Management Exam Notes

The problem with teams

- 3 reasons that teams present a dilemma for people: Have to give up independence, have to put up with free riders (team members who attains benefits from team membership but doesn't actively participate in and contribute to teams work), teams are sometimes dysfunctional (can sabotage, don't cooperate)

Classroom training

includes lectures, films, audio-visuals techniques and simulations. Makes up approx. 70% of all formal corporate training

Perception is a step by step process

o 1) Observe info (sensory data) from the enviro through our sense: taste, smell, hearing, sight and touch o 2) Our mind screens the data and selects only the items we will process further o 3) We organise the selected data into meaningful patterns for interpretation and response

Orientation training

where newcomers are intro to org's culture, standards and goals

Authoritarianism

- 4 areas related to personality that are of particular interest to managers are locus of control, authoritarianism, Machiavellianism and problem-solving styles. o Belief that power and status differences should exist within the org o Individuals high in authoritarianism tend to be concerned with power and toughness, obey recognised authority above them, stick to conventional values, critically judge others, oppose the use of subjective feelings. o The degree to which managers possess authoritarianism will influence how they wield and share power. o The degree to which employees possess authoritarianism will influence how they react to their managers. o If a manager and employees differ in their degree of authoritarianism, the manager may have difficulty leading effectively

Locus of control

- 4 areas related to personality that are of particular interest to managers are locus of control, authoritarianism, Machiavellianism and problem-solving styles. o Refers to how people perceive the cause of life events, whether they place primary responsibility within themselves or on outside forces o Some people believe that their own actions strongly influence what happens to them. Control their own fate. These individuals have a high internal locus of control. o Others believe that events in their lives occur because of chance, luck or outside people and events. They feel more like pawns of their fate, they have high external locus of control o People with internal locus of control are easier to motivate, because they believe that their rewards are result of their behaviour, better able to handle complex info and problem solving, more achievement oriented, more independent, so also more difficult to manager o People with external locus are harder to motivate, less involved in their jobs, more likely to blame others when faced with a poor performance evaluation, more compliant and conforming, so easier to manage

Machiavellianism

- 4 areas related to personality that are of particular interest to managers are locus of control, authoritarianism, Machiavellianism and problem-solving styles. o Tendency to direct much of one's behaviours towards the acquisition of power and the manipulation of others for personal gain o Research shows that high 'Machs' are predisposed to being pragmatic, capable of lying to achieve personal goals, more likely to win in win-lose situations, more likely to persuade than be persuaded o In loosely structured situations, high Machs actively take control, while low Machs accept the direction given by others. o Low Machs thrive in highly structured situations, while high Machs perform in a detached, disinterested way. o High Machs are particularly good in jobs that require bargaining skills or that involve substantial rewards for winning.

Emotions

- A mental state that arises spontaneously within a person based on interaction with the enviro, rather than through conscious effort, and that is often accompanied by physiological changes or sensations - Orgs suffer when Mgs fail to pay attention to how employees' emotions affect their productivity and the work enviro - Mgs can increase their effectiveness by understanding positive and negative emotions and by developing emotional intelligence - Negative emotions are sparked when a person becomes frustrated in trying to achieve their goals - Positive emotions are triggered when people are on track towards achieving goals - Emotional state of the Mg influences the entire team or department o The emotional contagion means that Mgs who express positive emotions such as happiness, enthusiasm and appreciation trigger positive emotions in employees. o Energy level of entire org increases when leaders are optimistic and hopeful rather than angry or depressed.

Managing yourself

- Ability to engage in self-regulating thoughts and behaviour to accomplish all your tasks and handle difficult or challenging situations - 3 basic principles for self-management: o 1) Clarity of mind: if mind isn't clear, can't focus, can't get anything done. o 2) Clarity of objectives: have to be clear about exactly what you need to do and decide the steps to take towards accomplishing it o 3) An organised system

Problem solving styles

- Mgs need to realise that individuals solve problems and make decisions in different ways - One approach to understanding problem solving styles came from Carl Jung. o He said differences result from our preferences in how we go about gathering and evaluating info. o Gathering info and evaluating info are separate activities o People gather info either by sensation or intuition, but not by both simultaneously o Sensation type people would rather work with known facts and hard data, and prefer routine and order in gathering info o Intuitive type people would rather look for possibilities than work with facts, prefer solving new problems and using abstract concepts o Evaluating info involves making judgements about the info a person has gathered. o People evaluate info by thinking or feeling. o Thinking-type individuals base their judgements on impersonal analysis, using reason and logic rather than personal values or emotional aspects of a situation o Feeling type individuals base their judgements more on personal feelings, such as harmony, tend to make decisions that result in approval from others. o According to this, only one of the four functions: sensation, intuition, thinking, feelings, is dominant in an individual. o Widely used test that measures how people differ on all four of Jung's sets of paired opposites is the Myers-Briggs Types Indicator assessment § Measures a person's preferences for introversion vs extroversion, sensation vs intuition, thinking vs feeling, judging vs perceiving § The various combinations of these 4 preferences result in 16 unique personality types.

Perception errors

- One common perceptual error is stereotyping: the tendency to assign an individual to a group or broad category and then attribute widely held generalisations about the group to the individual. Negative stereotypes prevent talented people from advancing in an org. o Halo effect: occurs when the perceiver develops an overall impression of a person or situation based on one characteristic, either favourable or unfavourable. It blinds the perceiver to other characteristics that should be used in generating a more complete assessment.

Attributions

- People make attributions as an attempt to understand why others behave as they do. - Internal attribution says characteristics of the person led to the behaviour, eg: Susan missed the deadline because she is lazy - External attribution says something about the situation caused person's behaviour, eg: Susan missed deadline because she couldn't get info she needed in a timely manner - Understanding attributions is important because they influence how a Mg will handle a situation - In the case of the missed deadline, a manager who blames it on the employee's personality will view Susan as the problem and might give her unfavourable performance reviews and less attention and support. A manager who blames the behaviour on the situation might try to prevent such situations in the future, such as by improving horizontal communication mechanisms so that people get the information they need in a timely fashion. - People tend to have biases that they apply when making attributions. - When evaluating others, tend to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors. Called the fundamental attribution error. - People tend to overestimate the contribution of internal factors to their successes and overestimate contribution of external factors to their failures. Called self-servicing biases.

Personality

- Personality: the set of characteristics that underlie a relatively stable pattern of behaviour in response to ideas, objects or people in the enviro - Mgs should avoid putting people into close working relations with people who are going to have personality clashes. - Individual's personality influences their work-related attitudes and behaviours

Big 5 Personality factors

- There are 5 general dimensions that describe personality: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. Called Big Five Personality factors. Having a moderate to high degree of each of them is considered desirable for a wide range of employees. - Extroversion: Degree to which a person is outgoing, sociable, assertive and comfortable with interpersonal relationships. - Agreeableness: Degree to which a person is able to get along with others by being good-natured, likeable, cooperative, forgiving, understanding and trusting. - Conscientiousness: Degree to which a person is focused on a few goals, thus behaving in ways that are responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement oriented. - Emotional stability: Degree to which a person is calm, enthusiastic and self-confident, rather than tense, depressed, moody or insecure. - Openness to experience: Degree to which a person has a broad range of interests and is imaginative, creative, artistically sensitive and willing to consider new ideas.

Corporate universities

an in-house training and education facility that offers broad based learning opps for employees, eg: Hamburger Uni for Maccas.

Stress and stress management

o An individual's physiological and emotional response to external stimuli that place physical or psychological demands on the individual and create uncertainty and lack of personal control when important outcomes are at stake. These stimuli, called stressors, produce some combination of frustration and anxiety o Stress up to a certain point challenges you and increases your focus, alertness, efficiency and productivity o After that point, go downhill quickly and stress compromises job performance, relationships and health. Stop feeling productive, experience anxiety, fear, depression, anger, frustration. o Type A and Type B personalities cause different responses to stress § Type A: includes extreme competitiveness, impatience, aggressiveness, devotion to work, tend to experience more stress related illness, high energy people § Type B: live with less stress unless they are in high stress situations o Workplace stress has been skyrocketing worldwide for some years o Mgs can better cope with their own stress and establish ways for the org to help employees cope if they understand the conditions that tend to produce work stress o Make a distinction between stress caused by the demands of job tasks and stress caused by interpersonal pressures and conflicts. § Task demand: stressors arising from the tasks required of a person holding a particular job. May have time pressure, serious consequences, decisions made without all info § Interpersonal demands: stressors associated with relationships in the org. Eg: conflicts between individuals.

Emotional intelligence

o Includes 4 basic components: § Self-awareness: being aware of what you are feeling. People in touch with their feelings are better able to guide their own lives and actions. § Self-management: Ability to control disruptive or harmful emotions and balance your moods, so that worry, anxiety, fear or anger do not cloud your thinking. § Social awareness: ability to understand others and to practice empathy, recognise what others are feeling without them needing to tell you. Capable of understanding divergent points of view and interacting effectively with many different types of people § Relationship management: ability to connect to others, build positive relationships, respond to the emotions of others, influence others. Know how to listen and communicate clearly, treat others with compassion and respect. o High EQ important for jobs such as sales, that require high degree of social interaction. o Critical for Mgs. Mgs with low emotional intelligence can undermine employee morale and harm the org

Performance appraisal: 360 degree feedback

process that uses multiple raters, including self-rating, as a way to increase awareness of strengths and weaknesses and guide employee development. Rising trend in performance appraisal. Raters may include supervisors, co-workers, customers, individual so provides holistic view of employee's performance

Responses to stress

§ Healthy workplaces promote the physical and emotional well-being of their employees § Mgs have direct control over many of the things that cause people stress, including their own behaviour. § Manage stress by encouraging people to take regular breaks and vacations § Make sure people don't have unreasonable workloads, provide opportunities for growth and advancement, offer suitable salaries and benefits § Provide wellness programs and training § Train Mgs to recognise warning signs of stress overload is critical § Make sure people have some fun at work.

Performance evaluation errors

§ Stereotyping: occurs when a rater places an employee into a class or category based on one of a few traits or characteristics § Halo effect: Mg gives an employee the same rating on all dimensions even if their performance is good on some dimensions and poor on others. Eg: tutor has high standards for grammar, so few grammatical errors in your intro may trigger negative halo effect in your tutor § To overcome these, can use a behaviour based rating technique, eg: behaviourally anchored rating scale (BARS).

Developing talent: mentoring and coaching

o Mentoring: an experienced employee guides and supports a newcomer or less experienced employee o Mentors usually offer counsel regarding how to network and advance in the company, guide employee in developing their skills and abilities o Coaching: method of directing, instructing and training a person with the goal to develop specific management skills. Usually applies to higher level Mgs who want to develop their personal competencies

Leadership

- Leaders behaviour plays a critical role in shaping employee performance - The ability to influence people towards the attainment of goals - A key factor that determines the success of business - The attitudes and behaviours of leaders shape the conditions that determine how well employees can do their jobs. They play a big role in the organisation's success

Compensation

o All monetary payments and all goods or commodities used instead of money to reward employees o Org's compensation structure includes wages, salaries, benefits like health insurance, paid vacations, employee fitness centres o Developing effective compensation system is important part of human resource management because helps attract and retain talented workers, impacts strategic performance

What is a team

- A unit of 2 or more people who interact and coordinate their work to accomplish a common goal to which they are committed and hold themselves mutually accountable - Teamwork requires bringing together the right set of personalities, specialities and skills, clearly defining roles and responsibilities, focusing everyone on a well-defined mission, establishing clear channels of communication and info sharing so that team members communicate their objectives and needs in all directions - Trust is crucial for teamwork, people have to be willing to collaborate and sacrifice their individual objectives for the sake of the larger goal

Recruiting

- Activities or practices that define the desired characteristics of applicants to whom selection procedures are ultimately applied - Many orgs use internal recruiting or promote from within policies to fill their high-level positions - Internal recruiting advantages: less costly than an external search, generates higher employee commitment, development and satisfaction as it offers opportunities for career advancement to employees rather than outsiders. - External recruiting: recruiting newcomers from outside the org. Applicants come through a variety of sources, eg: advertising, online recruiting services, job fairs, employee referrals - Today, much recruiting is done via the Internet and social media sites like LinkedIn, FB. - Orgs must ensure their recruiting practices conform to the law o Equal employment opportunity laws stipulate that recruiting and hiring decisions cannot discriminate on the basis of personal characteristics, eg age, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, gender.

Attitudes

- An evaluation, either positive or negative, that predisposes a person to act in a certain way - Understanding attitudes is important to Mgs, because they determine how people perceive the work enviro, interact with others and behave on the job - Attitudes of most interest to Mgs are those related to work - Two attitudes that might relate to high performance are satisfaction with one's job and commitment to the org - Most mgs strive to develop and reinforce positive attitudes among all employees, because people are healthier and more effective when they have positive feelings about their jobs, co-workers, company, work enviro - People experience job satisfaction when their work matches their needs and interests, when working conditions and rewards, eg: pay, are satisfactory, when they like co-workers, when have positive relationships with supervisors - Mgs rely on job satisfaction to keep motivation and enthusiasm high, cannot afford to lose talented and highly skilled workers - Mgs create the enviro that determines whether employees have positive or negative attitudes towards their jobs

Team norms

- An informal standard of conduct that is shared by team members and guides their behaviour - Valuable because they provide a frame of reference for what is expected and acceptable - Begin to develop in the first interactions among members of a new team - Team leaders play an important role in shaping norms that will help the team be effective

Transformational leaders

- Bring about innovation and change by recognising their followers' needs and concerns, providing meaning, challenging people to look at old problems in new ways and acting as role models for new values and behaviours - Inspire followers to believe in the leader personally, and their own potential to imagine and create a better future for the org - Lead changes in org's mission, strategy, structure, culture - Do not rely solely on tangible rules and incentives to control specific transactions with followers. Focus on intangible qualities such as vision, shared values and ideas to build relationships, give larger meaning to diverse activities, find common ground to enlist followers in the change process - Have positive impact on follower development performance - Emotionally stable and positively engaged with the world around them

Gender differences in leadership

- Characteristics of Level 5 leaders and authentic leaders associated with female leaders - Research indicates that women's style of leadership is typically different from that of most men, and is particularly suited to today's organisations - Studies show women are better at motivating others, fostering communicating and listening, rated higher on social and emotional skills - Women rated lower on developing a strategic perspective

Transactional leadership

- Clarify the role and task requirements of subordinates, initiate structure, provide appropriate rewards, try to be considerate and meet the needs of subordinates - Excel at management functions, hardworking, tolerant, fair minded, take pride in keeping things running smoothly and efficiently, - Often stress the impersonal aspects of performance such as plans, schedules and budgets - Have sense of commitment to the org and conform to organisational norms and values

Coercive power

- Coercive power: the authority to punish or recommend punishment. Opposite to reward power. Right to fire or demote employees, criticise them, withhold pay increases, reprimand the employee, put negative letter in their file

Acqui-hiring

- Common in tech world - Established companies, like FB, Google, buy early stage start ups, often shutting them down, so they can acquire their engineering talent. - Means larger companies get teams of engineers who are accustomed to working together

Managing team conflict

- Conflict can arise among members within a team or between one team and another - Refers to antagonistic interaction in which one party attempts to block the intentions or goals of another - Conflict is inevitable - Bringing conflicts into the open and effectively resolving them is one of the team leaders most challenging, yet most important jobs - Effective conflict management has a positive impact on team cohesiveness and performance - 2 basic types of conflict that occur are task conflict and relationship conflict: o Task conflict: refers to disagreements among people about the goals to be achieved or the content of the tasks to be performed. Can lead to better decision making and problem solving o Relationship conflict: refers to interpersonal incompatibility that creates tension and personal animosity among people. Eg: neat members find it almost impossible to work with those who like clutter - Mild conflict can be beneficial to teams because means multiple viewpoints are expressed. Prevents groupthink (where people are so committed to a cohesive team that they are reluctant to express contrary opinions). - However, conflict that is too strong, that is focused on personal rather than work issues or that is not managed appropriately can be damaging to the team's morale and productivity. Too much conflict can be destructive, tear relationships apart and interfere with the healthy exchange of ideas and information

Expert power

- Expert power: power resulting from a person's special knowledge or skill regarding the tasks being performed. When someone is a true expert, others go along with their recommendations because of their superior knowledge.

Contingency approaches to leadership

- Explore how the organisational situation influences leader effectiveness - Includes the situational model, the leadership model, and the substitutes for leadership concept (see below)

Team cohesiveness

- Extent to which members are attached to the team and motivated to remain in it - Members of highly cohesive teams are committed to team activities, attend meetings and are happy when the team succeeds

Finding the right people

- First step is human resource planning. Mg or HRM professional predict the need for new employees based on the type of vaccines that exist - 2nd step: use recruiting procedures to communicate with potential applicants - 3rd step: select from the applicants those individuals believed to be the best contributors to the org - 4th step: new employee is welcomed into the org - Underlying the organisation's effort to attract employees is a matching model. With the matching model, the organisation and the individual attempt to match the needs, interests and values that they offer each other Eg: large manufacturer can offer employment security and stability, but it might have more rules and regulations and bureaucracy.

Hard power

- Hard power: power that stems largely from a person's position of authority, includes legitimate, reward and coercive power. The traditional manager's power comes from the organisation - Effective leaders do not rely solely on hard power of their formal position to influence others.

Leadership grid

- Has 5 major management styles - Team management: considered most effective style, recommended for leaders because organisation members work together to accomplish tasks - Country club management occurs when primary emphasis is given to people rather than to work outputs - Authority compliance management: occurs when efficiency in operations is the dominant orientation - Middle of the road management: reflects a moderate amount of concern for both people and production - Impoverished management: absence of a management philosophy, managers exert little effort towards interpersonal relationships or work accomplishment

Charismatic leadership

- Has ability to inspire and motivate people to do more than they normally would, despite obstacles and personal sacrifice - Followers willing to put aside their own interests for the sake of the team/department/organisation - Have ability to understand and empathise with followers - Create an atmosphere of change, may be obsessed by visionary ideas - Eg: Barack Obama, Mother Teresa, Oprah - Charisma can be used for self-servicing purposes that lead to deception, manipulation and exploitation of others - Humility plays an important part in distinguishing whether a charismatic leader will work to benefit the larger org or use their gifts for ego-building and personal gain - Have strong vision for the future and they can motivate others to help realise it

Employees

- Hiring and retaining quality employees is one of the most urgent concerns of today's managers - The people who make up the organisation - Give the company its primary source of competitive advantage - As businesses become increasingly international, talent pools are now global

Changing nature of careers

- In old social contract, employees could contribute to org and expect in return that the company would provide wages, benefits, work, etc. - However, globalisation, outsourcing, hyper-competition, ongoing sluggish economic performance has accelerated the erosion of old social contract - Companies and employees become allies, helping each other grow, eg: employee help company become more adaptable while company helps employee become more employable. - New contract is based on employability, not life-time employment - Individuals expected to be self-motivated worker, develop their own skills and abilities - The employer, in return, invests in creative training and development opportunities so that employee will be more employable when the company no longer needs their services

Selecting

- In selection process, employers assess applicants' characteristics in an attempt to determine the 'fit' between the job and applicant characteristics - Generally, the greater skill requirements and work demands of a position, the greater number and variety of selection tools the org will use - Most frequently used selection devices are the application form, interview, employment test and assessment centre

Leadership traits

- Intelligence, honesty, self-confidence - Effective leaders typically possess varied traits - No single leader can have a complete set of characteristics that is appropriate for handling any problem, challenge or opportunity that comes along - Leaders need to be able to see possibilities where others see problems and instil in others a sense of hope for a better future - Optimism can also lull leaders into laziness and overconfidence, meaning they miss danger signals and underestimate risks - Best leaders recognise and hone their strengths, ie: natural talents and abilities

Asserting influence

- Leaders often use a combination of influence strategies - Those with greater power and influence usually use a wider range of tactics - Six principles for asserting influence: o Use rational persuasion: use of facts, data and logical argument to persuade others that a proposed idea, request or decision is appropriate. Usually highly effective as most people have faith in facts and analysis. Most successful when leader has technical knowledge and expertise related to the issue at hand (expert power), but referent power is also used. Have to believe the leader is credible. o Help people to like you: More likely to say yes to someone you like. Effective leaders strive to create goodwill and favourable impressions. Show consideration, respect, treat people fairly, demonstrates trust in others, people are more likely to want to help and support the leader. o Rely on the rule of reciprocity: Leaders can influence others through the exchange of benefits and favours. People should be paid back for what they do. o Develop allies: Effective leaders develop networks of allies, people who can help the leader accomplish their goals. o Be assertive - ask for what you want: Influence people through a direct and personal request. Leaders have to be explicit about what they want, or they aren't likely to get it. o Make use of higher authority: sometimes to get things done, leaders have to use their formal authority, as well as gain the support of people at higher levels to back them up.

Legitimate power

- Legitimate power: power coming from a formal management position in an organisation. When person supervisor, must employees understand that they are obligated to follow their direction, subordinates accept this source of power as legitimate, which is why they comply with directions given

Management vs leadership

- Management organises the production and supply of fish to people, whereas leadership teaches and motivates people to fish - Management and leadership reflect 2 different sets of qualities and skills - Ideally, a manager develops a balance of both manager and leader qualities - Management promotes stability and order within the existing organisational structure and systems. Ensures supplier are paid, customers invoiced, products and services produced on time, etc. - Leadership promotes vision and change. Leadership means questioning the status quo, being willing to take reasonable risks so that outdated, unproductive or socially irresponsible norms can be replaced to meet new challenges - Good management helps organisation meet current commitments; good leadership moves org into the future

Fiedler's contingency theory

- Match the leader's style with the situation. By diagnosing the leadership style and the organisational situation, the correct fit can be arranged - Look at elements of the organisational situation to assess when one leadership style is most effective - The suitability of a person's leadership style is determined by whether the situation is favourable or unfavourable to the leader - The favourability of a leadership situation can be analysed in terms of 3 elements: the quality of relationships between leader and followers, the degree of task structure (the extent to which processes can be formally defined or standardised), and the extent to which the leader has formal authority over followers - A situation would be considered highly favourable to the leader when the leader-member relationships are positive, tasks are highly structured, and the leader has formal authority over followers. Followers trust and have confidence in leader. Group tasks are clearly defined, involve specific procedures and have clear, explicit goals. Leader has formal authority to direct and evaluate followers, and power to reward or punish - Unfavourable situation: followers have little respect for or confidence and trust in the leader. Tasks are vague, ill defined, lack clear procedures and guidelines. Leader has little formal authority to direct subordinates, doesn't have power to issue rewards or punishments - Task oriented leaders more effective when situation is highly favourable (because everyone gets along, task is clear, and leader has power) or highly unfavourable (great deal of structure and task direction is needed) - People oriented leaders more effective in situations of moderate favourability. Can create a positive group atmosphere that will improve relationships, clarify task structure and establish position power. - So, leader must know whether they have a task oriented or relationship style, and diagnose the situation to see if favourable or unfavourable.

Self efficacy and confidence

- Mgs can accomplish significant results and advance their careers only when they have the self-confidence to take risks and go beyond comfort zone - Self-efficacy: individual's strong belief that they can accomplish a specific task or outcome successfully. - Self-confidence: general assurance in one's own ideas, judgement and capabilities

Situational model of leadership

- Originated with Hersey and Blanchard - Focuses on characteristics of followers in determining appropriate leadership behaviour - Subordinates vary in readiness, their degree of willingness and ability - Willingness refers to a combination of confidence, commitment and motivation - Ability refers to the amount of knowledge, experience and skill a subordinate brings to a task - Effective leaders adapt their style according to the readiness level of people they are managing. Those with low readiness due to little ability or training or insecurity, need different leadership style than those who are high in readiness and have good ability, skills, confidence and willingness to work - Leader diagnoses the readiness level of followers and adopts the appropriate style - According to this model, leader can adopt one of 4 leadership styles:

Understanding yourself and others

- Personality traits, attitudes, emotions, characteristics influence how people behave, how they handle work situations, relate to others - Having insight into why people behave the way they do is a part of good management, means can get best out of each employee and more effectively lead people through workplace challenges - Mgs need to understand themselves as their characteristics and behaviour can profoundly affect the workplace and influence employee motivation, morale, job performance - When Mg understand themselves, they remain grounded, constant, people know what to expect

Power and influence

- Power: the potential ability to influence the behaviour of others - Influence: effect that a person's actions have on the attitudes, values, beliefs or behaviour of others - Power includes 5 types that are available to leaders and can be categorised as either hard or soft power.

Promotion from within

- Promotion from within: Furthers employee development. Helps orgs retain valuable people

Referent power

- Referent power: comes from personal characteristics that command others' identification, respect and admiration, meaning others wish to emulate that individual. Most visible in charismatic leadership

Authentic leadership

- Refers to individuals who know and understand themselves, who espouse and act consistently with higher order ethical values, and who empower and inspire others with their openness and authenticity - Inspire trust and commitment because they respect diverse viewpoints, encourage collaboration and help others to lean, grow and develop as leaders - Pursues purpose with passion, inspires commitment from followers - Have values that are shaped by their personal beliefs, stay true to them even when under pressure. People know what the leader stands for which inspires trust - Build positive and enduring relationships, makes followers want to do their best - High degree of self-control and self-discipline keeps leaders from taking excessive or unethical risks that could harm others and the org - Have compassion for others and courage to make difficult decisions

Human resource management

- Refers to the design and application of formal systems in an organisation to ensure the effective and efficient use of human talent to accomplish organisational goals. Includes activities undertaken to attract, develop and maintain an effective workforce - Mgs have to find the right people, place them in positions where they can be most effective, and develop them so they contribute to company success - More large corporations are outsourcing routine HR administrative activities, eg: recruiting and training, so means HRM staff can take on more strategic responsibilities - Human capital is cited as the top factor in maintaining competitive success - Human capital refers to the economic value of the combined knowledge, experience, skills and capabilities of employees. - HR departments support strategic objectives and actively pursue an ongoing integrated plan for furthering the org's performance - Effective HRM has a positive impact on performance, including higher employee productivity and stronger financial results - Some strategic issues of particular concern to Mgs include hiring the right people to become more competitive on a global basis, hiring the right people for improving quality, innovation and customer service, knowing the right people to retain after mergers, acquisitions or downsizing - 3 broad HRM activities are to find the right people, manage talent so that people achieve their potential and maintain the workforce over the long term - To build human capital, HRM develops strategies for finding the best people, enhancing their skills and knowledge with training and opportunities for personal and professional development, providing compensation and benefits that support the sharing of knowledge and appropriately reward people for their contributions to the organisation

Level 5 leadership

- Refers to the highest level in a hierarchy of manager capabilities - Key characteristics: almost complete lack of ego, fierce resolve to do what is best for the org, often seem shy and self-effacing, accept full responsibility for mistakes, poor results and failures, give credit for successes to other people, want everyone to develop to their full potential - Build organisations based on solid values that go far beyond just making money, do whatever is needed to make the company successful over long term - Develop a solid core of leaders throughout the organisation, so when they leave, company can continue to thrive and grow - Originator: Jim Collins

Reward power

- Reward power: stems from the authority to bestow rewards on other people. Mg may have access to formal rewards, eg: pay increases, promotions. Also have at disposal informal rewards, eg: praise, attention, recognition. Rewards can be used to influence subordinate's behaviour

Servant leadership

- Serves others, the organisation, society, not themselves - Operate on 2 levels: for the fulfilment of their subordinates' goals and needs, and for the realisation of the larger purpose/mission of the org - Often work in non-profit world because it offers a natural way to apply their leadership drive and skills to serve others

Soft power

- Soft power: includes expert power and referent power, which is based on personal characteristics and interpersonal relationships more than on a position of authority. Comes from internal sources, eg: individual's special knowledge or personal characteristics

Human resource management issues

- Some important HRM issues today are branding the company as an employer of choice, addressing the needs of temporary employees and part time workers, acknowledging growing employee demands for a work life balance - Branding the company as an employer of choice: o Companies are using employer branding to attract desirable job candidates o Aim is to make the organisation seem like a highly desirable place to work o 'Sell' the company and attract the best job candidates - Using temporary and part time employees: o Contingent workers are becoming a larger part of the workforce in most countries. Contingent workers are people who work for an org but not on a permanent or full-time basis o In recent years, demand has grown for contingent professionals such as accountants and financial analysts, interim Mgs, lawyers, product Mgs - Promoting a work life balance: o Initiatives that enable people to lead a balanced life are a critical part of many organisations' retention strategies o Some companies cannot afford pay rises, so Mgs offering more flexible scheduling or more control over their assignments as rewards o Work part of the time from home or other location o Many companies have implemented broad work life balance initiatives in response to the shift in expectations among young employees. Generation Y workers, or millennials, work smart and work hard on the job, but refuse to let work be their whole life. Unlike their parents, who placed a higher priority on career, Gen Y workers expect their jobs to accommodate their personal lives

Situational substitutes for leadership

- Suggests that situational variables can be so powerful that they substitute for or neutralise the need for leadership - Makes leadership style unnecessary or redundant - Highly professional subordinates who know how to do their tasks do not need a leader who initiates structure for them and tells them what to do - Situational variables include characteristics of the group, the task and the organisation itself - Formalised rules and procedures substitute for leader task orientation

What is team processes

- Team processes refer to those dynamics that change over time and can be influenced by team leaders

Contributions of teams

- Teams lead to stronger competitive advantage and higher overall organisational performance - Creativity and innovation: teams include people with diverse skills, strengths, experiences, perspectives, so they contribute to a higher level of creativity and innovation in the org - Improved quality - Speed of response: tightly integrated teams can manoeuvre incredibly fast, they can speed up product development, respond more quickly to changing customer needs and solve cross-departmental problems more quickly - Higher productivity and lower costs: social facilitations refer to the tendency for the presence of others to enhance one's performance. - Enhanced motivation and satisfaction: working in teams mean people feel belonging and affiliation, creates greater camaraderie, reduce boredom, increase people's feelings of dignity and self-worth, develop new skills, cope better with stress, enjoy job more.

Perception

- The cognitive process that people use to make sense out of the enviro by selecting, organising and interpreting info from the enviro - People see the same thing in different ways due to personality, attitudes, values, interests, etc.

Human resource planning

- The forecasting of human resource needs and the projected matching of individuals with expected vacancies - Begins with several questions, eg: what new tech are emerging and how will this affect the work system? What is the volume of business likely to be in the next 5 to 10 years? - Answers to these questions are used to formulate specific questions related to HR, eg: how many senior managers will we need during this time period? Can we use temporary, contingent or virtual workers to handle some tasks? - Answers to these questions help define the direction for the org's HRM strategy. - Eg: if forecasting suggests a strong upcoming need for more technically trained individuals, the organisation can: define the jobs and skills needed in some detail; hire and train recruiters to look for the specified skills; and provide new training for existing employees. - By anticipating future human resource needs, the org can prepare itself to meet competitive challenges more effectively than org's that react to problems only as they arise.

Followership

- Top qualities desired in a follower are honest, competent, dependable, cooperative and loyal, independent, critical thinking, mindful of effects of one's behaviour on achieving goals - Active follower participates fully in organisation, engages in behaviour that is beyond the limits of the job, demonstrates a sense of ownership and initiates problem solving and decision making

Behavioural approaches to leadership

- Two types of behaviour that have been identified as applicable to effective leadership in a variety of situations and time periods are task-oriented behaviour and people-oriented behaviour - People-oriented: extent to which the leader is mindful of subordinates, respects their ideas and feelings and establishes mutual trust - Task-oriented: extent to which the leader directs subordinate work activities towards goal attainment - Leader can focus on employee centred or job centred o Employee centred: focus on employees' human needs, build effective work groups with high performance goals o Job centred: meeting schedules, keeping costs low, achieving production efficiency

Visionary leaders

- Vision: an attractive, ideal future organisational state or outcome that is credible yet not readily attainable - Visionary leaders concentrate on formulating and communicating the organisation's longer term 'big picture' - Speak to the hearts of employees, letting them feel that they are part of something bigger than themselves

Why teams are important

- When tasks are highly interdependent, a team can be best approach to ensuring the level of coordination, info sharing and exchange of materials necessary for successful task accomplishment

Model of team effectiveness

- Work team effectiveness is based on 3 outcomes: productive output, personal satisfaction, and the capacity to adapt and learn o Satisfaction: team's ability to meet the personal needs of its members and hence maintain their membership and commitment o Productive output: performance and quality and quantity of task outputs as defined by team goals o Capacity to adapt and learn: the ability of teams to bring greater knowledge and skills to job tasks and enhance the potential of the organisation to respond to new threats or opportunities in the enviro. - Factors affecting team effectiveness begin with organisational context, eg: overall leadership, strategy, enviro, culture, systems for controlling and rewarding employees - Important team characteristics are type of team, team structure, team composition - Diversity of team, eg: knowledge, gender, skills, race, can affect a team's performance

Self directed learning

- aka programmed instruction, involves use of books, manuals, computers to provide subject matter material in highly organised and logical sequences that require employees to answer series of questions

Self awareness

- being aware of internal aspects of one's nature, such as personality, beliefs, emotions, attitudes, perceptions, appreciating how your patterns affect others. Two ways to enhance self-awareness are soliciting feedback from others and using self-assessments o Soliciting feedback: can improve performance and job satisfaction o Self-assessment: uses self-inquiry and reflection to gain insights into oneself from the results of scores on self-assessment instruments. Regularly reflecting in thoughts and feelings

Internships

o An arrangement where an intern exchanges free or low cost labour for the opportunity to explore whether a particular career is appealing or to gain valuable work experience in a particular field o Seen as a valuable recruiting tool because they provide a way to evaluate a potential employee, and allow the intern the opp to ascertain whether the job and the org is a good fit

Benefits

o An effective compensation packages requires more than money o Some benefits required by law, eg: superannuation contributions, holiday pay, worker's comp o Other types of benefits, such as salary packaging or on-site day care or fitness centres, are not required by law but are provided by organisations to maintain an effective workforce.

Termination

o Maintains an effective workforce because employees who are poor performers can be dismissed o Productive employees often resent disruptive, low-performing employees who are allowed to stay with the company and receive pay and benefits comparable to theirs. o Do an exit interview: an interview conducted with departing employees to determine why they are leaving. Provides an inexpensive way to learn about pockets of dissatisfaction within the org and hence find ways to reduce future employee turnover.

Computerised based training

aka e-training, includes computer assisted instruction, web-based training, tele-training. Employee works at own pace and instruction is individualised, training program is interactive, can communicate more complex, non-structured info, offers cost savings to orgs

Performance appraisal: performance review ranking system

controversial as evaluates employees by pitting them against each other, ranks employees according to their relative performance, 20% placed in top group of performers, 70% in middle, 10% at bottom, and bottom given time to improve or fired. Good: forces Mgs to make difficult decisions and identify the best and worst performers, creates and sustains a high-performance culture in which people continuously improve. Bad: increase cut throat competition among employees, discourages collaboration, harms morale

Effective follower

o A critical, independent thinker, active in the organisation o Behave the same towards everyone, regardless of their position in the organisation o Develop an equitable relationship with their leaders and do not try to avoid risk or conflict o Capable of self-management, discern strengths and weaknesses in themselves and their bosses, committed to something bigger than themselves, work towards competency, solutions and positive impact

Job analysis

o A systematic process of gathering and interpreting info about the essential duties, tasks and responsibilities of a job, and the context within which it is performed o To perform job analysis, Mgs or specialists ask about work activities and work flow, the degree of supervision given and received in the job, knowledge and skills needed, performance standards, working conditions, etc. o Mgs then prepare a written job description, which is a clear and concise summary of the specific tasks, duties, and responsibilities, and a job specification, which outlines the knowledge, skills, education, physical abilities and other characteristics needed to perform the job adequately

Functional teams

o A team composed of a manager and their subordinates in the formal chain of command o May include 3 or 4 levels of hierarchy within a functional department o Usually includes a single department in an organisation, eg: financial analysis department, quality control department o Created by the org to attain specific goals

Selecting: employment test

o Assess candidates on various factors considered important for the job to be performed and include cognitive ability tests, physical ability tests, personality tests o Cognitive ability tests measure an applicant's thinking, reasoning, verbal and mathematical abilities. Eg: IQ tests o Physical ability tests measures qualities such as strength, energy, endurance. May be used for jobs like delivery drivers who must lift heavy packages o Personality tests assess characteristics like openness to learning, agreeableness, creativity, emotional stability. Look for personality characteristics that match the needs of the particular job

Cross functional teams

o Composed of employees from about the same hierarchical levels, but from different areas of expertise o One type is a task force, ie: a group of employees from different departments formed to deal with a specific activity and existing only until the task is completed o Another type is special purpose team, ie: created outside the formal organisation structure to undertake a project of special importance or creativity. Members perceive themselves as a separate entity. Often created for developing a new product/service

Self managed teams

o Designed to increase the participation of workers in decision making and the conduct of their jobs, with goal of improving performance o Typically has 5 to 20 multi-skilled workers who rotate jobs to produce an entire product or service, or at least one complete aspect or portion of a product/service o Teams, not managers or supervisors, take responsibility for their work, make decisions, monitor their own performance, alter their work behaviour as needed to solve problems, meet goals and adapt to changing conditions o Highly trained, don't need a manager to be with them and tell them what to do o Saves management a lot of time o Related to trend towards boss-less organisations o Combined skills of team members are sufficient to perform a major organisational task o Eliminates barriers among departments o Team is empowered with decision making authority, which means that members have the freedom to select new members, solve problems, spend money, monitor results and plan for the future.

Team characteristics: diversity

o Diversity in terms of functional areas and skills, thinking styles and personal characteristics is often a source of creativity o May contribute to healthy level of disagreement that leads to better decision making o Ethnic, national and racial diversity sometimes can hinder team interaction and performance in the short term, but with effective leadership, the problems fade over time o Homogeneous: everyone comes from same background, training, etc o Heterogeneous: more effective, different types of people

Virtual teams

o Due to advances in tech o Group made up of geographically or organisationally dispersed members who are linked primarily through advanced info and telecommunications tech o Can be local, national or global with members coming from one firm or many o Use groupware, email, instant messaging, phone, text, blogs, videoconferencing and other tech tools to collaborate and perform their work o Advantages: ability to assemble the most talented group of people to complete a complex project, solve a particular problem, exploit a specific strategic opportunity. Diverse mix of people can fuel creativity and innovation. Can save employee time and cut travel expenses

Passive followers

o Exhibits no critical, independent thinking, nor active participation, passive, uncritical o Show neither initiative nor a sense of responsibility o Their activity is limited to what they are told to do, and they accomplish things only with a great deal of supervision o Leave the thinking to the boss o Often result of micromanaging boss who encourages passive behaviour, people learn that to show initiative, accept responsibility or think creatively is not rewarded and may even be punished by the boss

Compensation equity

o Good Mgs strive to maintain a sense of fairness and equity with pay structure o Job evaluation techniques enable Mgs to compare similar and dissimilar jobs and to determine internally equitable pay rates, ie; pay rates that employees believe are fair compared with those for other jobs in the org o Orgs want to make sure their oay rates are fair compared to other companies

Pragmatic survivors

o Has qualities of all four extremes. Uses whatever style best benefits their own position and minimises risk. o Often emerge when an org is going through desperate times, and individuals find themselves doing whatever is needed to get through the difficulty. o Avoid risk and foster the status quo

Team characteristics: member roles

o In successful teams, the requirements for task performance and social satisfaction are met by the emergence of two types of roles: task specialist and socio-emotional o Task specialist role: spend time and energy helping the team reach its goals. Often initiate ideas, give opinions and judgements on task solutions, stimulate the team into action when interest drops o Socio-emotional role: support team members' emotional need and help strengthen the social entity. They are warm and receptive to others' ideas, praise and encourage others, reconcile group conflicts, reduce tension by telling jokes, go along with the team, compromise o Teams with mostly socio-emotional roles can be satisfying but not unproductive o Teams made up of primarily task specialists will tend to have a singular concern for task accomplishment. Will be more effective for a short period of time, but will not be satisfying for members over the long run o Effective teams have both task specialist and socio-emotional roles

Selecting: online checks

o Internet gives recruiters and hiring Mgs new way to search for a candidate's criminal record, credit history, other indications of honesty, integrity and stability o Many companies want to see what candidate has to say about themselves on blogs and social media o Using social networking as a background check without disclosing the investigation to the candidate, can also open organisations to lawsuits

How to be a good leader

o Lead by example o Communicate purpose and meaning: give employees a compelling vision of their work, a good reason to believe that it is important, tell people what is in it for them personally o Create a climate of trust o Look for results o Take calculated risks o Generate unity: treating people with dignity and respect

Developing talent: social learning

o Learning informally from others by using social media tools, eg: phones, social networking, wikis, blogs, virtual games o Eg: an employee seeking advice from colleagues on a blog or in a tweet about a process or task o The majority of organisational learning occurs through informal channels, so Mgs are supporting the use of social media tech for learning in day-to-day work. These tools allow people to share information, access knowledge, find resources and collaborate in a natural way.

Performance appraisal

o Observing and assessing employee performance, recording the assessment and providing feedback to the employee o Mgs give feedback and praise concerning the acceptable elements of the employee's performance, describe performance areas that need improvement o When employees get this feedback, they can use it to improve job performance o HRM professionals concentrate on 2 things to make performance appraisal a positive force in their orgs: § The accurate evaluation of performance through development and application of assessment systems, eg: rating scales § Training Mgs to use performance appraisal interview effectively so that Mgs can provide feedback that will reinforce good performance and motivate employee development o Should be ongoing, not done once a year o Can reward high performers with merit pay, recognition and other rewards

Reasons for conflict

o One of the main reasons for conflict is competition over resources, eg: money, info, supplies. o Conflict often occurs because people are pursuing different goals o Conflict may arise from communication breakdowns. Virtual and global teams are particularly prone to communication breakdowns

Wages and salary systems

o Org's strategy should be determinant of the features and operations of the pay system o Job based pay: most common approach to employee compensation, linking compensation to the specific tasks an employee performs. Problems: may fail to reward the type of learning behaviour needed for the org to adapt and survive in turbulent enviro, reinforce organisational hierarchy and centralised decision making and control o Skill based pay systems: employees with higher skill levels receive a higher pay than those with lower skill levels, aka competency-based pay. Encourages employees to develop their skills and competencies, hence making them more valuable to the org and more employable if they leave current job

Consequences of team cohesiveness

o Outcome of team cohesiveness can fall into 2 categories: morale and productivity o Morale is higher in cohesive teams due to increased communication among members, a friendly team climate, maintenance of membership because of commitment to the team, loyalty and member participation in team decisions and activities o Tend to perform better, contributes to productivity, member satisfaction

Conformist follower

o Participates actively in a relationship with their boss, but doesn't use critical thinking skills o Carries out any and all orders, regardless of nature of the request o Participates willingly, but doesn't consider the consequences of what they are being asked to do o Concerned only with avoiding conflict o Over-dependent attitude towards authority o Can result from rigid rules and authoritarian enviro that creates a culture of conformity

Alienated follower

o Passive, yet independent, critical thinker o Often effective followers who have experienced setbacks and obstacles, eg: broken promises from superiors o They are capable but focus on shortcomings of their boss. o Often cynical, waste time complaining about their boss o Able to think independently but not participate in developing solutions to problems they see

Other sources of power for leaders:

o Personal effort: people who show initiative, work beyond what is expected, take on undesirable but important projects, show interest in learning about the org and industry often gain power as a result o Network of relationships: if have big network of relationships, then have power as you know what is going on in the org and industry. o Information: info is primary business resource, and people who have access to info and control over how and to whom it is distributed are usually powerful.

Pay for performance

o Raise productivity and cut labour costs o Aka incentive pay o Means tying at least part of compensation to employee effort and performance, whether it be through merit-based pay, bonuses, team incentives or various gain sharing, or profit-sharing plans o Incentives are aligned with the behaviours needed to help the org achieve its strategic goals. Employees have an incentive to make the company more efficient and profitable because if goals not met, no bonuses paid.

Rightsizing the org

o Reducing the company's workforce intentionally to the point where the number of employees is deemed to be right for the company's current situation o Aka downsizing

Organisational commitment

o Refers to employee loyalty to and engagement with the org o People committed to the org practice organisational citizenship, which refers to tendency of people to help one another and put in extra effort that goes beyond job requirements to contribute to orgs success. o Disengaged employees can cost company in safety incidents, higher absenteeism, lower retention rates, higher incidence of product defects and service failure o Corporate volunteering has been found to improve employee engagement and commitment. o Mgs can promote stronger organisational commitment by being honest and trustworthy, keeping employees informed, giving them a say in decisions, providing necessary training, treating them fairly, offering rewards they value

Developing talent: training and development

o Represent a planned effort by an org to facilitate employees learning of job-related skills and behaviours o Training: teaching people how to perform tasks related to their present jobs o Development: teaching people broader skills that are useful in their present jobs and prepare them for greater responsibilities in future jobs o On the job training: experienced employee is asked to guide a new employee and show them how to perform job duties. Lower cost for training facilities, materials or instructor fees, easy to transfer learning back to job, considered fastest and most effective means of facilitating learning in the workplace

Determinates of team cohesiveness

o Team interaction: when have frequent contact, they get to know one another, consider themselves a unit and become more committed to the team o Shared goals: if team members agree on purpose and direction, they will be more cohesive o Personal attraction to the team: when a team is in moderate competition with other teams, its cohesiveness increases as it strives to win. o Team success: when a team succeeds in its task and others in the organisation recognise the success, members feel good and their commitment to the team will be high

Styles to handle conflict

o Teams and people develop specific styles for dealing with conflict, based on the desire to satisfy their own concern vs other party's concern o Dominating style: reflects assertiveness to get one's own way, and should be used when quick, decisive action is vital on important issues or unpopular actions, eg: during emergencies or urgent cost cutting o Avoiding style: reflects neither assertiveness nor cooperativeness. It is appropriate when an issue is trivial, when there is no chance of winning, when a delay to gather more information is needed or when a disruption would be costly. o Compromising style: reflects a moderate amount of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. Appropriate when the goals on both sides are equally important, when opponents have equal power and both sides want to split the difference, or when people need to arrive at temporary or expedient solutions under time pressure. o Accommodating style: reflects a high degree of cooperativeness, which works best when people realise that they are wrong, when an issue is more important to others than to oneself, when building social credits for use in later discussions and when maintaining harmony is especially important. o Collaborating style: reflects a high degree of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. Enables both parties to win, although it may require substantial bargaining and negotiation

Team characteristics: Size

o Teams performance and productivity peak when it has about 5 membes o Smaller teams perform better o Teams need to be large enough to incorporate the diverse skills needed to complete a task, enable members to express good and bad feelings, and aggressively solve problems o Need to be small enough to permit members to feel an intimate part of the team and to communicate effectively and efficiently

4 leadership styles leader can adopt from Situational Model of Leadership

o The directing style: highly dictating style, involves giving explicit directions about how tasks should be accomplished. Use this when followers have low readiness, ability, skills, experience, and lack confidence, to take responsibility for their own task behaviour. o Coaching style: leader explains decisions and gives subordinates a chance to ask questions and gain clarity and understanding about work tasks. Use this when followers have moderate readiness because of confidence to proceed but lack ability. o Supporting style: leader shares ideas with subordinates, gives them a chance to participate and facilitates decision making, encourages participation. Use this when followers have high readiness but lack confidence and need personal support. Leader guides followers' development and acts as a resource for advice and assistance. o Entrusting style: provides little direction and support because leader turns over decisions and their implementation to subordinates. Followers have very high readiness as have high ability and confidence to perform tasks themselves. Leader delegates responsibility for decisions and their implementation to subordinates

Leadership evolves because of...

o The environmental context (ie: technology, eco, labour, social, cultural) in which leadership is practised influences which approach might be most effective, and what kind of leaders are most admired o Ethical and economic difficulties, corporate governance concerns, globalisation, changes in tech, new ways of working, shifting employee expectations, significant social transitions contributed to a shift in how we think about and practice leadership

Stages of team development

o These 5 stages typically occur in sequence, but in team under time pressure and virtual teams, they may occur quite rapidly o 1) Forming: § Period of orientation and getting acquainted § Members break the ice and test one another for friendship possibilities and task orientation § Uncertainty is high and members usually accept whatever power or authority is offered by either formal or informal leaders § Leader should provide time for members to get acquainted and encourage them to engage in informal social discussions o 2) Storming: § Individual personalities emerge, people become more assertive in clarifying their roles and what is expected of them § Usually conflict and disagreement, people may disagree over their perceptions of the team's goals or how to achieve them § Members may jockey for position, and coalitions or subgroups based on common interests may form. § Leader should encourage participation by each team member § Members should propose ideas, disagree with one another, and work through the uncertainties and conflicting perceptions about team tasks and goals. § The expression of emotions, even negative ones, helps to build camaraderie and a shared understanding of goals and tasks o 3) Norming: § Conflict is resolved and team harmony and unity emerge. § Consensus develops on who has power, who the leaders are, and what members roles are. § Members come to accept and understand one another. § During the norming stage, the team leader should emphasise unity within the team and help to clarify team norms and values. o 4) Performing: § Major emphasis on problem solving and accomplishing the assigned task § Members committed to team's mission § Confront and resolve problems § Interact frequently and direct their discussions and influence towards achieving team goals § Leader should concentrate on managing high task performance o 5) Adjourning: § Occurs in committees and teams that have a limited task to perform and are disbanded afterward § Emphasis on wrapping up and gearing down § Task performance is no longer a top priority § Members may feel heightened emotionality, strong cohesiveness, and depression or regret over the team's disbanding. § Leader may wish to signify the team's disbanding with a ritual or ceremony, perhaps giving out plaques and awards to signify closure and completeness.

Negotiation

o Type of conflict management is negotiation o Whereby people engage in give and take discussions and consider alternatives to reach a joint decision that is acceptable to both parties o Used when a conflict is formalised, such as between a union and management o Types of negotiations: § Integrative negotiation: based on a win-win assumption, in that all parties want to come up with a creative solution that can benefit both sides. Look at the issues from multiple angles, consider trade-offs, and try to 'expand the pie' (meaning to create additional value) rather than divide it. Conflicts are managed through cooperation and compromise, which fosters trust and positive long-term relationships. § Distributive negotiation: assumes that the size of the 'pie' is fixed, and each party attempts to get as much of it as they can. One side wants to win, which means the other side must lose. With this win-lose approach, distributive negotiation is competitive and adversarial, rather than collaborative, and does not typically lead to positive long-term relationships

Selecting: interview

o Used as a selection technique in almost every org o Can get into legal trouble if interviewer asks questions that violate acceptable guidelines o There is some evidence that the typical interview is not generally a good predictor of job performance. One estimate is that conventional interviews have a 0.2 correlation with predicting a successful hire. o Structured interviews use a set of standard questions that are asked of every applicant so comparisons can easily be made. o Biographical interviews ask about the person's previous life and work experiences o Behavioural interviews ask people to describe how they have performed a certain task or handled a particular problem o Situational interviews require people to describe how they might handle a hypothetical situation o Non-directive interview is where interviewer asks broad, open ended questions and permits the applicant to talk freely with minimal interruption. This may bring to light info, attitudes and behavioural characteristics that might be concealed when answering structured questions. o Some orgs put candidates through a series of interviews, each one conducted by a different person and probing a different aspect of the candidate o Panel interviews: candidate meets with several interviewers who take turns asking questions o Some firms using offbeat approaches, aka extreme interviewing, to test candidate's ability to handle problems, cope with change, think on their feet, work well with others.

Selecting: application form

o Used to collect info about the applicant's education, previous job experience, other background characteristics o Shouldn't ask questions that will create an adverse impact on protected groups, unless questions are clearly related to the job, or irrelevant or invasive personal questions.

Benefits of job analysis

§ Helps org recruit the right kind of people and match them to appropriate jobs § Enhances recruiting effectiveness by enabling creation of realistic job previews which give applicants all pertinent and realistic info about the job and the org. § Contributes to greater employee satisfaction and lower turnover because they facilitate matching individuals, jobs and organisations § Individuals have a better basis on which to determine their suitability to the organisation and 'self-select' into or out of positions based on full information.