Management TEST 2 CH 8-14
How do the components of motivation fit into the four main theories of motivation? (6)
Motivation determines a number of facet's of an employees work effort. Determine how an employee will direct their effort, how hard they will work and how long they will work on it.
What is motivation?(6)
As set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates a work related effort and determines it direction , intensity and persistence. Effective job performance often requires high levels of both ability and motivation.
What is the sequential order to non-programmed decision making? (8)
1) Determine appropriate criteria for making a decision. 2) Generate list of available alternatives. 3) Evaluate the alternatives against the criteria. 4) Choose the solution that maximizes value. 5) Implement appropriate solution. 6) Does the solution deliver the expected outcome.
How can trust affect different types of exchange relationships that employees can have with their supervisor? (7)
As trust increases, social exchange relationships develop thatare based on vaguely defined obligations that are open-ended and long term in their repayment schedule. Social exchanges are characterized by mutual investment, such that employees agree to go above and beyond their duties in exchange for fair and proper treatment by authorities. In social exchange contexts, employees are willing to engage in beneficial behaviors because they trust that those efforts will eventually be rewarded.
What do we mean by inputs and outputs for equity theory? (6)
Equity theory suggests that employees create a "mental ledger" of the outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job duties. Input = effort, outputs=outcomes because of effort.
How important is training for learning and decision making? (8)
Facilitates the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior.
What makes an outcome have high valence (6)?
If an outcome has high valence it means many needs are being satisfied.
What are the different goal orientations that people can hold, and how do they relate to employee outcomes? (8)
Learning Orientation: building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence. These people enjoy new tasks even if they fail. Performance Prove Orientation: Focus on demonstrating competence so that others think favorably or them. Performance Avoid Orientation: Focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them. Focus on tasks they are good at.
Are the Big Five stable over time? (9)
No, except for extraversion and openness to experience.
What is personality? What is it comprised of? What are traits and cultural values? (9)
Refers to the structures and propensities inside people that explain their characteristic patterns of thought, emotion and behavior. Traits are defined as recurring regularities or trends in people's response to their environment ie. Responsible, polite, reserved. Cultural values are defined as shared beliefs about desirable end states or modes of conduct in a given culture.
How do trust affect job performance and organizational commitment? Are the relationships the same for all three types of commitment? (7)
Trust has a moderate positive relationship with job performance. Trust has a strong positive affect on commitment.
What is goal setting theory? (6)
Views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort. Goals are defined as the objective or aim of an action and typically refer to attaining a specific standard of proficiency, often within a specified time limit. More specifically, the theory argues that assigning employees specific and difficult goals will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or "do-your-best" goals
What role do needs in expectancy theory play? What kinds of needs do people have, and which are the most important? (6)
Needs can be viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences. Needs: existence, relatedness, control, esteem, meaning
What dimensions can be used to describe the trustworthiness of an authority? (7)
Ability: defined as the skills, competencies, and areas of expertise that enable an authority to be successful in some specific area. Benevolence: belief that the authority wants to do good for the trustor, apart from any selfish or profit-centered motives. Integrity:defined as the perception that the authority adheres to a set of values and principles that the trustor finds acceptable.
What is equity theory? (6)
Acknowledges that motivation doesn't just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people.61 More specifically, equity theory suggests that employees create a "mental ledger" of the outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job duties.
What are the different dimensions of corporate social responsibility? (7)
Acknowledges that the responsibilities of a business encompass the economic, legal, ethical, and citizenship expectations of society.
What decision-making problems can prevent employees from translating their learning into accurate decisions? (8)
Although most employees perceive themselves as rational decision makers, the reality is that they are all subject to bounded rationality. Bounded rationality is the notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision. This limit results in two major problems for making decisions. First, people have to filter and simplify information to make sense of their complex environment and the myriad of potential choices they face. This simplification leads them to miss information when perceiving problems, generating and evaluating alternatives, or judging the results. Second, because people cannot possibly consider every single alternative when making a decision, they satisfice. Satisficing results when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered.
What are the different schedules of reinforcement? When are they used? Which has the best results? (8)
Antecedent: Condition that precedes behavior. Behavior: Action performed by employee. Consequence: Result that occurs after behavior.
Faulty perceptions (projection,social identity,stereotypes,heuristics,and availability) , faulty attributions, limited information, escalation of commitment-what are the ins and outs of each? (8)
As decision makers, employees are forced to rely on their perceptions to make decisions. Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, storing, and retrieving information about the environment. Although perceptions can be very useful—because they help us to make sense of the environment around us—they can often become distorted versions of reality. Perceptions can be dangerous in decision making because we tend to make assumptions or evaluations on the basis of them. Selective perception is the tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations. Has someone ever told you, "You only see what you want to see"? If a relative, spouse, or significant other said that to you, chances are good it probably wasn't the best experience. That person was likely upset that you didn't perceive the environment (or what was important to them) the same way they did. Selective perception affects our ability to identify problems, generate and evaluate alternatives, and judge outcomes. In other words, we take "shortcuts" when we process information. In the following paragraphs, we'll discuss some of the ways in which we take shortcuts when dealing with people and situations. One false assumption people tend to make when it comes to other people is the belief that others think, feel, and act the same way they do. This assumption is known as a projection bias. That is, people project their own thoughts, attitudes, and motives onto other people. "I would never do that—that's unethical" equates to "They would never do that—that's unethical." Projection bias causes problems in decision making because it limits our ability to develop appropriate criteria for a decision and evaluate decisions carefully. The bias causes people to assume that everyone's criteria will be just like theirs and that everyone will react to a decision just as they would. Page 249 Another example of faulty perceptions is caused by the way we cognitively organize people into groups. Social identity theory holds that people identify themselves by the groups to which they belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships.46 There is a substantial amount of research that shows that we like to categorize people on the basis of the groups to which they belong.47 These groups could be based on demographic information (gender, race, religion, hair color), occupational information (scientists, engineers, accountants), where they work (GE, Halliburton, Goldman Sachs), what country they're from (Americans, French, Chinese), or any other subgroup that makes sense to the perceiver. You might categorize students on campus by whether they're a member of a fraternity or sorority. Those inside the Greek system categorize people by which fraternity or sorority they belong to. And people within a certain fraternity might group their own members on the basis of whom they hang out with the most. There is practically no end to the number of subgroups that people can come up with. A stereotype occurs when assumptions are made about others on the basis of their membership in a social group.48 Although not all stereotypes are bad per se, our decision-making process becomes faulty when we make inaccurate generalizations. Many companies work hard to help their employees avoid stereotyping because doing so can lead to illegal discrimination in the workplace. Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, Wells Fargo, Kaiser Permanente, and Microsoft (just to name a few) have developed extensive diversity training programs to help their employees overcome specific cultural, racial, and gender stereotypes in the workplace.49 When confronted with situations of uncertainty that require a decision on our part, we often use heuristics—simple, efficient, rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily. In general, heuristics are not bad. In fact, they lead to correct decisions more often than not.50 However, heuristics can also bias us toward inaccurate decisions at times. Consider this example from one of the earliest studies on decision-making heuristics: "Consider the letter R. Is R more likely to appear in the first position of a word or the third position of a word?"51 If your answer was the first position of a word, you answered incorrectly and fell victim to one of the most frequently talked about heuristics. The availability bias is the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easier to recall. It's significantly easier for almost everyone to remember words in which R is the first letter Nisbett and L. Ross, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgmen as opposed to the third. The availability bias is why more people are afraid to fly than statistics would support. Every single plane crash is plastered all over the news, making plane crashes more available in memory than successful plane landings. Aside from the availability bias, there are many other biases that affect the way we make decisions. Table 8-4 describes six more of the most well-researched decision-making biases. After reading them, you might wonder how we ever make accurate decisions at all! The answer is that we do our best to think rationally through our most important decisions prior to making them and tend to use heuristics for decisions that are less important or that need to be made more quickly. Regardless of how often we fall victim to the biases, being aware of potential decision errors can help us make them less frequently. Interestingly enough, Lowe's, the North Carolina—based home improvement retailer, and several other companies are actually trying to take advantage of these types of biases and behavioral economics in order to get employees to make better decisions about their health benefits.52 Workers are getting bombarded from all angles!
What are two qualities that make goals strong predictors of task performance? (6)
Assigning employees specific and difficult goals will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or "do-your-best" goals.
Under what conditions do these effects occur (predictors of task performance)? For instance, how does goal commitment affect motivation? Feedback? Task complexity? (6)
Assigning specific and difficult goals gives people a number to shoot for—a "measuring stick" that can be used to tell them how hard they need to work and for how long. So if your boss had said, "Have the assignment on my desk by 10:30 a.m. on Tuesday, with no more than two mistakes," you would have known exactly how hard to work and for how long. When goals are easy, there's no reason to work your hardest or your longest, so task effort is lower. As goals move from moderate to difficult, the intensity and persistence of effort become maximized. At some point, however, the limits of a person's ability get reached, and self-efficacy begins to diminish. Also at that point, goals move from difficult to impossible, and employees feel somewhat helpless when attempting to achieve them. In turn, effort and performance inevitably decline. So a difficult goal is one that stretches employees to perform at their maximum level while still staying within the boundaries of their ability.
What are the four steps involved in behavioral modeling? (8)
Attentional Processes: Learner focuses attention on the critical behaviors exhibited by the model. Retention Processes: Learner must remember the behaviors of the model once the model is no longer present. Production Processes: Learner must have the appropriate skill set and be able to reproduce the behavior. Reinforcement: Learner must view the model receiving reinforcement for the behavior and then receive it themselves.
What do we mean by 'bad apples' and 'bad barrels' in ethics? (7)
Bad Apples: Individual Factors Bad Barrels: Situational Factors
What shapes personality- is it nature,nurture, or both? (9)
Both: 60% nurture, 40% nature
What type of climate is needed to foster transfer of learning? (8)
Climate of transfer. The degree to which the trainee's manager supports the importance of the newly acquired knowledge and skills and stresses their application of the job is perhaps the most important factor.
What are the 'Big Five'? (9)
Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience and extraversion.
What types of striving/goals are associated with each dimension of the big five? (9)
Conscientiousness: Accomplishment striving which reflects a strong desire to accomplish task-related goals as a means of expressing personality. Agreeableness: Communion striving which reflects a strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationships as a means of expressing personality. Extraversion: Status striving which reflects a strong desire to obtain power and influence within a social structure as a means of expressing personality. Neuroticism: Differential exposure meaning that neurotic people are more likely to appraise day to day situations as stressful. Openness to Experience: creativity and culture.
What is motivation's relationship with engagement?(6)
Contemporary synonym for high levels of intensity and persistence in work effort. Employees who are "engaged" completely invest themselves and their energies into their jobs
What role does self-efficacy play in expectancy theory? (6)
Defined as the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success. Employees who feel more "efficacious" for a particular task will tend to perceive higher levels of expectancy and therefore be more likely to choose to exert higher levels of effort.
What is expectancy theory?(6)
Describes the cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses.
What are the three components of motivation? (6)
Direction of effort, intensity of effort, persistence of effort.
What factors influence individuals' perceptions of disposition based trust? (7)
Disposition-based trust has less to do with a particular authority and more to do with the trustor. Some trustors are high in trust propensity—a general expectation that the words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon.11 Some have argued that trust propensity represents a sort of "faith in human nature," in that trusting people view others in more favorable terms than do suspicious people.
What types of knowledge can employees gain as they learn and build expertise? What makes these types of knowledge distinct from each other? (8)
Explicit Knowledge:kind of information you're likely to think about when you picture someone sitting down at a desk to learn Tacit Knowledge:what employees can typically learn only through experience.
What are examples of each type of justice? (7)
Distributive Justice: pay, rewards, evaluations Procedural Justice: Authorities adhere to rules of fair process. Interpersonal Justice: Interpersonal justice is fostered when authorities adhere to two particular rules. The respect rule pertains to whether authorities treat employees in a dignified and sincere manner, and the propriety rule reflects whether authorities refrain from making improper or offensive remarks. From this perspective, interpersonal injustice occurs when authorities are rude or disrespectful to employees, or when they refer to them with inappropriate labels. Informational Justice:nformational justice is fostered when authorities adhere to two particular rules. The justification rule mandates that authorities explain decision-making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive and reasonable manner, and the truthfulness rule requires that those communications be honest and candid.
What are the three types of comparisons in equity theory that can be made? (6)
Equity, Under rewarded Inequity, Overreward Inequity
How do the three comparisons in equity theory affect employees' motivation? (6)
Equity: Likely to maintain the intensity and persistence of your effort. Underrewarded Inequity: will cause equity distress which can be alleviated only by restoring balance. Takes the form of anger and envy. Two methods can be taken to restore balance the first is by talking to your boss and explaining why you deserve better outcomes. The second is to shrink your inputs by lowering the intensity and persistence of effort. Overrewarded Inequity: Equity distress is again experienced and feelings like guilt and anxiety are felt. Balance can be restored by shrinking outcomes like taking less money giving something back however, you can also increase your inputs in come way. You could increase the intensity and persistence of your task effort or decide to go the extra mile. However, because of cognitive distortion some employees can justify their current work without actually changing anything.
For interpersonal and interactional justice, what rules guide fair treatment (interpersonal) and fair communication (informational)?(7)
Fair Treatment:Interpersonal justice is fostered when authorities adhere to two particular rules. The respect rule pertains to whether authorities treat employees in a dignified and sincere manner, and the propriety rule reflects whether authorities refrain from making improper or offensive remarks. From this perspective, interpersonal injustice occurs when authorities are rude or disrespectful to employees, or when they refer to them with inappropriate labels. Fair Communication:Informational justice is fostered when authorities adhere to two particular rules. The justification rule mandates that authorities explain decision-making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive and reasonable manner, and the truthfulness rule requires that those communications be honest and candid. Although it seems like common sense that organizations would explain decisions in a comprehensive and adequate manner, that's often not the case.
What is the four-component model of ethical decision making (in order)? (7)
Four Component Model: argues that ethical behaviors result from a multistage sequence beginning with moral awareness, continuing on to moral judgment, then to moral intent, and ultimately to ethical behavior. 1)Moral Awareness 2)Moral Judgement 3)Moral Intent 4)Ethical Behavior
What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation at the individual, unit, and organization level? Specifically, what are the different types of programs that organizations can formally implement to increase employee motivation? (6)
Individual: piece-rate,merit pay, lump-sum bonuses, recognition awards Unit: Gainsharing Organization: Profit Sharing (The second to last slide of the Ch.6 powerpoint has the full table)
What are the three beliefs of expectancy theory that determine how work effort is directed? (6)
Instrumentality: represents the belief that successful performance will result in some outcomes. Valence: reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance. Valences can be positive, negative or zero. Expectancy: belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task.
How does learning affect job performance and organizational commitment? (8)
Learning has a moderate positive affect on job performance. Learning has a weak positive affect on commitment.
What is learning and how does it affect decision making? (8)
Learning reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result from experience.1 The more employees learn, the more they bring to the table when they come to work. Why is learning so important? Because it has a significant impact on decision making, which refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem. The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make accurate and sound decisions.
How does motivation relate to job performance and organizational commitment? (6)
Motivation has a strong, positive relationship with job performance. Motivation has moderate positive relationship with organization commitment.
What role does moral identity and an ethical culture play in ethical behavior?(7)
One factor is moral identity—the degree to which a person self-identifies as a moral person. Our self-concepts have a number of components to them: We may define ourselves by what we do, where we come from, what our family status is, or what cultural or ethnic groups we belong to. People with strong moral identities define themselves as compassionate, generous, honest, kind, fair, and hardworking. Their emotional well-being and sense of self is wrapped up in living up to those virtues. Moreover, the actions they take in their daily life—from the things they buy, to the hobbies they have, to the groups they join—are viewed as symbols of those virtues. Research suggests that people with strong moral identities volunteer more for charitable work and donate more to charity drives.111 Research also suggests that moral identity "moderates" the effects of moral judgment on ethical behavior. Recall that in the language of theory diagrams, moderators affect the strength of the relationship between two variables. For example, one study shows that managers who emphasize specific ethics principles are less likely to engage in unethical behaviors (e.g., calling in sick to take a day off, ignoring others' unethical actions), but only when they define themselves as a moral person.112 When morality is not an important piece of their identity, their moral principles have no relationship with their actual behavior.
What steps can organizations take to become more trustworthy? (7)
One strategy is to focus the organization's attention on corporate social responsibility, a perspective that acknowledges that the responsibilities of a business encompass the economic, legal, ethical, and citizenship expectations of society.
What two methods can employees use to make decisions? (programmed, non programmed)? How does expertise factor in? (8)
Programmed Decision: decisions that become somewhat automatic because people's knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken. Intuition: "gut feeling." Described as emotionally charged judgements that arise through quick, non conscious, and holistic associations. Tacit knowledge gained through reinforcement, observation and experience allow a decision maker to decide more quickly and confidently. Crisis Situation: an urgent problem that must be addressed immediately. Anything with the potential to cause sudden and serious damage to its employees, reputation or bottom line. One of the key factors is that it must be addressed quickly.
What are the basic tenants of self-determination theory? (6)
Reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks. Employees with high levels of self-determination can choose what tasks to work on, how to structure those tasks, and how long to pursue those tasks. That sense of self- determination is a strong driver of intrinsic motivation, because it allows employees to pursue activities that they themselves find meaningful and interesting. Managers can instill a sense of self-determination in their employees by delegating work tasks, rather than micromanaging them, and by trusting employees to come up with their own approach to certain tasks. For their part, employees can gain more self-determination by earning the trust of their bosses and negotiating for the latitude that comes with that increased trust.
What are the four types of justice? how are they distinct? how do they interact together? how do procedural/distributive justice and interpersonal/informational justice combine)? (7)
Table 7-2 the Four Dimensions of Justice
How do the three beliefs of expectancy theory work together? (6)
The direction of effort is dictated by the three beliefs of expectancy theory. The total motivational force is described using an equation. E-->P X Sigma(P->O)XV]
What steps can organizations take to foster learning? (8)
Training: systemic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior. Knowledge transfer: transfer knowledge from older to younger employees. Behavior modeling training: ensure that employees have the ability to observe and learn from those in company with a significant amounts of tacit knowledge. Communities of Practice: groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time. Transfer of training: occurs when the knowledge, skills, behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job.
What is trust and how does it relate to justice and ethics? (7)
Trust is defined as the willingness to be vulnerable to a trustee based on positive expectations about the trustee's actions and intentions. If a customer trusts the quality of a company's products or services, that customer is willing to accept the consequences of paying money to the company. If a potential recruit trusts the words of a company's management, that recruit is willing to accept the consequences of becoming a member of the organization. Both examples illustrate that trusting reflects a willingness to "put yourself out there," even though doing so could be met with disappointment.
In what three sources can trust be rooted? (disposition, affect, cognitive)? How do perceptions of trust in relationships evolve over time?(7)
Trust is rooted in three different kinds of factors. Sometimes trust is disposition-based, meaning that your personality traits include a general propensity to trust others. Sometimes trust is cognition-based, meaning that it's rooted in a rational assessment of the authority's trustworthiness. Sometimes trust is affect-based, meaning that it depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond any rational assessment.
What is psychological empowerment? What are the four beliefs that help foster psychological empowerment? (6)
reflects an energy rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to some larger purpose. Psychological empowerment represents a form of intrinsic motivation, in that merely performing the work tasks serves as its own reward and supplies many of the intrinsic outcomes. The concept of psychological empowerment has much in common with our discussion of "satisfaction with the work itself" in Chapter 4 on job satisfaction. That discussion illustrated that jobs with high levels of variety, significance, and autonomy can be intrinsically satisfying.Models of psychological empowerment argue that a similar set of concepts can make work tasks intrinsically motivating. Four concepts are particularly important: meaningfulness, self-determination, competence, and impact.
