to inheritance.

sperm

A _________________is a period of time, perhaps several years, during which a person's activities (at least in one broad domain) have certain characteristics in common. For example, we could say that in language development, the 4-month-old girl is in a preverbal stage: Among other things, her communications share in common the fact that they do not include talking

stage

But some Piagte's fundamental ideas are particularly controversial. Among these is the idea that cognitive development can be characterized by _______________

stages

Sigmund Freud's theory of personality development began to have an influence on developmental science in the early 1900s and was among the first to include a description of __________________

stages

The period of (relative) stability during a stage is like a ______________ of sudden leaps. Although individual differences in the length of time it takes to work through a stage are acknowledged, but the progression through the stages is seen as universal for all cultures and in all contexts (meaning for intellectual, emotional, social, and physical development).

staircase

A respondent is an automatic response to a______________

stimulus

Erickson

studied psychoanalytic theory with Anna Freud, Sigmund's daughter, and later proposed his own theory of personality development (e.g., Erikson, 1950/1963). Like many "neo-Freudians," Erikson deemphasized the id as the driving force behind all behavior, and he emphasized the more rational processes of the ego. His theory is focused on explaining the psychosocial aspects of behavior: attitudes and feelings toward the self and toward others

These adult neural stem cells (NSCs, Gage, 2000) are generated throughout adulthood in two principal brain areas, the ______________ located near the ventricles and in part of the hippocampus called the _________________

subventricular zone (SVZ), subgranular zone

goodness of fit model

suggests that temperament and caregiving should interact in determining the quality of a child's attachment relationships

The ______________ is the last of the three aspects of personality to emerge. Psychic energy is invested in this "internalized parent" during the preschool period as children begin to feel guilty if they behave in ways that are inconsistent with parental restrictions.

superego

The midbrain also consists of several small structures (________________) that are involved in vision, hearing, and consciousness. These parts of the brain receive sensory input from the eyes and ears and are instrumental in controlling eye movement

superior colliculi, inferior colliculi, and substantia nigra

Using a developmental approach helps clinicians tell if what they are seeing is normal development or a maladaptive deviation. It helps clinicians to ______________ developmental transitions.

support

example of operant conditioning

suppose that a young child happens to babble "da" just as a dog appears in the child's line of sight, and the child's mother excitedly claps and kisses the child. (The mother has mistakenly assumed that the child has tried to say "dog.") The mother's reaction serves as a reinforcement for the child, who will repeat the "da" sound the next time a dog comes into view

there is some evidence that male fetuses are more ___________ than female fetuses to the effects of teratogens

susceptible

The amygdala is involved in virtually all fear conditioning and works to jumpstart stress-related networks peripheral to the central nervous system. Two major peripheral systems subject to this central control are the

sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the HPA axis

Brain growth after birth is also due to the formation of ________________, new connections among neurons

synapses

Greenough and Black (1992) offer an explanation for the apparent contradiction. They argue that ______________occurs when it is highly likely that nature will provide the appropriate experience to structure the development of a particular system

synaptic overproduction

the major work of ______________, the generation of synapses, took place after birth, when much more sensory stimulation became available

synaptogenesis

learning language requires learning to produce sentences that make sense. The aspect of language that specifies how to link words into meaningful sentences is called the _________________

syntax or grammar

In the U.S., Kagan examined the impact of ___________ on child development

temperament

The _________________, found on the sides of each hemisphere, is responsible for auditory processing

temporal lobe

Information-Processing Theories

tend to view human cognition like how computers process information. They are not stage-like, but see changes as incremental within limited domains of thought or behavior. Development is not seen as leading to major organizational shifts, but is more domain-specific

Environmental substances and agents that can harm the developing fetus are called ______________. The name comes from the Greek and literally means "monstrosity making."

teratogens

The _____________is a primary way station for handling neural communication, something like "information central." It receives information from the sensory and limbic areas and sends these messages to their appropriate destinations.

thalamus

dishabituation response

that is, a renewed orienting response, which we will take to mean that the baby has noticed the difference between the first circle and the second, and her interest is renewed

committed compliance

that is, their eager and enthusiastic willingness to go along with their mothers' requests

the reticular activating system ______________

that part of the brain that alerts the higher structures to "pay attention" to incoming stimuli. This system also filters out the extraneous stimuli that we perceive at any point in time. For example, it is possible for workers who share an office to tune out the speech, music, or general background hum going on around them when they are involved in important telephone conversations. However, they can easily "perk up" and attend if a coworker calls their name.

According to Kopp (1982), self-regulation is a more advanced and flexible version of self-control:

the ability to comply with a request, to initiate and cease activities according to situational demands, to modulate the intensity, frequency, and duration of verbal and motor acts in social and educational settings, to postpone acting upon a desired object or goal, and to generate socially approved behavior in the absence of external monitors

self-regulation or inhibitory control:

the ability to prevent yourself from making a dominant or automatic response and/or to make yourself perform a nondominant response

Neurons

the basic cells of the nervous system

infantile amnesia

the difficulty we have remembering events in our lives earlier than about our 3rd or 4th year.

genotype

the full complement of an organism's genes

A recent investigation using brain imaging with toddlers indicates that self-recognition emergence is linked to maturation of one cortical area—__________________—that is also activated in adults during self-recognition tasks

the juncture of the parietal and temporal lobes

interneurons

which branch out closer to the local area

Hoffman's ideas help explain why mild power assertion is more effective for long-term internalization of rules than harsh power assertion—_________________

the minimum sufficiency principle

internalization

the process by which children adopt adults' standards and rules as their own

In sickle-cell anemia

the red blood cells are abnormally shaped, more like a half moon than the usual, round shape. The abnormal cells are not as efficient as normal cells in carrying oxygen to the tissues. Victims of this disorder have breathing problems and a host of other difficulties that typically lead to organ malfunctions and without treatment, to early death

cultural and historical mediation

the signs are shaped and developed by others

Chromosomes for a karyotype can be taken from cells anywhere in a person's body, such as ___________________

the skin, the liver, or the brain.

example of thalamus

the thalamus projects visual information, received via the optic nerve, to the occipital lobe of the cortex

Practitioners also use another partial lens:

their professional and other life experience.

young children who have siblings, especially older siblings, make more rapid progress in ________________ than other children (e.g., McAlister & Peterson, 2006), apparently because they frequently engage in conversation about who believes, knows, and wants what. Siblings may also be important because, like peers, they play together.

theory of mind

Storage of information, duration of storage, retrieval of stored information—

these are the centerpieces of cognitive functioning from the point of view of scientists who think about the human cognitive system as akin in some ways to a computer processor

symbolic artifacts

these kinds of symbols are often similar to the things they represent, one might think that children would find them easier to interpret than words, but in fact the reverse may be true. DeLoache suggests that young children have difficulty with symbolic artifacts because of their dual nature: They are both concrete objects themselves and symbols for other thing

executive functions

they are the cognitive skills that allow us to control and regulate our attention and behavior, making cognitive tasks such as planning and problem solving possible

parent centered ( negative):

they show little responsiveness to their children's concerns and are unlikely to do things just to meet those concerns. They may even make hostile attributions when children's needs are out of line with their own

By the age of 2, children have moved beyond the limits of sensorimotor activity to become ______________

thinkers

Many hereditary disorders are caused by such recessive, defective alleles, and it is estimated that most people are carriers of ______________ such alleles. yet, most of these illnesses are rare because to develop them an individual has to be unlucky enough to have both parents be carriers of the same defective allele and then to be the one in four (on average) offspring to get the recessive alleles from both parents.

three to five

socialize the child ( socialization)

to prepare the child to be a competent member of society. This includes limiting some behaviors and demanding others, so that the child will be safe ("No, you cannot climb on the counter") and so that she will learn the standards of her culture and behave in ways that are conventionally acceptable ("You must wear clothes").

Coie and his associates (1993) state that the primary objective of prevention science to "________________ the links between generic risk factors and specific clinical disorders and to moderate the pervasive effects of risk factors.

trace

What are some multidimensional theories?

transactional theory relational theory dialectical theory bioecological theory bio-social-ecological theory epigenetic theory life course theory life span developmental theory dynamic systems theory

How tightly bound histones are to DNA affects how likely it is that a coded gene will be transcribed, with looser binding resulting in more _____________.

transcription

In a process called ______________, intertwined strands of DNA separate, and one of the strands acts as a template for the synthesis of a new, single strand of messenger ribonucleic acid or mRNA

transcription

When a gene is on, ___________ occurs and the cell manufactures the coded product or products

transcription

Hormones, like testosterone and estrogen, are ______________

transcription factors.

In a second step, called ___________, the cell "reads" the mRNA code and produces a protoprotein, a substance that with a little tweaking (e.g., folding here, snipping there) can become a protein

translation

Regulation of genes by the cellular environment, influenced by environments outside the cell, can ___________ dominance-recessive or codominance relationships between alleles

trump

In Erickson's first stage, infants must resolve the crisis of ______________ (see Chapter 4). Infants, in their relative helplessness, are "incorporative." They "take in" what is offered, including not only nourishment but also stimulation, information, affection, and attention. If infants' needs for such input are met by responsive caregivers, babies begin to trust others, to feel valued and valuable, and to view the world as a safe place. If caregivers are not consistently responsive, infants will fail to establish basic trust or to feel valuable, carrying mistrust with them into the next stage of development,

trust versus mistrust

children's theory of mind skills advance more quickly when mothers frequently engage them in _________________ and when they talk about mental states (e.g., "Even though you were happy and excited when we decided to go to the party, Sam was unhappy because his Mom said he couldn't stay very long.")

turn-taking conversations

Most importantly, mitosis produces ______________new cells each of which contains a duplicate set of chromosomes. The new cells quickly divide to produce four cells, the four cells divide to become eight cells, and so on. The cell divisions continue in quick succession, and before long there is a cluster of identical cells, each containing a duplicate set of the original 46 chromosomes.

two

Neglectful (withdrawn) caregivers

typically show a pattern of under- stimulation marked by reduced eye contact, infrequent holding, nonresponsiveness, less positive and more negative affect

It appears from the available research that the tenets of attachment theory apply ____________. Yet differences in cultural context contribute in meaningful ways to the kinds of attachments that are likely to develop

universally

voicing

using our vocal cords to make some consonant sounds but not others. The difference between the d sound and the t sound is only that the d is voiced and the t is not

"Secure-autonomous" parents

valued relationships and believed that their own personalities were influenced by them. They could talk openly and objectively about their early experiences, good or bad. Their ideas were coherent and showed signs of previous reflection. Not all of these adults recalled their early experiences as positive; some had even been abused. But by whatever means, these adults had apparently come to terms with their early experiences and had faith in the power of relationships. These parents tended to have secure attachments with their own infants

Multidimensional theories portray the developing person metaphorically as a ______________ growing through a thick forest (Kagan, 1994). In doing so, the vine is propelled by its own inner processes, but its path, even its form, is in part created by the forest it inhabits. There is continuous growth, but there are changes in structure too—in its form and direction—as the vine wends its way through the forest. Finally, its presence in the forest changes the forest itself, affecting the growth of the trees and other plants, which reciprocally influence the growth of the vine

vine

preferential response paradigms ( a baby's preference) is measured by the baby's_____________, that is, to find the level of detail the baby can see

visual acuity

when parents are ____________________, their children are more likely to comply with parental demands (e

warm and responsive

Freud

was developing his own theory of child development based on information he gleaned from psychoanalysis of adult patients. His theory took into account biological influences (as was common for the time), but also the quite revolutionary idea of unconscious processes.

example of preferential response paradigms

we present a baby with two visual stimuli, side by side, on a screen. Suppose one is a circle with black and white stripes, and the other is an entirely gray circle of the same size. Using video cameras focused on the baby's eyes, a computer can track the baby's looks to each circle. Babies tend to look more at patterns than at solid stimuli, and so our baby is likely to look more at the striped circle than the solid gray circle

an example of object concept

what they feel in their mouths as they suck a pacifier is the same as what they see when Mom or Dad holds the pacifier up in front of them

example of child centered ( positive)

when 25-monthold Amanda begins to insist that she can dress herself, her mother tries to accommodate her by setting aside extra time for the morning dressing ritual

Huntington's disease

which causes the nervous system to deteriorate, usually beginning between 30 and 40 years of age. Symptoms include uncontrolled movements and increasingly disordered psychological functioning, eventually ending in death

projection neuron

which have axons that extend far away from the cell body

Social learning theories

which have focused specifically on how children acquire personality characteristics and social skills, consider conditioning processes part of the story, but they also emphasize "observational learning," or modeling

olfactory bulb

which is responsible for our sense of smell

psychological control,

which refers to a kind of intrusiveness and interference on the part of parents often involves criticizing and/or derogating the child and leaving the child without choices. has more to do with the emotional climate a parent creates (the warmth dimension) than it does with demandingness.

habituation paradigm

which takes advantage of a baby's tendency to orient to new stimulation and to habituate to repeated or old stimulation.

nursery schools

which traditionally provide programs for a few hours a day, from 1 to 5 days per week. They give young children the opportunity to play with other children, to learn to get along with teachers, and to become accustomed to some classroom routines

Hubel (1965),

who, in a series of experiments with kittens for which they won the Nobel Prize, showed that early visual deprivation has permanent deleterious effects. They sewed shut one of each kitten's eyes at birth so that only one eye was exposed to visual input. Several weeks later when the eyes were reopened, the kittens were found to be permanently blinded in the eye that had been deprived of stimulation. No amount of intervention or aggressive treatment could repair the damage

What the research seems to suggest is that there are time-specific, region-specific "_____________" for certain types of learning ("rapid neural reorganization"), but the existence of continuous, lifelong neuroplasticity is also accepted.

windows of opportunity

Before: Differences between racial groups (identified by different hair, skin color, bone structure, among others) were seen as due to heredity but it has since been shown that there are more differences between individuals _______________ groups than between groups).

within

A ___________________knowledge of human development supplies the helping professional with a firm base from which to proceed

working

The three fundamental skills most often described as executive functions are

working memory, self-regulation (or inhibitory control), and cognitive flexibility.

As Erikson and Bowlby proposed, in his first relationships a baby may form an incipient "______________" of what to expect from interactions. That model affects his expectations from, and his physiological and behavioral reactions to, social experiences in the future

working model

centration

young children can think about one thing at a time

example of preoperational egocentrism

young girl may suggest that Daddy would like a dollhouse for his birthday. She assumes that he wants what she wants. When parents eagerly ask for information about what happened in nursery school, their son fails to respond, as if he cannot fathom what it is the parents do not know. If he knows what happened today, surely they do too. During a telephone conversation, when her grandmother asks a toddler what she's going to wear to her birthday party, the child responds "This!" and points to the dress she is wearing, as if her grandmother can see what she can see

Studies using the hidden object test, beginning with Piaget's own studies, have consistently found that infants _____________ than 8 to 12 months fail to search for the object, even though they have the motor skills they need to succeed much earlier

younger

Sperm pushes through cytoplasm (full of cellular material) so that a _________________ is formed, which is the combination of chromosomes from both sperm & ovum

zygote

The sperm's chromosomes become part of the nuclear material in the fertilized ovum, which is called a ______________

zygote