LSAT Material

Punctuation:

- Comma [,] appear in sentences and are used to separate ideas. They help divide sentences into smaller pieces. - Colon [:] usually goes before an explanation or introduces a list ○ The tip on the company's violations came from an unlikely source: the company's CEO ○ Each Applicant must maximize one of three talents: communication creativity, or organization - Semi-Colon [;] usually either side of semi-colon are related but also could stand on their own as complete sentences ○ Professional athletes are paid for their time and services; amateur athletes are typically not paid. - Parentheses [ ( ) ] The information in the parentheses typically expands upon and adds additional information to the sentence - Dash [-] Extremely versatile, and are often substituted for other punctuation marks, but the purpose is typically to set apart a particular idea

Power Score Study Tips

- Make notations only if it helps you move quickly (use minimal notes of possible) - Try to decode and summarize any sections of text you feel are confusing. THE MORE YOU DO IT THE BETTER YOU WILL GET AT DOING IT Transferring Answers: (Approach 1) Transfer several answer choices at once, at logical break points throughout the test. For RC and LG, transfer answer choices after you have completed each passage or game. For LR, transfer answer choices after you complete each two page group (Approach 2) If the first approach fails, fill each answer in the answer sheet as you answer each LR question. Practicing with Time 1. When you first learn a technique, first practice the technique, several times, untimed to get a feel of how the idea works 2. Do 3 to 4 questions untimed. Don't worry about how long it takes you to complete each question. 3. Do the next to 4 questions without pre-setting a time per question. Track the amount of time it takes to complete each question 4. Do the remaining questions at or near the appropriate tome per question. [Required time: 1 minute 25 seconds] i. Practice Test 1) Take an introduction test 2) Practice with challenge section tests 3) Take Whole timed tests the 1st month {every 2 weeks}, then in the two months (every week and every few days, or when 1 month every other day) Required time: LR: 1 Minute 25 Seconds LG: 8 Minutes 45 Seconds per game RC: 8 Minutes 45 seconds per passage

Circular Reasoning [CAPTD] (conclusion uses same premises to support )

-.cons identical to one of its premises - assumes what it sets out to prove - presupposes what it sets out to conclude - takes for granted what it is trying to prove - disallows in principle any evidence that would disconfirm its conclusion

Rules

-Not rules -A before B [AB block] -A cannot come before B [ Negated AB block] -Variables cannot be next to one another - Dual option - before (>)

Conclusion Tips

1. CONCLUSIONS DONT ALWAYS COME FROM THE AUTHOR THEY ALSO COME FROM OTHER INDIVIDUAL'S PROPOSALS > "They concluded" "They proposed" 2. Business has an interest in enabling employees to care for children because those children will be the customers, employees, and managers of the future.- Therefore, businesses should adopt policies, such as daycare benefits, that facilitate parenting. LESSON: if an argument has a conclusion indicator that is used as a conclusion, trust the indicator to be a conclusion

Primary Objectives to do when reading LR Stimuli

1. Determine whether stimulus is an argument or a set of statements a. If it does have an argument- you have a conclusion (is there something I'm being persuaded of?) 2. If the stimulus contains an argument, identify the conclusion of the argument. If the stimulus contains a fact set, examine each fact. 3. If the stimulus contains an argument determine whether the argument is strong or weak. 4. Read closely and know precisely what the author said. Do not generalize. a. If the author say's for example "the refinery can achieve a greater operating efficiency" DON'T ASSUME THE REFINERY MUST OR WILL BE ACHIEVED Carefully read and identify the question stem. Do not assume certain words are associated with certain question types

Sufficient & Necessary Rules**

1. In order to form valid statement from "All" and "Some" statements. Transitive variable must be in the sufficient of the "All" statement 2. In order to form a valid argument between an "All" statement and a "Most" statement, the transitive argument must also start in the sufficient of the "All" statement 3. A valid conclusion cannot be formed between 2 "some" statements. A valid conclusion cannot be formed between 2 "most" statements

Reading Comp. Methodology [Testmasters]

1.READ 1ST paragraph more slowly and carefully/ LOOK FOR OUTLINES of reasons why in paragraphs after 2. Identify J.A.D., MP, underline important details 4. PAY ATTENTION to ALL details 3. FOCUS!!! This is not a game (you have gotten almost a perfect score before)

Transitive Property

A--> B [Norm Arg.] B--> C C--> D ____________ A -->D A-->B [Same Arg./Diff order] C-->D B--> C _________ A--> D A -->B [Same Arg. just one has contra-positive, all you have to is reverse the contra-positive] C--> D ~C --> ~B _____________ A --> D

LR: Suff & Necessary Methodology

ARG: Identify components Evaluate: Make sure the conclusion must be true from premise [via conditionals and contrapos] Answer question (must here be true given con?/valid?) Set of Facts: Get facts Draw implications (point they are tying to make) Answer question (must here be true given point?/valid?) Stimulus Approach: Read stimulus carefully Look for choice that has to be true from the passage MP: If you are given points, is your conclusion made from these premises?

Flaws (1)

A. Evidence General lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion (def) provide information that does not does not support conclusion, random information] - The author cites irrelevant data - It uses inapplicable information to draw a conclusion about the character of the witness - It fails to give any reason for the judgement it reaches Internal contradiction (def) author makes conflicting statements - Bases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each other - The author makes information that actually contradicts the conclusion - Claims presented in support of the conclusion conflict with the other evidence provided Exceptional case/Overgeneralization (def) takes small number of instances and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion. - Support a general claim on the basis of the single example - Generalizes on the basis of what could be exceptional cases - Bases a broad claim on a few exceptional instances Errors in Assessing the Force of Evidence (def) mis-assessing the force of evidence is a frequent error committed by LSAT authors □ Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false [just because no evidence proving a position has been introduced does not mean that the position is false] - Treats failure to prove a claim as constituting denial of that claim. - Taking a lack of evidence for a claim as evidence undermining the claim □ Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true [Just because there is no proof to prove something doesn't mean that the thing is true] □ Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that the position is false - It confuses weakening an argument in support of a given conclusion with proving the conclusion with proving the conclusion itself to be false □ Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true - The argument treats evidence showing mere plausibility as if it proves that the conclusion is in fact true B. Source Argument [Ad Hominem] (def) attack on a person or source instead of the argument ○ Description: - Focus on the motives of the source - Focus on the actions of the source Ex: The anti- smoking views expressed by Senator Smith should be ignored. After all, Smith himself is a smoker!! - It is directed against the proponent of a claim rather than against the claim itself - The attack id directed against the person making the argument rather than directing it against the argument itself - Assuming that legislation should not be supported based on the character of some supporters of the legislation C. Circular Reasoning (def) assumes what is true what the author is supposed to prove Ex: "this essay is the best because it is better than all others" "I must be telling the truth because I am not lying" - Argues circularly by assuming the conclusion is true in stating the premises - Presupposes what it sets out to prove - It assumes what it is attempting to demonstrate D. Errors of Conditional Reasoning (def) confusing the sufficient condition for a necessary condition. Mistaken Reversal "mistakes being sufficient to achieve a particular outcome for being required to achieve it" & Mistaken Negation "taking the absence of an occurrence as evidence that a necessary condition for that occurrence also did not take place" ® Mistaken Reversal & Mistaken Negation are both used to express the author's mistaking of the sufficient for the necessary condition as well as the necessary condition for the sufficient condition Examples Confusing a necessary condition for a sufficient condition - From the assertion that something is necessary is to a given goal the argument concludes that that thing is sufficient for its achievement - It acts as if something that is necessary for a good leader is something that is sufficient to create a good leader Confusing a sufficient condition for a necessary condition - Confuses a sufficient condition for a necessary condition E. Mistaken Cause & Effect [CARS] (def) assumes that cause given is the only cause that leads to the stated effect. The flaw exists because there may be another explanation for the stated relationship □ Assumes a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events - mistakes the occurrence of one event after another proof for that second event is the result of the proof □ Assumes a causal relationship when only a correlation exists - Confusing the coincidence of two events with a causal relation - Assumes a causal relationship where only a correlation has been indicated □ Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or alternate cause for both the cause and effect - Fails to exclude an alternative explanation for the observed effect - Overlooks the possibility that the same thing may causally contribute to both □ Failure to consider that the events may be reversed - The author mistakes an effect for a cause

For, Afterall, Because, and Since [FABS]

Always introduce PREMISES

But, However and although [HAB]

Always takes the reader out of the context (background) and into an argument Some managers believe that the best way to incentivize employees to work harder is to intimidate them. [ But, employees who are intimidated cannot concentrate on their work. Therefore, there is probably a better way to incentivize employees to work harder.] But.. takes you into the argument of the author

Answering both question types:

Answering both question types: 1. If the stimulus is an argument, carry out with OBJ 1 § [Determine whether stimulus is an argument or a set of statements] Ø If not, skip to OBJ 2 [Break the argument down and evaluate] this means break the argument down § [If the stimulus contains an argument, identify the conclusion of the argument. If the stimulus contains a fact set, examine each fact.] 2. Determine if the components can form inferences and form them w/ OBJ 6 § [ Prephrase: consider what the points of the stimulus add up to, look for connection between the premises] . If you don't see a deduction move on and attack the answer choices Example of Prephase 1st Statement: Flavonoids are a common component 0of almost all plants 2nd Statement: A specific variety of flavonoid in apples has been found to be in an antioxidant 3rd Statement: Antioxidants are known to be a factor in the prevention of heart disease § Deduction from 2nd and 3rd statement : the specific flavonoid in apples is a factor in preventing heart disease 3. Pay attention to the specific modifiers in the stimulus [circle them if necessary] 4. Complete OBJ 8 § Separate each answer choice into contenders and Losers. After completing this process, review the contenders and decide which answer is the correct one 5. IF the answer choice seems correct CHECK THE STIMULUS!! To make sure 6. IMPORTANT: WHEN AUTHOR DOESN'T MAKE ASSERTION DON'T PICK CHOICE THAT MAKE ASSERTIONS

Rules of Negatives

Apply rules of negatives, double negatives and triple negatives to the LSAT. Simple Negatives used: No, not, and never Other forms of negativity: Barely, hardly, and merely Negativity through concepts (all of which represent the same negation): Ban, miss, and absent Other Synonyms: http://www.thesaurus.com/browse/no Rules: Negative Term = Negative Sentence Double Negative terms = positive sentence Triple Negative terms = Negative sentence Example: Each member of the club must vote and Dr. Smith is clearly not among the members who will be voting against the ban on indoor smoking Ø Triple negative equals a negative sentence. Meaning: the Dr. Smith will be voting for the ban on smoking.

Type 3 Methodology [Weaken]

Assess flaws argument Structure (P vs Con) Evaluate argument How to Weaken: (args that are usually invalid) 1. Show Premise as false 2. Show conclusion doesn't have to be true [mainly found in test] 3. Look for areas being attacked, and strengthen them 4. Look for weaknesses in cons first, if hard find ways to reverse engineer arg from answer choice 5. Create Conditional Stmnt> Negate Sufficient WAYS- A. Cause & Effect: CAE Show cause without effect Show effect without cause Show alternate cause B. Survey : PUB People lie Biased Questions unrepresentative sample C. Advantage: D When given advantage find disadvantage D. Offset: PPO Where possibilities aren't listed make a list of prospective possibilities. Look at the option that is being overlooked specifically

Flaws

Circular Reasoning [CATD] - cons identical to prem - disallows in principle only evidence that would disconfirm its conclusion - assumes what it sets to conclusion Ambiguious Word Usage [BREEM] - exploits ambiguity in a word - relies on 2 different uses of a pivitol term - equivocates: w/respect to important term - makes cruical use of a concept without defining it - bases con on a n ambiguous interpretation of a key word Ignoring Existence of Other Alternatives: - arg. offers as an adequate defense of a practice an observation tat discredits only

Structural Indicators

Conclusion: clearly, must be that, shows that therefore, hence, so, accordingly, it follows that, consequently, proven by the fact that [MAT CCHIPSS] Premise: For example, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by since, because, for, after all [FAABS WIT DOG] No Premise or Conclusion: They give you conclusion, immediately after the premise Cause & Effect: Due to, caused by, as a result of, resulting from, stems from, produced by, induced by, contribute to, was brought about by, responsible for, reason for, determined by, is an effect of, because of, leads to, product of [Ccarrrddwiipps bl] Additional Premise (Continuity): Besides, In Addition, What's More, After all, and, next (w/ comma), additionally, in addition, as well as, furthermore, also, similarly, moreover [aaaaasfmn biw] (Contrast): in contrast, but, yet, however, instead, alternatively, as opposed to, although, on the other hand, on the contrary, rather, nevertheless, nonetheless [roobyiinn haaa]

Formal Logic (1)

DIAGRAMS A -----> B ( If....then, when every and all, if you are not... then you are not) Ø THE ONLY DIAGRAM WITH CONTRAPOSITIVE A -----> - B (If not... then) - A <----> - B (If and only if, vice versa, both ways). [couldn't put a vertical line in between so I put negatives on both sides] - A <-----> - B (No A... are... , none go together) [Same applies] - A <--------> - B (if you are.... Then you are not...) = A ------> -B A <--- S- ----> B (Some A's are B's) [negates the second element] A <--- S- ----> - B (Some are not, Not all are...) Some Indicators (at least one, possibly all) Ø At least some, At least one, A few, A number, Several , Part of, A portion, many Some are not: "Not all" ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- A ---M---> B (Most... are...) A ----M-->- B (Most are not) [Negates 2nd element] Most (majority, possibly all, 51 to 100) Ø A majority, more than half, almost all, usually all, typically, likely, more than not - - More than not : 0 to 49 - Some are not: 0 to 99 - Some: 1 to 100

Sufficient Condition/ Necessary Rule [Permanent factor Dependency, NNAS ]

Def: Enough (Sufficient) Required (Necessary) A --> F (Proper S/N) F --> A (Mistaken Reversal/Incorrect Negation) ~F --> ~A (Contrapositive)

All (Quanifier) Not Reversable

Def: Every (describes every member of a group)

Most (MUTLOG) Not Reversable

Def: more than half Logical opp: half or less (some) majority more than not generally usually typically on the whole likely possibly all 51 to 100 more than half almost all usually all

And / Or Rule (FSN) TERM

Def: negate whole conditional, bring and/or to opposite side, change every and/or to an or/and (Orig) P and Q --> R (A/O rule) ~R--> ~P or ~Q[ONLY R satisfies suff.] Another Ex: R--> Q and P [contra] ~Q or ~P --> ~R [ONLY Q and P bring suff., not half] Explanation: if a statement requires 2 conditions (Cond. A and B), BOTH conditions are needed for the sufficient condition, however, if a statement requires 2 conditions w/ (A OR B) at least one letter is needed to safisfy suff.

Missing Premises

Draw premises Draw hypothetical premises that can make con * Some Prem + All Prem = some Prem * if attempt is to make some from some try >> all prem

ALL MATERIAL TIPS

Every source of reading the material you are given identify and separate, naturally, the Subject, predicate and embedded clauses/modifiers/adjectives/adverbs [adverbs] Ex: [Candidates] who can vastly outspend all rivals [have an] unfair [advantage] in publicizing their platforms. Subject: noun (person, place, thing) [Who or what the sentence is talking about] Predicate: verbs in a sentence/ description about the subject [a description of what happened to the predicate] Details: Modifiers: details that specify the subjects or verbs they are using Embedded clause: clause used in the middle of another clause Clauses: Subject and verb in the same grouping

Indicator Tips

Everything after conclusion indicators is not a conclusion. If the indicator exists, and "since/because" are inserted, the conclusion will occur after the premise indicator and comma is given Ex: Therefore, [since businesses value their profits], those that might have such accidents will not install adequate environmental safeguards.

EXCEPT & LEAST

Except: When except is used in the question stem it translates to "terms other than the terms used" Least: shares the same character as Except in the question stem Example: "Which one of the following, if true, strengthens the argument above?" § The answer with this question would be the answer choice that strengthens the stimulus "Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument above EXCEPT?" § The answer would be the choice that does things OTHER THAN STRENGTHEN (THESE CHOICES DO NOT STRENGHTEN) Another Example: Which one of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy above? § The answer choice would resolve the paradox Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy above EXCEPT? § The answer would be the choice that does not resolve the discrepancy. Least Example: Which one of the following, if true, LEAST strengthens the argument above? The correct answer if the choice that does not strengthen

Conditional Reasoning (2)

How to get contrapositive of original statement: Ø Negate and Flip original statement § Ex: of valid statements (Original statement) A ---> B (Contrapositive) - B ---> A - Detecting invalid conditionals Ø Attempt to negate and flip original statement Ø If the contrapositive statements don't show, look for the correct thing that was done in that mistake. That correct thing labels the kind of mistake was made. Ex: Original Statement: K ---> L Inference: L ---> K (Correct Inference: L ---> K) Ans: The reversal was done correctly, so the mistake is, Incorrect Reversal [Because they forgot to negate] Transitive Conditional Statement: Ø Statement 1: A --> B Ø Statement 2: B --> C Ø Chain: A ---> B ---> C Inference : A---> C Sufficient Indicators: Ø Each, In order to, People who, Necessary Indicators: Ø Except, Until, Without, Precondition Conditionals in MBT & Most Supported Correct answer: - conditional established in stimulus - Contrapositive of original statement - Transitive Conditional Statement ○ Either conditional statements in chain [ Ex. A---> B, B---> C] ○ or the Inferences that come from the chain [Ex. A ---> C] Incorrect Answer: - Incorrect Negation - Incorrect Reversal - Vague Answer

Sufficient [PAAATBEEFIIWWW]

If, when, whenever, as long as, where, from, the only, All, each, beginning w/ each, every, any, In order, People who, the only

Some people say...

Indication given by author that lets you know what other ideas {background} are. This also lets us know what opposing arguments are

Flaws (3)

K. False Dilemma (def) arguer asserts that only two courses of action are available when there may be others. Ex: Recent accidents within the oil industry have made safety of operation a critical public safety issue. Because the industry cannot be expected to police itself, the government must step in and take action Ø Uses "not both" "either or" to establish that the options are limited - Fails to consider that some voters may be neither strong supporters not strong opponents of the suggested amendment. L. Time shift Errors [P time---> Today] (def) assumes that what was the case in the past will be the case in the present and future - Treats a claim about the current state of affairs as if it were a claim about what has been the case for an extended period - Draws an unwarranted inference from what has been in the past to what will be true in the future M. Relativity Flaw (def) argument that asserts that a definite conclusion based on relative evidence Example: Valentina is tall, therefore Valentina is the tallest child in the class [the class may be filled with midgets] Or Valentina is the tallest child in the class, therefore Valentina is tall [the class may be full of midgets, she may be the tallest midget] N. Sunk Cost (def) assumes continuing to spend cost on the premises that past investments and costs have been spent in the past. This reasoning is flawed because the investment can never be recouped either way O. Numbers and Percentages (def) mistakenly equates percentages to actual numbers or actual numbers to percentages - The argument confuses an increase in market share with an increase in overall revenue

Type 8

Methodology: Read Prompt (aim for one time) Identify Main conclusion

In/Out (L/R)

Methodology: Read rules before doing anything, write out scenario's, l, *draw local rules and cross out options that arent supported by rules Look for what is/isn't there, write rules clearly My rules:

Most Strongly Supported Questions

Most Strongly Supported Questions Very similar to Must Be True Questions, but the question stem reduces the degree of certainty needed Question Stem: Practice pg. 165-169 "The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following" "Which one of the following statements is most supported by the information above?" "The statements provide the most support for which one of the following?"

Logical Equivalent

Must be True Cannot Be False Could be True Could be False Cannot be True Must be False

Logical Reasoning

Need to know: Apply Sufficient and Necessary if you are given Sufficient and necessary indicators

No [Reversible]

No (describes every member of a group) [Same as All]

Positive/Contra-positive Argument [Valid:AS or NN]

Positive Arg: X --> Y (X) ___________ (Y) Contra-positive Arg: X -->Y ~(Y) _________________ ~ (X) Incorrect Negation Arg: X -->Y ~(X) __________ ~ (Y) Incorrect Reversal Arg: X --> Y (Y) __________ '(X) Incorrect

Argument

Premise + Conclusion Aim: to persuade Function(internal): Supports

Global Question

Question that focus on only rules given, do not have additional rules

Local question rules

Questions are added to information. There are additional rules

Holistic List

Questions that ask for every possibility of questions

Hypothetical List

Questions that ask for one possibility

Reading Comp Method Mastery [7 Sage]

The second phase of the Memory Method is the same as the first, with one exception: you only spend 30 seconds on step two (Check Your Memory). The first phase trains your ability to retain information. The second phase trains your ability to quickly recall and apply that information.

Unless, Without, Except, Until

Unless (necessary)>> negates sufficient

Prove Family [1, Mor, 4, 5, 7]

Uses stimulus(Stays) to prove answer choices that Must Be True - Must be true/Most Support - Main Point - Method of Reasoning - Flaw of Reasoning - Parallel Reasoning/Parallel Flaw

Logical Construct

Valid: AAA, AQNT(2), AAS, AMS, MMS (-tL) Invalid: MMS (-T-L), [The rest transitve] AQNNT(2), SSS, SMS, MMST

Main Point/Main Conslusion

What the author is trying to persuade you of

Necessary {PEUWOOOOUT}

[Necessary] Only if, only when, only where, only, except, until, without, precondition, until

All (AABEE)

[Sufficient] All, each, beginning w/ each, every, any

The Only

[Sufficient] the only

Conditional Reasoning (3)

When to use subscripts in Diagramming [pg 207] Ø When the individual is a subgroup of a general group ○ Ex: All honors students at this school have received merit based scholarships. Maria is an honors student at this school, therefore she has received a merit based scholarship Premise: HSS --> MBS Premise: HSSM Conclusion: MBSM Diagramming Either /Or Statements - sufficient side/first element is negated = only "either/or" statement > you must switch both sides to negate the other possibility - Necessary side/ second side is negated after sufficient side is negated = either/or" and "Not both" statement Either or statements(def): at least one of the two possibly both Ex: Either John or Jack will attend the party. - John -------> Jack [Original Statement] - Jack- ------> John [Contrapositive] Note: You are expected to know when the options in the either or statements can both show up together. To know that apply commonsense knowledge. Both John and Jack can attend the party but both of them cannot disappear the party. At times also, the stimulus tell you that both parties cannot occur. Diagraming Not Both: Ex: Either Cindy or Clarice will attend the party, but not both - Cindy ----> Clarice [Original Statement] - Clarice ------> Cindy [Contrapositive] ○ Not Both : Cindy ------> Clarice Clarice ------> Cindy Note : The second statement is established because it is establishing that if one statement occurs the other statement Must not occur. Than Either Statements (def): this translates either to both Example: Desmond likes Biology better than either Chemistry or Physics. ○ meaning: Desmond likes Biology better than both Chemistry and Physics.] The Only: Sufficient [Pg 212] Ex: The only way to become rich is to work hard [Rich (Sufficient)----> Work Hard (Necessary)] > Power score calls The only a necessary indicator but the results are still the same as Test Masters. I choose to see "the only" as a sufficient statement Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions [And/Or] "To graduate from Throckmorton College you must be both smart and resourceful." Original Statement: Graduate -----> Smart and Resourceful Contrapositive: Smart or resourceful -----> Graduate How to negate And/Or Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions Ø Flip, change And/Or to Or/And Ø Switch, turn sufficient side to necessary side Ø Negate both sides Important Notes: · If the sufficient condition is given and the necessary condition has two requirements both requirements must be met in order for the sufficient to occur. • If the necessary condition required 2 factors with an "either or" one of the necessary conditions need to be met in order to meet the sufficient condition' • If the sufficient condition required both coditions both to be met inorder to witness the indication of a necessary condition, both requirements must be met • If the sufficient condition gave the option for either two conditions to be met before the necessary condition was indicated then the first option alone, the second option alone or both options together can be shown for the necessary condition to show. Both options cannot be absent. [pg 216] The Double Arrow Indicate that two terms must occur Ø Double arrows, biconditionals, these indicate both necessary and sufficient conditions Ø They contain two separate conditional statements Ex: Ann will attend if and only if Basil attends A ---> B, B---> A >> A <----> B Ø Possible scenarios for these: A and B both attend (A and B), Neither A nor B attend (A and B) Ø Biconditional Indicators If and only if, If but only if, Then and only then, then but only then, when and only when, when bur only when, all but only ○ Sometimes the phrase involves "vice versa" ○ Sometimes same indicators are used with just a reverse of the terms The Double Not Arrow Indicate two terms cannot occur together Ex: If G or H run for president, the other will not run for president. G< -------> H Scenerios that can occur with this: G and - H -G and H -G and -H Nested Conditionals (pg 228) Ø Conditional embedded within another conditional If you want a table at this restaurant you have to wait, unless you have a reservation (Table ----> Wait) -----> Reservation Simplified. Table ----> wait or reservation Wait -----> reservation

Concept:

general notion

Not All

logical opp: Some not

No

negates Necessary Ex; No cats are dogs C --> ~D

Either/Or

negation of a variable [sufficient], the other is necessary isnt - both of them cn never be negated - both can be unnegated

Not both

one of the variables [sufficient], the negation of the other [necessary] - both not negated - [while sufficient is not negated] - Sufficient and Nec. cannot be both left unegated

Correlation [Similar patterns]

relationship between factors drawn Ex: as X increases/decreases Y decreases/increases

Inconsistent

to not stay the same throughout

Assumption

unstated premise

Validity ( if prem happned = con must have happened in situation, within scope of prem)

(def) answers how well the premises, if accepted, prove the conclusion. How to determine whether an argument is strong or weak Consider the relationship between the premises and the conclusion. Do the premises strongly suggest that the conclusion would be true? Does the conclusion feel like an inevitable result of the premises? Does the conclusion seem to go beyond the scope of the premises? Ø Example: "The Jacksonville area has just over one million residents. Cincinnati has almost two million residents . The New York area has almost twenty million residents. therefore, we should move to Jacksonville" ○ This argument is weak, the premises do not strongly suggest the conclusion will be true Ø Example: Ø "Trees that shed their foliage annually are deciduous trees. Black Oak trees shed their leaves every year. Therefore, Black Oak trees are deciduous." ○ This example's premises lead directly to the conclusion.

Additive Inferences (3) [Start free, negative= Away, if s/m start w/ s/m, no option go backwards on all]

- Additive Inferences: inference that combines statements together Ex: Ø A---> B -------> C Additive Inf": A -----> C - Rules for forming inferneces The is no traditional direction in logic - Start by looking at the ends of the chain, for free variables - Do not start inferences with variables in double not arrow - Move in one fluid direction if none follow - If on Some Train: [Ypu must start w S and move in S direction] □ Make inference with all, or , double not arrow, double arrow that point away from the direction of some arrow □ Take the free variable letter, with without double not arrow, or side with variable. > if there isn't a variable at all but only all and double not arrow and you are looking at opposite variables, go backwards, WHENEVER YOU GO BACKWARDS, USE S [Backwards = Some] □ Make sure other arrow points away!!!! □ Pick the weakest link [all, some] □ Look for the presence of negativity □ Only pick negation when it is is on the last letter that will be in the inferene □ If no negation keep arrow - If Most train: [Start w/ M and move in M direction] □ Almost similar stems with some train □ There is need for arrow, double not arrow or all arrow □ Start with Most, (free variable), choose arrows that point away □ Choose weakest link to label arrow, look for negativity - Arrow & Double Arrow □ If arrow mixes with double not arrow it will yeild the double not arrow of the not arrow. ® Any arrow double not arrow coombo will yeild an interene, EXCEPT; 2 Double not arrows - If you are left with no option, not some/ most or if only if arrow, go backwards on an all arrow. Ig you go backwards on an all arrow you result: s arrow [pg 449] . Use inherent inferences if necessary - Negativity in the middle is irrelevant, only negate when the 1st and last letters are negated!!! - Two somes and two most's as well as a some and most do not yeild an infetence. The only most that does is two mosts with arrowa pointing in completely opposite directions - When using complex inferences [453] □ Recycle inferences to make newer ones □ Make sure to check the closed variables - Once an inference is built it does not need to be built again. Pg 455

Cannot Be True [Rule Breakers]

- Task: Accept stimulus as true § Find answer choice (assertion) that is most weakened by the information in the argument § Use information in the stimulus to prove answer choice is incorrect. Find answer choice that BREAKS THE GLOBAL RULES, § Correct Answer: Disagreement with ANY PART of the stimulus, NOT ALL How to solve: Use information in the stimulus to prove answer choice is incorrect. Find answer choice that BREAKS THE GLOBAL RULES, principles, rules, conditionals, or facts that aren't disputed Correct Answers [DGNC ] ○ will disagree with the stimulus > shows necessary condition does not happen if sufficient happens > Numbers and Percentages: information that must occur from details given Incorrect Answers [ACMNS] ○ has information that does not directly align with the stimulus (but is close to it) ○ the result of a combination of items in the stimulus ○ Could be true answers ○ Conditional: Necessary occurs, sufficient does not occur [could be true] - Can be seen as the polar opposite of the Must be True answers. The AC and Stimulus cannot be true together. ○ Example of Paradox: My house is painted in just a single, solid color blue Ø But the doors, window, and shutters on your home are still white [not all blue] Question Stem [Stim weakens AC] 1. "If the following statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?" 2. "The information above, if accurate, can best be used as evidence against which one of the following hypotheses?" 3. "The argument can almost reasonably be interpreted as an objection to which one of the following claims ?" 4. "If all the claims made above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT?" 5. The statements above, if true, most seriously undermine which one of the following assertions? 6. If the following statements above are true, then which one of the following MUST BE FALSE?

Type 7

Methodology:: Read passage and ask your self what the author is trying to persuade you of - If statement is conclusion, it does not provide support any support for another conclusion > Subsidiary Conclusion

Premise

: a fact or proposition or statement from which a conclusion is made. They give reasons for why the conclusion should be accepted They support and explain the conclusion Ask yourself- what has the author used to persuade me?

Conclusion

: summary statements that rest on premises. A statement or judgement that follows from one or more reasons Ask yourself- What does the author want me to believe? What point follows from the others?

Some (SMALess(50%) [not Most; FOM] Reversable

>> Def: At least one. [allows all numerical possibility except none] Several a few many (does not imply most) [Syn: Much, often, frequently] small less than 50% possibly all) At least some At least one A few, A number Several Part of A portion

Markets & Market Share

Chapter 17: Numbers and Percentages - If you see a number or percentages in a stimulus, make sure that the number or percentage is the focus of the problem not merely a distractor element ○ Understand that the fact that a problem uses percentages and numbers does not mean that the problem uses the information centrally in the argument IF SALES REMAIM CONSTANT BUT SHARES DECREASE, THE OVEALL SALES INCREASE - Determine whether a number, percentage or both is being discussed. Ex, if you are getting a number does that mean you are being told about the number - Look for what's missing. [Example; if given a number and a total your answer could be a percentage] - If a conclusion has percentages and numbers, the conclusion is often faulty, it is often confused between numbers and percentages ○ If the premises are composed of percentages then the numbers can worth together to determine the correct answer § Example: There have been more home burglaries in Springfield this year than ever before. Thus, residents of Springfield are now more likely than ever to be robbed at home [Weak, because if the percentage of burglaries raise from 10 to 20 and the population rose from 10,000 to 20,000 there isn't a more likely change, only constant rate] Misconceptions about numbers and percentages ○ Numerical situations are based on: Percentages within total, Numbers within total, Total Numbers 1. Increasing percentages do not automatically lead to increasing numbers (total) [the size of a group could simply get smaller] (larger share does not mean larger market) 2. Decreasing percentages do not lead to decreasing numbers (numbers) 3. Increasing (total) numbers do not automatically lead to increasing percentages 4. Decreasing (total) numbers do not automatically lead to decreasing percentages 5. Large numbers (part of total) do not automatically lead to large percentages and small (part of totals) numbers do not automatically lead small percentages 6. Large percentages to not automatically mean large numbers (part of total) Note: About numerical situations. Because numerical situations are hinged on the three elements, one cannot make a judgement about these situations until atleast two elements are present. Ex: when you are given only a percentage, you cannot make a judgement about numbers. Or When you are given information about the numerical information you cannot make a judgement Numerical Indicators: Ø Amount, Quantity, Sum, Total, Count, Tally Percentage Indicators: Ø Percent, Proportion, Fraction, Ratio, Fraction, Incidence, Likelihood, Probability, Segment, Share Must Be True Questions, Numerical Misconceptions and Finding Inferences 1. If the stimulus contains percentage or proportion information only, avoid answers that contain hard numbers. Ex: Stim: The car market share of Company X declined this year Incorrect Ans: Company X sold a smaller number of cars this year. Company X sold a greater number of cars this year 2. If the stimulus contains only numerical information avoid answers that contain percentage or proportion 3. If the stimulus contains both percentage and numerical information, any number and answer choice that contains numbers, percentages or both may be true Markets and Market Share: Market Share [%] (def): a proportion of a market Market (individual numbers from individuals) Total market share: Adds up to 100% Rules: Ø Regardless of the size of a market (number) and even though the total amount of the market can shift, the total market share must always add up to 100%

Conditional Reasoning (1)

Conditional Reasoning ○ the broad reasoning is the name given the logical relationships composed of sufficient and necessary conditions. ○ A sufficient condition can be defined as an event or circumstance whose occurrence indicates that a necessary condition must also occur. ○ A necessary condition can be defined as an event or circumstance whose occurrence is required in order for a sufficient condition to occur. § This means that if a sufficient condition occurs, automatically know that the necessary also occurs Example: If someone gets an A+ on a test, they must have studied for the test. The sufficient condition automatically indicates that the necessary condition must happen. When an author makes a conditional statement he or she believes to be true... Diagramming: Same example: Sufficient Necessary A+ --------------> Study Features of Conditional Reasoning 1. The sufficient does not make the necessary condition occur. THE SUFFICIENT CONDITION IS AN INDICATION THAT THE NECESSARY CONDITION Will OCCUR WILL OCCUR OR HAS ALREADY OCCURRED 2. Either sufficient or necessary condition can occur. 3. The conditional relationship stated by the author does not have to reflect reality, but reflect the meaning of the author's sentence Valid / Invalid Statements - If a conditionals statement is valid the premises and conclusion in the argument prove that there is a strong chance that the conclusion will happen. ○ Ex: John received an A+ on the test, so he must have studied for the test. - Invalid arguments: prove that the conclusion could happen not definite conclusion. ○ Ex: John studied for the test, so he must have received an A+ on the test or John did not receive an A + on the test, so he must not have studied for the test. □ These arguments are invalid because there is not a high chance that these conclusions are true. ® Even though John studied for the test nothing points to the fact that he received an A+ ® Also, the fact that John didn't receive an A+ on the test doesn't mean that he didn't study. Naturally, he was possibly a bad test taker, he may have gotten distracted, anything could have led to him not receiving an A+ including John receiving an A instead of an A+ ○ Incorrect Reversal: Reversal of sufficient and necessary condition but no negation [this an incorrect negation] Incorrect Negation: Negation of sufficient and necessary condition but no reversal of these conditions.

Flaw (2)

F. Strawman (def) opponent attacks argument by ignoring the actual facts of the argument, refashioning the argument and attacking the refashioned argument Ø Often accompanied by phrase "what you're saying is" "if I understand you correctly" G. Appeal Fallacies □ Appeal to authority (def) Uses the opinion of an authority, that may be unexperienced in field or may not have all to the information, to support argument - The judgement of experts is applied to the authority of the supervisor - The argument improperly appeals to the authority of the supervisor - Bases a conclusion solely on the authority of the claimant without seeking further proof □ Appeal to Popular Opinion (def) Arguer uses the opinion of the beliefs of a majority of people to assert an argument is true - popular sentiment is treated as definitive proof of a claim" - The argument tries to undermine the claim by appealing to public opinion - a conclusion is judged to be false simply because most people believe it to be false □ Appeal to Emotion (def) emotionally charged language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader. - Attempts to persuade by making an emotional appeal - The argument appeals to emotion rather than reason H. Survey Errors [SQR] □ Surveys have biased sample [handpicking sample] □ Questions are improperly constructed [questions are either purposefully confusing or misleading meaning they already make assumptions] □ Respondents to survey give inaccurate responses [responses are false] - Uses evidence drawn from a sample that may not be representative - Bases a conclusion on survey responses that were gained through faulty questioning - Generalizes from unrepresentative sample - Assumes that every polled individual provided a truthful response I. Uncertain use of a term or concept [Equivocation] (def) author uses term in inconsistent ways. The same term is presented in different ways - Depending on the ambiguous use of a key term - Equivocates with respect to a central concept - It confuses two different meanings of the word J. False Analogy (def) Author gives analogy to situation that is too dissimilar to the original situation - Treats two very different cases as if they are similar - Treats two things that differ in critical respects as if they do not differ

Flaw Questions: [Identify & Select Desc] [Incorrect: -1/2]

Flaw in Reasoning - Stimulus will always be flawed Question Stem ○ Phrases: "the reasoning is flawed" "the argument is vulnerable" "Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning?" "The reasoning above is flawed because it fails to recognize that..." "A questionable aspect of the reasoning above is that it" "The reasoning above is flawed because it fails to recognize that.." How to solve the problem: - Identify errors of reasoning made in the stimulus Identify answer choices that describe a common error of reasoning Incorrect Answers: AC's that describe a portion of the stimulus but fail to identify the error in the reasoning.

Must be True Questions: [Copy or Combo], Look in stimulus for exacts, if st... a

Must be True Questions: - Require you to select an answer choice that is proven by the information presented in the stimulus. The correct answer choice can be a paraphrase in the stimulus. - All Must be True questions can always be proven by referring to the facts stated in the stimulus Question Stem: § "If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?" § " Which if the following must be also true?" § "The statements above, if true which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it?" § "If the information above is correct.." § "Which one of the following can be properly inferred..?"/ "Which on eof the folowing logically follows?" □ The stem asks you to identify a single answer choice that is proven or supported as Correct Answer for MBT & MSS: [PC] □ Can always be proven by referring to the facts stated in the stimulus. 1. Paraphrased Answers [Paraphrased] 2. Answers that are the result of two or more stimulus statements [Combo] Incorrect Answer: [CRIES O?] 1. Could be True and Possibility Answers [Could] 2. New Information [Information] □ Examine the scope of the Argument to make sure the information does not fall within the sphere of a term or concept in the stimulus or a common sense assumption □ Make sure it is not the consequence of combining stimulus elements 3. Exaggerated Answers [Exaggeration] □ These answers take the information from the stimulus and stretch the information to make a broader statement that is not supported by the stimulus. ® Ex: "Some software vendors recently implemented more rigorous licensing procedures" ◊ The incorrect answer would say that "Most software vendors recently implemented more rigorous licensing procedures" 4. The Shell Game [SHELL] □ The answer looks similar to the information in the stimulus but there are incorrect details within the answer choice that are not written in the stimulus 5. The Opposite Answer [OPPOSITE] Answer is completely opposite from the facts stated in the stimulus 6. The Reverse Answer [REVERSE] Familiar elements from the stimulus are used however certain modifiers are switched "Many people have some type of security system in their home" (Stimulus) "Some people have most type of security system in their home" (Answer Choice) Note: - Infer= Must be true - Most Must Be True are the majority of RC Types - Most must be true questions and Most Strongly questions are statements - Information that can be used to prove answer choice correct § Actual statements of the stimulus § Common Sense Assumptions (assumptions everyone would make) [ Ex: dryness is a lack of moisture] § Consequences of the statements presented in the stimulus □ Two pieces of information combining together to produce ® Ex: A farmer has two fields of carrots and three fields of corn. [combined information, the farmer has five crops] § [pg 125] Information under the umbrella of the statements [Example: information about ]

One to One Rules (L/R 3)

Positive Absolute: Where letter should always be Neg Absolute: Where letter shouldn't be Letter rep. Odds/Evens (Not under Even/Odd) P> Q (p ahead of q) Place not letters where remaining options are Reverse Dual option (s/t or t/s) [either t or S are in #] Tri Options: When there is nothing else in the game, QS (Block) [letters can be used just not changed] QS Suitcase: letters can be used and can be reversed. QDS :sUITCASE: Handles over QS- this means letters are interchangeable Negated Suitcase: letters cannot be next to each other, they are interchangeable Letter is 2 slots after another letter(split block); LETTER 1 slot between block Atleast: negated suitcase and negated split block

Type 1 Question Methodology

Read and understand questions broken apart. Answer questions that "Must be true" based on stimulus.. Goal is to get answers that must be true Identify conditional, ask which ans MUST BE TRUE

Type 2 (Strengthen + Causal questions)

Regular 2 "most supp)" Streng: - 2- Suff : Conclusion follows if...guaranteed a. form assumption that guarantees conclusion. IF THERE IS STILL DOUBT NOT ANSWER 2- Necess: Con follows=only, if, requires, most - identify Arg. & Con - judge whether valid/invalid p negate choices - Identify flaws in arg - CHOICES THAT WEAKEN ARG ONCE NEGATED ARE ANSWERS (STRENGTHENERS AND NEUTRALS ARE NOT) Negation Technique: a. Quantifiers (All, some, none) > negate w/ logical opposite b. Conditionals (If formula) > Negate necessary, leave suff Ex: If the pilot falls asleep, then.. (Neg) Even if the PA then PC c. Only if/ Unless Formula Negate to Even if. Causal Streng: - rule out alt. cause - show that if C absent, E absent - when C is present E is present

Reversibility & Internal Inferences (2)

Reversibility [def] relationship between the variables regardless of whether they flip or not Logic Ladder (+) All Most Some Logic Ladder (-) None Most are not Some are not Reversable Non-Reversable None [<------>] All [----------->] Some [<-- s-->] Most [--M --> ] Dble Arrw [<------>] Some are Not - This is reversible but you MUST CARRY THE NEGATED LETTER TO THE OPPOSITE SIDE!! Ø Example: § A -----> B [Reverse: B -------> A] - Inherent vs Additive Inference Inherent Inferences: follow from single statement Ex: Ø A------> B In Inf: Most A's are B's, Some A's are B's - When determining the inherent inferences take eIther All, Most, or Some . Eith each word The inference is below the word. Making the move Downward beings a logical inference. Going upward Brings a possible inference - All [I Inf]: Most, some - Most [Inf]: Some - Some [I Inf]: No inf - None [inf]: Most are not, some are not - Most are not [inf]: some are not - Some are not [inf]: no inf

15 LR Methodology

S & N: If draw diag form MBT, look for statements that follow from order. or if prems match w/ cons Type 1 : MBT Combine (dig hard facts, rules conditionals) and ask 1. If these happen what necessarily happens? MBT/inference: necessarily happen from diag 1V: Cross stupid ans. and chose ans more generalized by passage > make assumptions based on necessary conditions Type 2: Strengthen: Just because (prem).. it mean ...(con) 2 "most supp)": Look for answers that only strengthen con. - 2- Suff : Ans: Ans are very strong ex: All asians are smart 2- Necess: Ans is what is guaranteed (not strong) ex: if you get a 180: necess asm (you get above 170) - cross out args that might not strengthen. of the remaining... - apply negation technique [CHOICES THAT WEAKEN ARG ONCE NEGATED ARE ANSWERS](STRENGTHENERS AND NEUTRALS ARE NOT) Con follows=only, if, requires, most - do the first 2 steps above also, Negation Technique: a. Quantifiers (All, some, none) > negate w/ logical opposite b. Conditionals (If formula) > Negate necessary, leave suff Ex: If the pilot falls asleep, then.. (Neg) Even if the PA then PC c. If/Only if/ Unless Formula Negate to Even if and Negate necessary for If and Only if, with Unless negate both Causal Streng: WAC - rule out alt. cause - show that if C absent, E absent - when C is present E is present 3. Type 3: Weaken Just because...prem.. does it mean cons...? look to challenge conclusion - if stuck look for way it doesnt have to be true. How to Weaken: (touch whole) (args that are usually invalid) 1. Show Premise as false 2. Show conclusion doesn't have to be true [mainly found in test] . Create Conditional Stmnt> Negate Sufficient WAYS- Main cause and effect w/ alt option A. Cause & Effect: CAE Show cause without effect Show effect without cause Show alternate cause B. Survey : PUB People lie Biased Questions unrepresentative sample C. Advantage: D When given advantage find disadvantage D. Offset: PPO Where possibilities aren't listed make a list of prospective possibilities. Look at the option that is being overlooked specifically Type 4: Logical Reasining Type 5: Parallel Reasoning - read initial parag. diag briefly Type 7:Methodology:: Read passage and ask your self what the author is trying to persuade you of - If statement is conclusion, it does not provide support any support for another conclusion > Subsidiary Conclusion . look for shift in conclusion, shift opinion indicators Type 8: Methodology: Read Prompt (aim for one time) Identify Main conclusion Type 9: Identify claim brought (conclusion) - look for proof that goes against or compares this conclusion.

LG Methodology

Sequencing: group all sequencing rules. the only time you make external diag is when the letter is not a part of the clustered group, 1st, last list, interchangeable and unused list One to One: Parallel: 3 or more sets, base set has inherent order Perpendicular: exactly 3 variable sets, all to all correspondence each set goes with a kind of base set. ex: 1-am and G, 2-pm and H [set 1: 1, 2] [set 2: am, pm] [set 3: G,H]

Some...not/only some (or some not)

Some not: includes every possibility except rules possibility of all Not the same as some: some includes the possibility of all only some: rules out possibility of all, but includes possibility of some not [ex; only some politicians are corrupt; at least one is corrupt, at least one is not] only some not: rules out possibility of some who is not

Criterion:

Standard

Reading Comp Method [7 Sage!!] on How to improve your memory sum + connction (front) > sum + mp (back) > answer

Stp 1: READ & Summerize [Time Limit: 3.5 Minutes] 1. Take a passage. Spend 3.5 minutes reading it. 2. At the end of each paragraph, summarize that paragraph into one line. The fewer words you use, the better. Focus on the main point of the paragraph, if it has one, or focus on the way in which this paragraph relates to the other paragraphs. 3. At the end of the passage, review each paragraph's summaries. Thread these summaries together to build a narrative. 4. Summarize the main point of the entire passage, again using as few words as possible. Stp 2: CHECK MEMORY [Time Limit : 1.5 Minutes] 1. Turn over the passage - don't look at it. 2. On a sheet of paper, write down the summaries of each paragraph and the main point of the passage. RC tests whether you really retained what you read. If you don't remember anything at first, don't worry, and don't look back at the passage. Just write down what you do remember, and resolve to do better next time. ' Stp 3: Do The Questions - Avoid Time-Traps [Time Limit: 3.5 Minutes] 1. Turn the passage over. You can look at it again. 2. If the question involves a line citation (e.g. lines 12-15), reread a few lines before and a few lines after the citation. 3. If there is no line citation, attempt to answer the question directly without referencing the passage. If you really cannot remember what the relevant details are, you can look back and you ought to know exactly where to look since you've already built a structural outline of the passage in your memory. 4. Pick an answer, trust your gut, and move on. 5. If you simply cannot decide between the answers, flag the question, and move on.

Section Strategy and Management [once practiced & Timed outline and practice]

Structure - On average the first 10 questions are considerable easier than the last ten questions ○ As the questions increase the challenges increase Time Management - The key to LR is to use a timer to keep track of how well you perform - Find the correct balance between accuracy and pace - If in your studies you find yourself struggling to complete all of the questions, do not worry it takes time to become comfortable with the types of questions presented on the LSAT Goals to accomplish when understanding/ practicing ○ Make sure you understand the way the questions are constructed ○ Don't get caught up in trying to answer one question. Do not spend a lot of time on a question ○ If you do get caught up on a question, don't let frustration carry over to the next question. Once you are done with the question, put it out of your mind and move on ○ If you know that you don't know how to solve the question move on to the next question. But if you do know how to solve the problem solve it ○ Assess your own strengths and weaknesses, you may do well with rushing through and getting all done or taking your time and attempting fewer questions ○ If you have difficulty managing the large amount of information in lengthy questions, skip questions that appear overly long to you. ○ Create a blueprint: § Assess where you perform quicker or slower on, create a guideline based on that § KNOW HOW MUCH TIME YOU PLAN ON SPENDING ON: first 10 questions, 20 questions, last 5 questions ◊ How to: 1. Practice & get answers correct (untimed) 2. Time yourself to see where you get 3. Set guidelines for where you should reach in 5, 10, 15, 20 minutes 4. Don't be too rigid with time guidelines, Be realistic about what your actual practice pace is like 5. As time winds down, you can make allowances in your approach to the questions. Come up with an "endgame plan" like choosing the shortest of the problems to complete when stuck between two last questions □ Example A: [First 10 minutes]: Complete per minute. Accordingly, when to minutes are up, I should have completed question 10 [Next 20 minutes]: Complete the remainder of the questions [Last five minutes of the section]: Double check my work; return to any question I noted as challenging OR troublesome. □ Example B: Try this!! [1st ten minutes] : Complete the first eight questions [Next ten minutes] : Complete the next seven questions [Next ten minutes] : Complete the next six questions [Last five minutes] : gauge the situation and finish the section if possible. If not, pick the questions and try to complete as many as possible. Guess on any questions I cannot complete GOAL TIME FOR QUESTIONS 1 Minute 20 seconds [26 questions] ○ Start w/ as much time as you'll need to finish at first. [Maybe continue with 1:27 per questions] Answering Questions Ø Logical Grouping: Try transferring several answer choices at once, at logical break points throughout each section [seen as more efficient, but can sometimes leads to mistakes] Ø Question By Question: This involves shading answers question by question Guessing Strategy Ø Because the LSAT doesn't penalize people for incorrect answers, you should always guess on any question you cannot complete Ø ALWAYS GUESS D ON LR Ø If you don't know the last five problems, ALWAYS GUESS E!! Around Test Time - The day before the test do little work, if anything review over concepts - Dress in layers on Test day - On Test Day you MUST arrive to the testing center no later than 8:20am - Eat only bland or neutral foods Know that God is control

Logical Construct

T / F Must BT (lo) (E) / Cnnt BF (lo) Not Nec T (lo) (E) / CBF (lo) CBT (lo) (E) / Not Necc F (lo) Cnnt BT (lo) (E) / Must BF (lo) Q / T/ S All /Always /Everywhere Nt A(some) /NtAw /NtE Some/ STmes / SW None / Never / Nowhere *Some (lo)/ Most [Dont trust] *At least one (Lo) / All (for neg) or none (for pos) Could be false (w/ not all format): at least one Double negation: turn everything that could have an opposite around - If sentence is conditional, sentence around/before "IF" stays the same everywhere immediately after is negated

Reading Comp Method [7 Sage!] on How to improve memory

Time Limit : 1.5 Minutes AFTER PASSAGE 1. Turn over the passage - don't look at it. 2. On a sheet of paper, write down the low resolution summaries of each paragraph and the main point of the passage. RC tests whether you really retained what you read. If you don't remember anything at first, don't worry, and don't look back at the passage. Just write down what you do remember, and resolve to do better next time. '

Question Types : LR 15 Types

Typ 1 (must be true): Stimulus supports the answer choice Typ 1v: [Stim suppts A] does the same but says "Most strongly supported" [usually looking for must be true or 99.9% true] Typ vx: the answer to the stem is not supported by the stimulus Typ 2 (most strengthen) : [A supports stim] Answer choice supports conclusion/ Also includes assumption umbrella 2: "Which provides MOST SUPPORT , MOST STRENGTHENS, JUSTIFICATION" [JM: Sup/T] 2N: "Con follows.. ONLY IF, REQUIRES, MOST, PRESUPPOSES, VALID, SOUNDNESS, ONE ASSUMPTION" [VP ROOMS] 2S:"Con follows IF, PROPERLY " [IP] Typ 3: (most weakens) Answer choice weakens conclusion Type 4: Method of Reasoning: Evaluate Arg Structure, Validity? , identify underlying structure Type 5: Parallel reasoning Type 6: Resolve/Explain Type 7: Main Point: Read passage and ask your self what the author is trying to persuade you of - If statement is conclusion, it does not provide support any support for another conclusion > Subsidiary Conclusion Type 8: Role/Function Methodology: Read Prompt (aim for one time) Identify Main conclusion Type 9: Criterion Type 10: Cannot be true/Must be false Type 11: Point at Issue Type 12: Point of Agreement Type 13: Illustration Type 14: Misinterpretation Type 15: Argument Evaluation

Help Family [2's, Res]

Uses Answer Choice (stays) to help the stimulus (there are reasoning errors in stim) - Assumption (Necessary Assumption) - Justify the Conclusion (Sufficient Assumption) - Strengthen/Support - Resolve the Paradox

Hurt Family

Uses Answer choice(stays) to hurt the stimulus. (here are reasoning errors in stim) - Weaken

Cannot Be True Family

Uses stimulus (stays) to prove answer choice cannot be true (there are reasoning errors in ans choice) - Cannot be true

Claim:

argue, assert

Correlation cause and effect

as x increases/decreases, y decreases/increases this means that X is the cause of Y

premise

assertion, proposition,

suppositions

beliefs

COMMONLY USED CONTRACTIONS

Ø Contractions like these, a single speaker raises alternate viewpoints at the beginning of the stimulus and then disagree with it after. THIS USUALLY RAISES TWO OPPOSING VIEWS IN A SHORT PARAGRAPH. Ø The use of this device to begin a stimulus almost always leads to the introduction of the opposing view ○ Examples of this "Some people say" "Many people say" "Some argue that..." "Some people argue that" "Some critics claim..." "Some critics maintain" "Some scientists believe" "A number... of people believe that..." "some critics of space exploration programs claim that..."

Modifiers

Ø Quantity Indicators (amount or quantity): all, every, most, many, some, several, few, sole, only, not all, none Ø Probability Indicators (likelihood): must, will, always, not always, probably, likely, would, not necessarily, could, rarely, never

LR QUESTION TYPES [pgs 78-82]

• Must be true/Most Supported [1, 1S] - Asks you to answer the answer choice that Is best proven by the information in the stimulus. Asks about inferences • Main Point [7] • Point at Issue/Point at Agreement • Assumption (Necessary Assumption) [2N] - These questions ask you to identify an assumption of the author's argument • Justify the Conclusion (Sufficient Assumption) [2S] - Ask you to supply a piece of information that when added to the premises, prove the conclusion. • Strengthen/Support [2] - Ask you to select answer choice that provides support for the author's argument or strengthens it in some way • Resolve the Paradox [] - Contains discrepancy or seeming contradiction. You must find the answer choice that best resolves the situation. • Weaken [3] - Asks you to attack or undermine the author's argument. • Method of Reasoning - Asks you to describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument. • Flaw in Reasoning [4] - Asks you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author. • Parallel Reasoning/Parallel Flaw [5] - Asks you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus • Evaluate the Argument [] - You are tasked to decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity or the argument • Cannot be True [10] - Ask you to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus