MarsOne Interview 1

#1 Pillar

1) Permanent settlement The Mars One crews are people that want to settle on Mars. Absence of a return mission reduces the mission infrastructure radically. Earth return vehicles that can take off from Mars are currently unavailable and untested technologies and such mission designs incur far greater costs. For the astronauts, Mars will be a new home, where they will live and work. While this may seem unreasonable to some, others have no greater ambition in their life. Such dedicated settlers will be chosen by Mars One as their crews.

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1960

1960 Korabl 4 USSR Failure Flyby [Didn't reach Earth orbit] 1960 Korabl 5 USSR Failure Flyby [Didn't reach Earth orbit]

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1962

1962 Korabl 11 USSR Failure Flyby 1962 Mars 1 USSR Failure Flyby 1962 Korabl 13 USSR Failure Flyby

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1964

1964 Mariner 3 US Failure Flyby 1964 Mariner 4 US Success Flyby 1964 Zond 2 USSR Failure Flyby

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1969

1969 Mars 1969A USSR Failure Flyby 1969 Mars 1969B USSR Failure Flyby 1969 Mariner 6 US Success Flyby 1969 Mariner 7 US Success Flyby

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1971

1971 Mariner 8 US Failure Flyby 1971 Kosmos 419 USSR Failure Flyby 1971 Mars 2 USSR Failure Orbiter + lander 1971 Mars 3 USSR Success Orbiter + lander 1971 Mariner 9 US Success Orbiter

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1973

1973 Mars 4 USSR Failure Orbiter 1973 Mars 5 USSR Success Orbiter 1973 Mars 6 USSR Success/Failure Orbiter ok, lander failure on descent 1973 Mars 7 USSR Failure Lander failed orbit insertion

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1975

1975 Viking 1 US Success Orbiter/Lander 1975 Viking 2 US Success Orbiter/Lander

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1988

1988 Phobos 1 USSR Failure Orbiter 1988 Phobos 2 USSR Failure Orbiter + lander

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1992

1992 Mars Observer US Failure Orbiter

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1996

1996 Mars Global Surveyor US Success Orbiter 1996 Mars 96 Russia Failure Orbiter and balloon 1996 Mars Pathfinder US Success Lander + rover

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1998

1998 Nozomi Japan Failure No orbit insertion 1998 Mars Climate Orbiter US Failure No orbit insertion

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 1999

1999 Mars Polar Lander US Failure Failed during dec) 1999 Deep Space 2 US Failure Lost on arrival (carried on Mars Polar Lander)

#2 Pillar

2) Use of In-Situ Resources Basic elements required for a viable living system are already present on Mars. Thus we need to send more tools and equipment rather than raw elements. For example, the location for the first Mars One settlement is selected for the water ice content of the soil there. Water can be made available to the settlement for hygiene, drinking and farming. It is also the source of oxygen generated through electrolysis. Mars also has ample natural sources of nitrogen, the primary element, 80%, in the air we breathe. Martian soil will cover the outpost to block cosmic radiation. The astronauts will soon be able to create habitation for themselves and new crews using local materials soon after they arrive. For a long time, the supply requests from the outpost will be for computers, clothing and complex spare parts, which cannot be readily reproduced with the limited technology on Mars.

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 2001

2001 Mars Odyssey US Success Orbiter

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 2003

2003 Mars Express Orbiter/Beagle 2 Lander ESA Success/Failure Orbiter ok, lander failed during descent 2003 Mars Exploration Rover -Spirit US Success Lander + Rover 2003 Mars Exploration Rover -Opportunity US Success Lander + Rover

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 2005

2005 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter US Success Orbiter

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 2007

2007 Phoenix Mars Lander US Success Lander

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 2011

2011 Mars Science Lab. US Success Rover 2011 Phobos-Grunt/Yinghuo-1 Russia/China Failure Orbiter + sample return

Roadmap

2011: MarsOne founded--Foundations of mission plan laid In 2011 Bas Lansdorp and Arno Wielders lay the foundation of the Mars One mission plan. Discussion meetings are held with potential suppliers of aerospace components in USA, Canada, Italy and United Kingdom. Mission architecture, budgets and timelines are solidified from feedback of supplier engineers and business developers. A baseline design for a mission of permanent human settlement on Mars achievable with existing technology is the result. 2013: Start Crew Selection--Astronaut selection is launched worldwide In April 2013, the Astronaut Selection Program is launched at press conferences in New York and Shanghai. Round 1 is an online application open to all nationalities. The selection program proceeds with three additional rounds over the course of two years. At the end of it around six teams of four individuals are selected for training. A new batch of the Astronaut Selection Program begins every year to replenish the training pool regularly. An analogue of the Mars habitat is to be constructed on Earth for technology testing and training purposes. 2015: Start of Crew Training--Selected candidates enter full-time training Groups selected from the first batch of applicants begin training. This training will continue until the launch in 2024. The group's ability to deal with prolonged periods of time in a remote location is the most important part of their training. They learn to repair components of the habitat and rover, train in medical procedures and learn to grow their own food in the habitat. Every group spends several months of each training year in the analogue outpost to prepare for their mission to Mars. The first outpost simulation, a Mars-like terrain that is relatively easy to reach will be chosen. A second training outpost will be located at a more remote environment like the Arctic desert. 2018: Demo and COMSAT Mission--Launch of Mars-bound Demonstration Mission and Communication Satellite A Demonstration Mission is launched to Mars in 2018; it provides proof of concept for some of the technologies that are important for a human mission. A Communication Satellite is also launched that is placed into a Mars stationary orbit. It enables 24/7 communication between the two planets. It can relay images, videos and other data from the Mars surface. 2020: Rover Mission Launched--Rover and a Communication Satellite are launched One intelligent Rover and one Trailer are launched. The Rover can use the Trailer to transport the Landers to the outpost location. On Mars, the Rover drives around the chosen region to find the best location for the settlement. An ideal location for the settlement is far enough North for the soil to contain enough water, equatorial enough for maximum solar power and flat enough to facilitate construction of the settlement. When the settlement location is determined, the Rover prepares the surface for arrival of the Cargo missions. It also clears large areas where solar panels will lie. A second Communications Satellite is launched into orbit around the Sun. It takes the same orbit as the Earth but trails 60 degrees behind it in L5 Lagrangian point of the Sun-Earth system. Together with the ComSat around Mars it enables 24/7 communication with Mars, even when the sun is in between the two planets. 2022: Cargo Missions Launched--Six Cargo missions are launched Two Living Units, two Life Support Systems, and two Supply Units are sent to Mars in 2022. In 2023 all units land on Mars using a Rover signal as a beacon. 2023: Outpost Operational--Rover sets up the outpost before the arrival of humans The six Cargo units land on Mars, up to 10 km away from the outpost. The Rover picks up the first Life Support unit using the trailer. It places the Life Support unit in the right place and deploys the thin film Solar Panel of the Life Support unit. The Rover can now connect to the Life Support unit to recharge its batteries much faster than using only its own panels, allowing it to do much more work. The Rover picks up all the other Cargo units and then deploys the thin film Solar Panel of the second Life Support unit and the Inflatable sections of the living units. The Life Support unit is connected to the Living Units by a hose that can transport water, air and electricity. The Life Support System, LSS, is now activated. The rover feeds Martian soil into the LSS. Water is extracted from the Martian soil by evaporating the subsurface ice particles in an oven. The evaporated water is condensed back to its liquid state and stored. Part of the water is used for producing Oxygen. Nitrogen and Argon, filtered from the Martian atmosphere make up the other components of the breathable air inside the habitat. Before the first crew starts their journey, the life support system has produced a breathable atmosphere of 0.7 bar pressure, 3000 liters of water and 120 kg of Oxygen that is in storage. The Rover also deposits Martian soil on top of the inflatable sections of the habitat for Radiation Shielding. 2024: Departure Crew One--The first humans to land on Mars start their journey from Earth In 2024, the components of the Mars Transit Vehicle are launched to Earth orbit on receiving the green light on the status of the systems on Mars. First, a Transit Habitat and a Mars Lander with an assembly crew on-board are launched into an orbit around the Earth. The assembly crew docks the Mars Lander to the Transit Habitat. Two propellant stages are launched a month later and are also connected. The first Mars crew, now fully trained, is launched into the same Earth orbit. In orbit the Mars One crew switches places with the Assembly Crew, who descend back to Earth. After a final check of systems on Mars and of the Transit Vehicle, engines of the Propellant Stages are fired and the Transit Vehicle is launched on a Mars Transit Trajectory. This is the point of no return for the Mars crew. The Cargo for the second crew is launched to Mars in the same month of the launch of the first Mars settlers. 2025: Landing Crew One--First humans land on Mars About 24 hours before landing, the crew move from the Transit Habitat into the landing module, bringing some of the supplies from the Transit Habitat. The landing module detaches from the Transit habitat, which is too large to land on Mars. The Transit habitat is discarded and stays in orbit around the sun. The Lander is exactly the same as those used for previous unmanned missions. This ensures the human crew land in a system that has been tested eight times. Upon landing, the crew takes up to 48 hours to recover from experiencing gravity again after spending a long time in space. In their Mars suits they leave the Lander and are picked up by the Rover. They enter the settlement through the airlock in one of the Living units and spend the next few days recovering and settling in the new environment. After their acclimatisation period, the settlers deploy the rest of the Solar Panels. They install the hallways between the Landers and set up Food Production units. The Cargo for the second crew lands within a few weeks after the first crew lands; it is picked up and installed, adding to the redundancy in the settlement. Redundancy is extremely important because, unlike the crew aboard the International Space Station, the Mars One crew can't abandon their mission in case of an emergency. When the first crew lands they find the habitat with a good level of redundancy already: two Living units-- each large enough to house the crew of four and two Life Support units--each capable of providing enough water, power and breathable air for the entire crew. When the hardware for the second crew is incorporated to the settlement, it features four Living units and four Life Support units, enough to sustain a crew of 16 astronauts. 2026: Departure Crew Two--Settlement expands with departure of Crew Two The second crew departs from Earth in 2026. With the second crew, the Cargo for the third crew is also launched. The second crew lands On Mars in 2027. They are welcomed by the first crew, who has already prepared their living quarters. The hardware for crew three will land a few weeks later and will be added to the settlement. This process continues as additional crews land every two years.

List of all failed and successful missions to Mars: 2013

2013 Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution US Success Orbiter 2013 Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) India Success Orbiter

#3 Pillar

3) Solar panels The Sun is a reliable, robust and plentiful energy source. Using solar panels is the best choice for Mars One as it takes away the requirement to develop and launch a nuclear reactor, thereby saving time and money while avoiding the risks and concerns for use of a nuclear power source. Thin film solar, photovoltaic, panels will power the Mars One settlement. These are less efficient than those more commonly used in aerospace, but have the advantage of being extremely light, thus easily transported. The first settlement will install approximately 3000 square meters of power generating surface area.

#4 Pillar

4) Existing technology No new major developments or inventions are needed to make the mission plan a reality. Each stage of Mars One mission plan employs existing, validated and available technology. Components that make the mission plan will be made exclusively by existing suppliers. Mars One has received confirmation of this from all major suppliers through letters of interest. While most of the components required are not immediately available with the exact specifications, at this time, there is no need for radical modifications to the current component designs. All suppliers have confirmed their ability to build what is required-- and they can do so now. Every effort was made to design the mission with as little complexity as possible. The choice to send permanent settlers removes the need for a heavy lift launch vehicle, which does not currently exist Permanent settlement makes the landing module small enough to land with current technology Advanced pressurized rover will not be sent to Mars until large enough rockets exist No water recycling in the Transit Habitat because the trip to Mars takes only 210 days. Instead all required water is stored in tanks that also function as radiation shielding Storage of waste that is not easily recycled until more technology is available in the settlement

#5 Pillar

5) International yet a-political Mars One is a non-governmental company and is apolitical in its function. Suppliers are chosen on a balance of price and quality, not through political or national preferences. The astronaut selection process will engage tens, even hundreds of thousands of applicants from different countries worldwide. Each team selected for settlement on Mars will be comprised of four people, each from a different nation on Earth. From start to finish, from Earth to Mars, Mars One is dedicated to an international, inter-generational effort to take the human species to its next home planet.

Local Dust Storm

A local dust storm is a dust event on Mars on a local scale whose major axis is no larger than 2000 km and surface area is less than 106 km². It produces local effects on dust opacities and temperature.

Future Expansion

A new group of four astronauts will land on Mars every two years, steadily increasing the settlement's size. Eventually, a living unit will be built from local materials, large enough to grow trees. As more astronauts arrive, the creativity applied to settlement expansion will certainly give way to ideas and innovation that we cannot conceive now. But we can expect the human spirit to continue to persevere, to even thrive in this challenging environment.

Emigration to Mars

A one way trip has obvious technical advantages, but what does this mean for the astronauts themselves? That depends on who you ask. You could say that most people would rather lose a leg than live the rest of their life on a cold, hostile planet, having said goodbye to friends and family forever, the best possible video call suffering from a seven minute delay—one way. However, there are individuals for whom traveling to Mars has been a dream for their entire life. They relish the challenge. Not unlike the ancient Chinese, Micronesians, and untold Africans, the Vikings and famed explorers of Old World Europe, who left everything behind to spend the majority of their lives at sea, a one-way mission to Mars is about exploring a new world and the opportunity to conduct the most revolutionary research ever conceived, to build a new home for humans on another planet. Mars One will offer everyone who dreams the way the ancient explorers dreamed the opportunity to apply for a position in a Mars One Mission. Are you one for whom this is a dream?

Global Dust Storm

A planet encircling dust storm is also often referred to as a global dust storm. It is a dust event that usually originates from a series of regional storms. It is likely to occur in Ls range from 200º to 310º and can last for many sols. It produces strong global effects on dust opacities, temperatures and circulation (equatorial winds) and therefore dust storms have a large influence on atmospheric profiles during entry.

Regional Dust Storm

A regional dust storm is a dust event on Mars on a regional scale, which is larger than 2000 km in at least one dimension but does not encircle the planet. The surface area is usually greater than 106 km² and it produces strong local effects on dust opacity, temperatures and long distance effects.

Aeolian Bedforms

Aeolian bedforms: regularly repeated patterns of accumulations of windblown particles. Ripples, granule ripples and dunes can be distinguished, depending on their sizes and constituents.

Aeolian

Aeolian: pertaining to wind on Mars. (Bruce White, ASU)

Mission to Mars: Why Mars, and not another planet?

After the Earth, Mars is the most habitable planet in our solar system due to several reasons: Its soil contains water to extract It isn't too cold or too hot There is enough sunlight to use solar panels Gravity on Mars is 38% that of our Earth's, which is believed by many to be sufficient for the human body to adapt to It has an atmosphere (albeit a thin one) that offers protection from cosmic and the Sun's radiation The day/night rhythm is very similar to ours here on Earth: a Mars day is 24 hours, 39 minutes and 35 seconds The only other two celestial bodies in orbits near the Earth are our Moon and Venus. There are far fewer vital resources on the Moon, and a Moon day takes a month. It also does not have an atmosphere to form a barrier against radiation. Venus is a veritable purgatory. The average temperature is over 400 degrees, the barometric pressure is that of 900 meters underwater on Earth, and the cherry on top comes in the form of occasional bouts of acid rain. It also has nights that last for 120 days. Humans cannot live on Mars without the help of technology, but compared to Venus it's paradise!

Technology: How does the Mars base communicate with Earth?

All communication between Mars and Earth goes through satellites. Because of the distance, there is a substantial delay. As communication signals travel at the speed of light, this means that it can take between 3 and 22 minutes for the information to reach the other end, so a phone call would not be practical. Fortunately, there would be no limitations to email, texting or 'WhatsApping' with the Mars residents. It'll just take at least 6 minutes for you to get your reply. Both voicemail and video messages are also easily workable options. The astronauts can use the Internet, but can only surf 'real time' on a number of websites that are downloaded from Earth on the Mars habitat webserver. Every astronaut will have access to his favorite websites that way. Visiting other websites will be a bit impractical because of the delay. The settlement will be broadcasting images of daily life back to Earth so that everyone can see what the astronauts are up to.

Mission to Mars: What are the risks of dust and sand on Mars?

All equipment that will be sent to Mars must be built specifically to withstand the conditions there. The environment of Mars contains dust that is much finer than that found on Earth. While the exact effects of this fine dust on technical hardware and equipment are not fully known, it is not impossible to engineer equipment to survive it. The NASA rovers Spirit and Opportunity were designed to operate for a minimum of 90 days, but have exceeded their target lifespans substantially. Spirit lasted about 1900 days. Opportunity is still driving around and investigating Mars since January 2004. It is unknown how the fine Mars dust might affect humans, should they be exposed to it. However, the astronauts will only go outside in their fully-enclosed Mars suits, and inside the habitat, the air will be filtered to remove the dust. Storms Mars has a very thin atmosphere, about 1% of Earth's atmosphere. Because of this, hurricane forces on Mars feel like a gentle breezes on Earth. The problem of a storm is not that it will push you over or destroy material, the problem is that Mars is extremely 'dusty'. Dust storms Mars has dust storms that can cover the entire planet for a whole month. This does not happen often, but smaller dust storms are quite common. During dust storms the power output of the solar panels will decrease. While direct lighting to the panels is reduced significantly, there is still sufficient lighting from indirect light to power the crucial life support systems of the settlement. Water and oxygen production will be turned off and instead stored water and oxygen will be consumed. Lighting to the greenhouse will be lowered and other non-essential systems will be turned off. Power during a dust storm Mars One has designed the Mars mission to fully exploit, wherever possible, solar power generation. The mission design makes use of 'thin film' solar panels, which are extremely light and can be easily transported. Solar power however has a few disadvantages: during night time, the energy must come from batteries; and during dust storms, the solar panels will yield less energy. The solar panel system used by Mars One will deliver enough energy to power all critical systems during a dust storm. Non-critical systems however will be shut down or restricted, to save energy: Oxygen and water will come primarily from the storage tanks (not from powered extraction) Dirty water will be stored (for later recycling, when full power is available) Oxygen from the storage tanks will be consumed Greenhouse lighting will be dimmed EVAs will be limited to emergency repairs Rover operation will be limited The astronauts will have enough water stored for 15 days of normal water usage, and for 150 days if usage is limited. The oxygen storage tanks will contain enough oxygen for 60 days. Because electrical power is so critical for the survival of the crew, extra safety margins will be built into the power usage profiles for dust storms. When required, Rovers can be used to remove dust from the solar panels. Other methods of power generation that could potentially be used on Mars are not yet available as existing technology. The most commonly referred to alternative is nuclear power. While nuclear power is a commonly used technology on Earth, a nuclear power generator for use on Mars does not yet exist, and will take many years to develop.

Surface Temperatures

As the atmosphere is dry, relatively thin, and composed largely of CO2, the heat capacity of the atmosphere is low and therefore absorbs little of the Sun's incoming radiation. This means that the atmosphere almost does not influence the daytime surface temperatures. The temperature is the result of the balance between the solar radiation absorbed at the surface and its emitted infrared radiation. Daily temperatures at the equator are close to 215 K (-58C or -72F). On special occasions during summer, equatorial temperatures can reach the 293 K (20C or 68F). On Earth, the atmosphere is very important in insuring temperate temperatures. Nighttime temperatures vary between 160-180 K (-113C/-172F--> -93C/-136F) at the equator. Eq. Tf = 9/5(Tc) + 32

Health and Ethics: What if one of the Mars inhabitants passes away?

Because our astronauts are likely to spend the rest of their lives on Mars it follows that they will pass away there as well. When that day comes, there will be a memorial service and cremation ceremony, like customs on Earth dictate. After the first four people arrive on Mars, they will be joined by four more every two years. Together they will form a small but growing community of individuals that cover a range of specialties and functions. All activities will continue and developments will be able to continue in the case of a death or illness within the group.

Bedrock

Bedrock: is the native consolidated rock underlying the surface

Years of Training

Before they leave the Earth's atmosphere to travel to Mars, each astronaut will be put through the required eight years of training. They will be isolated from the world for a few months every two years in groups of four in simulation facilities, to learn how they respond to living in close quarters while isolated from all humans except for the three crew members. In addition to the expertise and work experience they must already possess, they have to learn quite a few new skills: physical and electrical repairs to the settlement structures, cultivating crops in confined spaces, and addressing both routine and serious medical issues such as dental upkeep, muscle tears and bone fractures.

Health and Ethics: What's Mars One's view regarding religion on Mars?

Colonization of the New World on Earth was often motivated by religious zeal and a desire to convert "uncivilized" societies to Christianity. Of course, on Mars there is no-one to convert. But beyond this, Mars One is not based upon the idea that any particular religion should be represented in the Martian settlement. While astronauts will certainly bring to Mars their own ideas about religion, and the Mars One project encourages religious freedom, religious activity and beliefs will be purely a matter of individual choice on Mars. Is Mars colonization a religion? While it may seem that the idea of Mars colonization shares similarities with religion, it is in fact quite different. There are several reasons for this: Religions normally involve belief in some sort of spiritual entity or deity that guides behavior and helps people to develop ideas about how to live. The aim of Mars colonization is guided by careful planning, investment in appropriate technologies, and use of scientific knowledge and method to support the settlers and ensure success. Religion normally involves some type of faith, usually directed at a higher being. Mars colonization is not about faith, but about human ingenuity and vision. The inhabitants will rely upon science, research, and technology to ensure their well-being and the success of the mission. Religion usually involves a focus on something that a group of people deem sacred. Mars colonization will be focused on human survival and the formation of a society on a new planet. The extent to which people attach notions of the sacred to this will be a matter of individual choice.

Cost Overruns

Cost overruns are also not uncommon in large projects in any arena. The risk for cost overrun in the Mars One Mission is reduced by using existing technologies, and by the fact that about 66% of the cost is associated with launch and landing--both of which are well understood and proven variables. The proposed Mars One budget includes a large safety margin to take into account significant mission failures as well as smaller but costly failures of components on Mars. Mars One has developed a detailed risk analysis profile which guides both its internal technical development as well as the relationships it builds with its aerospace suppliers. This risk analysis profile will continue to evolve and improve over the years prior to the first humans walking on the planet Mars.

Mission to Mars: What will the astronauts do on Mars?

During their working hours, our astronauts will be busy performing three main tasks: construction, maintenance and research. Besides work, they will also have time to relax. Construction Construction involves working on the settlement. The first crew in particular will need to devote a lot of time to the settlement, to make their new home into a comfortable place to live. They will install the corridors between the landers, they will deploy extra solar panels, and they will install equipment, such as greenhouses, inside the habitat. They will spend time on the crops and food preparation. They will also prepare the hardware for the second crew: the second crew hardware will be delivered with the first crew astronauts. As soon as possible, Mars One will try to supply the settlement with methodologies to produce habitable volume from mostly Martian materials, in order to significantly expand the settlement. Our goal is to enable them to construct a space 10 meters wide by 50 meters long. This will be a spacious environment in which to live, where they can also grow trees. Such a large living volume will make Mars a much nicer place to live. Maintenance Maintenance will be crucial to ensure long-term functionality of all systems. The astronauts lives depend on the technology present in the settlement. All these systems need to be checked and maintained regularly. Research Research is also an important part of work on Mars, especially when the settlement is fully operational. What is the history of Mars? Did Mars have a long wet period, or just a few wet years every now and then? When did the dramatic climate change take place? Is there life on Mars now? The astronauts will do their own research, but will also collect data for other researchers, and transmit it to Earth. Leisure and personal time Our astronauts will also find time to relax. They can do most of the indoor activities that people can do on Earth: read, play games, write, paint, work out in the gym, watch TV, use the Internet, contact friends at home and so on. There will be some communication and media limitations, due to the distance between Earth and Mars, resulting in time delays: they will have to request the movies or news broadcasts they want to see in advance. If an astronaut would like to watch the Super Bowl, he or she can request it, and it would be uploaded to the server on Mars. There will always be a time delay of at least three minutes, so the people on Mars will know who won a few minutes after the people on Earth. Hopefully this slight delay will not spoil their enjoyment of our 'Earth sports'. Easy Internet access will be limited to their preferred sites that are constantly updated on the local Mars web server. Other websites will take between 6 and 45 minutes to appear on their screen - first 3-22 minutes for your click to reach Earth, and then another 3-22 minutes for the website data to reach Mars. Contacting friends at home is possible by video, voice or text message (e-mail, WhatsApp, sms), but real time dialogue is not possible, because of the time delay.

Dust

Dust: very fine particles, i.e. solid particles small enough to be suspended in the atmosphere.

Selection and Preparation: Why will multiple groups train to go to Mars?

Each crew that will go to Mars consists of four individuals. Four is the smallest possible group size because of the different skills that need to be present in the first team leaving for Mars. Working with a larger group would increase the cost and complexity of getting to Mars. The astronauts will have trained for many years together before even setting foot in the transport vehicle. Groups will be composed based on personalities, abilities, and chemistry, in order for each group to work together in the best way possible. If one astronaut in a group changes his or her mind about going to Mars, or obtains an illness which prevents him or her from participating in the training program, or deemed not to be suitable for the mission, the whole group will leave the program or will start again from the start of the program with a new team member. For this reason, there will always be new selections and several groups in training for future missions. This will make certain there are always qualified and integrated teams on stand-by, preparing for their time to travel to Mars.

Health and Ethics: How much radiation will the settlers be exposed to?

Findings by an instrument aboard the Mars transit vehicle that carried the Curiosity rover show that radiation exposure for a mission of permanent settlement will be well within space agencies' astronaut career limits. Radiation on the way to Mars A study published in the journal Science in May 2013 calculates 662 +/ 108 millisieverts (mSv) of radiation exposure for a 360 day return trip, as measured by the Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD). The study shows that ninety five percent of the radiation received by the RAD instrument came from Galactic Cosmic Rays or GCRs, which are hard to shield against without use of prohibitive shielding mass (1). The 210-day journey Mars One settlers will take, amounts to radiation exposure of 386 +/- 63 mSv, considering these recent measurements as standard. This exposure is below the upper limits of accepted standards for an astronaut career: European Space Agency, Russian Space Agency and Canadian Space Agency limit is 1000 mSv; NASA limits are between 600-1200mSv, depending on sex and age (1) Mars transit habitat radiation shelter On the way to Mars, the crew will be protected from solar particles by the structure of the spacecraft. The crew will receive general protection of 10-15 gr/cm2 shielding from the structure of the Mars transit vehicle. In case of a solar flare or Solar Particle Event (SPE), this shielding will not suffice and the crew will retreat to a dedicated radiation shelter in Mars Transit habitat, taking their cue from the onboard radiation monitoring and alert system. The dedicated radiation shelter located in the hollow water tank, will provide additional shielding to the level of 40 gr/cm2. The astronauts should expect one SPE every two months on average and a total of three or four during their entire trip, with each one usually lasting not more than a couple of days. Radiation on Mars Mars's surface receives more radiation than the Earth's but still blocks a considerable amount. Radiation exposure on the surface is 30 µSv per hour during solar minimum; during solar maximum, dosage equivalent of this exposure is reduced by the factor two (2). If the settlers spend on average three hours every three days outside the habitat, their individual exposure adds up to 11 mSv per year. The Mars One habitat will be covered by several meters of soil, which provides reliable shielding even against galactic cosmic rays. Five meters of soil provides the same protection as the Earth's atmosphere-- equivalent to 1,000 g/cm2 of shielding. With the help of a forecasting system taking shelter in the habitat can prevent radiation exposure from SPEs. Total radiation exposure The 210-day trip results in radiation exposure of the crew of 386 +/- 61 mSv. On the surface, they will be exposed to about 11 mSv per year during their excursions on the surface of Mars. This means that the settlers will be able to spend about sixty years on Mars before reaching their career limit, with respect to ESA standards. 1. Measurements of Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory C. Zeitlin, D. M. Hassler, F. A. Cucinotta, B. Ehresmann, R. F. Wimmer-Schweingruber, D. E. Brinza, S. Kang, G. Weigle, S. Böttcher, E. Böhm, S. Burmeister, J. Guo, J. Köhler, C. Martin, A. Posner, S. Rafkin, and G. Reitz Science 31 May 2013: 340 (6136), 1080-1084. 2. F. A. Cucinotta, L. Chappell, M. Y. Kim, Space Radiation Cancer Risk Projections and Uncertainties-2012 (NASA Technical Paper 2013-217375, NASA STI Program, Hampton, VA, 2013). [1 millisievert = .1 rems]

Loss of Human Life

Human space exploration is dangerous at all levels. After more than fifty years of humans traveling from Earth to space, the risk of space flight is similar to that of climbing Mount Everest. Mars is an unforgiving environment where a small mistake or accident can result in large failure, injury, and death. Every component must work perfectly. Every system, and its backup, must function without fail or human life is at risk. With advances in technology, shared experience between space agencies, what was once a one-shot endeavor becomes routine and space travel does become more viable.

Igneous Rock

Igneous rock is formed through the cooling of magma. It may form with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks (e.g. granite) or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks (e.g. basalt).

MarsOne Mission

It is Mars One's goal to establish a human settlement on Mars. Human settlement of Mars is the next giant leap for humankind. Exploring the solar system as a united humanity will bring us all closer together. Mars is the stepping stone of the human race on its voyage into the universe. Human settlement on Mars will aid our understanding of the origins of the solar system, the origins of life and our place in the universe. As with the Apollo Moon landings, a human mission to Mars will inspire generations to believe that all things are possible, anything can be achieved.

Selection and Preparation: Can I apply to become an astronaut?

It is currently not possible to apply. The closing date of this first online astronaut application round was 31 August 2013. Mars One will start new selection programs regularly, so you will have the possibility to apply for subsequent astronaut selection programs. If you want to stay up to date, you can sign up for the Mars One Newsletter, and receive all Mars One updates.

Mission to Mars: Is it safe to live on Mars?

Living on Mars cannot be considered entirely risk-free, in particular during the first few years. There are a number of elements that could pose a problem: An essential component of the settlement could be affected There is a chance that an astronaut might not survive if his or her Mars Suit were to become seriously damaged during a mission outside of the habitat Certain medical conditions are not treatable on Mars Obviously, Mars One will extensively examine and trial-run all elements of the mission beforehand to pre-empt any mishaps - especially the settlement's critical parts. Living on Mars is comparable to getting by on i.e. Antarctica, and provides similar challenges. However, the South Pole now has a number of very advanced, large research stations that boast a great deal of modern facilities that provide a good quality of life. On Mars this development still has to be kick started.

Mafic Rock

Mafic rock is rock rich in magnesium and iron, the term is a contraction of "magnesium" and "ferric".

Selection and Preparation: How are the astronauts prepared?

Mars One Astronaut Training Program Mars One's teams of prospective Mars inhabitants will be prepared for the mission by participating full time in an extensive training program. This will be their full time, paid job. The training is split up into three programs: technical training, personal training and group training. Technical training: The astronauts will be required to learn many new skills and gain proficiency in a wide variety of disciplines. At least two astronauts must be proficient in the use and repair of all equipment in order to be able to identify and solve technical problems. At least two astronauts will receive extensive medical training in order to be able to treat minor and critical health problems, including first aid and use of the medical equipment that will accompany them to Mars. At least one person will train in studies on Mars geology while another will gain expertise in 'exobiology', the biology of alien life. Other specialties like physiotherapy, psychology and electronics will be shared among the four astronauts in each of the initial groups. Mars One will ensure that in each group, at least two crew members will be trained in each essential skill-set in case a member becomes ill. Their training and preparations will take all the time between their admittance to the program, and the start of their journey to Mars. As the population on Mars increases, each new arrival will be able to bring with him or her an area of expertise. In time, this will reduce astronaut training time and requirements. Personal training: The ability of astronauts to cope with the difficult living environment on Mars will be an important selection criteria. For example, an astronauts' mobility will be restricted for a long period of time, and they will no longer be able to speak to friends and family on Earth face-to-face (read here how they can communicate with people on Earth). They will be able to receive psychological assistance from Earth if they wish, via long-range communications. The astronauts will be initially chosen for their inherent ability to cope with these environments, and will receive training on most effectively dealing with them. Group training: Group training will take place in the form of simulation missions. A simulation mission is an extensive, fully immersive exercise that prepares the astronauts for the real mission to Mars. The simulated environment will invoke as many of the Mars conditions as possible. Immediately after selection, the groups will participate in these simulations for three months per year. During simulations, astronauts will only be able to leave the base when wearing their Mars suits. They will have to take care of their water supply and keep the life support systems up and running. They must also cultivate their own food, and all communications with the outside world will be artificially delayed by twenty minutes. There will be several simulation bases, some easy to access for early stage, while others will be located in a harsh environments on Earth, providing realistic desert terrain and drastically cold conditions. These trials will demonstrate whether they are suitable for all elements of the task ahead. Can the astronauts keep the group functioning? Will they keep a cool head when confronted with a challenge? Can they effectively and efficiently solve given and uprising problems?

Risks and Challenges

Mars One has developed a mission to establish a human settlement on Mars built entirely upon existing technology. While the integration of systems proven in prior missions does greatly improve the chance of success, it by no means eliminates the risk or challenge of such an incredible endeavor. Sending humans to Mars remains a phenomenal undertaking by all standards and, as such, presents very real risks and challenges. United States President John F. Kennedy said in his famous Rice Moon speech "We choose to go to the Moon, not because it is easy, but because it is hard". Mars One takes on the challenge of establishing a settlement on Mars with the same frame of mind, knowing all great endeavors, especially space exploration, incorporate risk of lost time, resources, ... and sometimes lives. Venturing to Mars is no exception. The challenge is to identify the risks in every step of the ten year Mission, from astronaut selection through training, from launch to living on Mars. Mars One has incorporated into its Mission plan a detailed risk analysis protocol, built by highly experienced individuals, some of them with experience at NASA and the ESA. Ever evolving, ever improving, Mars One is constantly working to reduce the risk of delay and failure at every level. For example, the Mars lander will be tested eight times prior to the landing of the first crew, using identical vehicles. As is standard in the aerospace industry, every component will be selected for its simplicity, durability, and capacity to be repaired using the facilities that are available to the astronauts on Mars. An important aspect of risk management is for quality information to be shared between suppliers and made readily available to all parties. In the case of the Mars One Mission, this includes sponsors, investors, aerospace suppliers, and of course, the astronauts themselves. Because the Mission is ultimately funded and supported by the global audience, Mars One also desires for the general public to have a sense of what the risks are and how Mars One is working to mitigate them. Mars One identifies two major risk categories: the loss of human life and cost overruns.

Simulation Outpost Alpha

Mars One is creating several Earth based simulation outposts for training, technology try-outs and evaluation. Both on Mars and Earth, the Mars One outpost will become the epicenter for the mission. On Earth it will provide evaluation and training and on Mars it will provide a safe home for the crew. The outpost design is based on six assembled transit modules and two additional inflatables making up living quarters, private areas, food production, life support systems, surface access, recreational areas, mission operations, life science and much more. On Mars, the outpost will expand as more astronauts arrive, creating more living space and ever changing environments for the permanent settlement. Simulation Outpost Alpha will be the first prototype of many - providing a training facility on Earth and familiarization for a life on Mars. Technology The construction technology behind Outpost Alpha will match the simplified level of outpost complexity. The entire outpost will be made of rigid modules - even the "inflatable" volumes. Mars One is working towards a production method that allows for easy container shipping, easy assembling techniques, and potential module parts replacements. Complexity Before being sent to Mars, every astronaut must be familiar with the outpost architecture, daily living routines, group dynamics, and the technology that runs the "city". The simulation outpost on Earth is a perfect tool for such familiarization and learning how to diagnose and fix outpost subsystems. As more simulation outposts are being constructed, complexity will be added. Simulation Outpost Alpha is a simplified hard shelled construction with only very basic subsystems for atmospheric control and general safety. There will be no working air locks and no internal pressure, both of which are required on Mars to hold the outpost structure intact. Later outposts will present all subsystems required for Mars and the complexity to operate hatches, subsystems, communications, and life support. Location Multiple locations on Earth will be chosen to permanently hold various types of the outpost. Each location will pose different possibilities and scenarios for testing astronaut candidates. The initial locations will have an outpost for easy technology testing and easy access for PR. The Arctic and other remote regions around the world will be chosen for psychological testing of the astronauts and equipment related testing for wind, dust, temperature, and isolation. A location for the Simulation Outpost Alpha has not been chosen yet. Mars One still accepts location proposals from interested regions and institutions. Please contact Mars One if you would like to know more about the opportunities related to the Simulation Outpost location. Potential locations should meet the following requirements: Flat area, paved or leveled for outpost setup, minimum 50 x 50 m Additional buildings / housing for crew and PR Additional buildings for technology overview and testing General access for container and crew Water / waste / power technology General outpost maintenance service The general architecture layout and the interior design are some of the most important issues to address regarding the outpost. These features will not only provide general safety, but will also create a comfortable and enjoyable living environment. Architecture The outpost architecture consists of six lander modules and two elongated inflatables. The main area is inside the inflatables, providing approximately 200 square meters for daily living and food production. The two centered lander modules will provide access technology to the Martian surface and the four remaining lander modules will mainly contain subsystems supporting the entire outpost. Interior design Designing the interior is an interesting task, which is soon to begin. The interior design has to fulfill the needs of both the everyday tasks and the entire life cycle for a human being and crew. Additionally, it must also comply with the requirements of allowed mass and volumes to be transported and later "unfolded" inside the outpost. A great deal of flexibility has to be integrated into the interior design, making changes possible for special occasions or new situations in life. Dedicated interior areas and functionalities will be chosen for initial prototyping and evaluated during astronaut training.

Health and Ethics: Can the astronauts have children on Mars?

Mars One will advise the first settlement inhabitants not to attempt to have children because: In the first years, the Mars settlement is not a suitable place for children to live. The medical facilities will be limited and the group is too small. The human ability to conceive in reduced gravity is not known, neither is there enough research on whether a fetus can grow normally under these circumstances. In order to establish a true settlement on Mars, Mars One recognises having children is vital. Therefore this will be an important point of research.

Mission to Mars: Will the mission be harmful to Mars' environment?

Mars One will take specific steps to ensure that the Mars environment (which we will study, and on which we will depend) will not be harmed. The Mars base will be forced to recycle just about everything, and pay close attention to its energy use and minimize the leakage of materials and energy. Nutrients are scarce on Mars. They either need to be imported from Earth, or extracted from the ground or atmosphere. Solar panels, which will also be launched from Earth, will generate the settlement's electricity. All of this means that a Mars resident will have a much smaller ecological footprint than that of the average person on Earth. In addition, the development and operation of the settlement itself can greatly improve our sustainability efforts on Earth. The necessity to recycle everything on Mars will provide a high-profile boost to our recycling industry, as will the demand for lightweight solar panel technology. New methods of cultivating crops and growing plants on Mars can also teach us on Earth a great deal about how to improve our environment from experiences on another planet. Prevention of environmental contamination Mars One will take the required actions to prevent environmental contamination caused by the importation of Earth life (humans and their companion organisms). Mars One has begun discussions with the ICSU Committee on Space Research's (COSPAR's) panel on planetary protection and the COSPAR panel on exploration to identify the measures that need to be taken with respect to prevent this contamination. Prof. Dr. John D. Rummel of the COSPAR panel of planetary protection is one of our advisers. Based on discussions with these panels, Mars One will acquire the necessary systems and take the required and necessary actions to protect Mars.

General Mars Geology

Mars is a rocky planet consisting of minerals containing mainly silicon, oxygen, metals, and other elements that typically make surface rock. The surface of Mars is primarily composed of a certain type of volcanic rock called basalt, although some parts are more silica-rich than typical basalt. Localized concentrations of hematite (water bearing mineral) and olivine have also been found. Much of the surface is deeply covered by finely grained iron oxide dust.After the formation of the planets, all planets were subjected to the so-called "Late Heavy Bombardment". This is a period just after the formation of the Solar System, which gave a high rate of impacts on all planets of rocks and asteroids (remains after planet formation). About 60% of the surface of Mars shows a record of impacts from that era, while much of the remaining surface is probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events. There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the northern hemisphere of Mars, spanning 10,600 km by 8,500 km. This theory suggests that a Pluto-sized body struck Mars about four billion years ago. The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.

Magnetic Field

Mars shows no evidence of a current global magnetic field, like Earth's magnetic field. In orbit, observations have shown that part of the planet's crust has been magnetized, and that polarity reversals of its dipole fields have occurred in the past, just like on Earth. This remnant magnetism, which is also sometimes called paleo-magnetism, composed of magnetically susceptible minerals has similar properties to that of the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. A potential explanation is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and the planet's magnetic field faded away.

Mars Suits

Mars' atmosphere is not suitable for human life. For humans to live and work there, they will need the protection of a full body suit not unlike that worn by the astronauts who walked on the moon during the Apollo program. The Mars Suit must be flexible enough to allow the astronauts to work with both cumbersome construction materials and sophisticated machinery, and at the same time keep them safe from the harsh atmosphere. Why is the Mars atmosphere not suitable for human life? The air pressure on the surface of Mars is equivalent to that of Earth's atmosphere at 25 kilometers altitude, so too thin to breathe. Even if there was enough air pressure, there would be too much carbon dioxide and too little oxygen for humans. The Viking Orbiter Infrared Thermal Mapper suggests that the warmest temperature may be 27 °C(81 °F) and the coldest −143 °C(−225 °F) at the winter polar caps. Actual temperature measurements from the Viking landers range from −17.2 °C(1.0 °F) to −107 °C(−161 °F).

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rock is the product of existing rock subjected to changes in pressure and temperature, causing changes in mineral composition of the original rocks.

Mars Minerals

Mineral: a naturally occurring solid, formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms.

Mars Seasons

Northern Spring (Ls=0-90) 199 days Northern Summer (Ls=90-180) 183 days Northern Fall (Ls=180-270) 147 days Northern Winter (Ls=270-360) 158 days

Life on Mars

Once they arrive on Mars, the astronauts will begin making use of their relatively spacious living units; over 50 m2 per person, and a total of more than 200 m2 combined interior space. Within the settlement are inflatable components which contain bedrooms, working areas, a living room and a 'plant production unit', where they will grow greenery. They will also be able to shower as normal, prepare fresh food (that they themselves grew and harvested) in the kitchen, wear regular clothes, and, in essence, lead typical day-to-day lives. If the astronauts leave the settlement, they have to wear a Mars Suit. However, all living spaces are connected by passageways, in order for the astronauts to move freely from one end of the settlement to the other. As the rovers have done much of the heavy construction prior to their arrival, it will not take the astronauts a long time to find routine in their new life, moving into carrying out valuable construction works and research.

General Facts about Mars

Orbit semi major axis 1.52366 AU Eccentricity 0.0934 Obliquity 25.19° (15-35°) Mean orbital period 686.98 Earth days (669.6 Mars Sols) Mean solar day 24h 39.6m (Earth Time) Mass 6.4185*10^23 kg ~0.107 Earth masses Mean radius 3389.92 km Mean escape velocity 5.027 km/sec Surf. gravity @ equator 3.711 m/sec^2 Mean atmospheric press 6 mbar Average Solar Irradiance 588.98 W/m^2 Number of Moons 2 [Phobos and Deimos]

Health and Ethics: Will the astronauts have enough water, food and oxygen?

Our astronauts will be settling on Mars indefinitely. It's not feasible to send water, oxygen and food from Earth to the astronauts: they will produce those on Mars. Water On Mars, water can be extracted from the soil. The rover will select the location for the settlement primarily based on the water content in the soil. We expect this to be at a latitude of between 40 and 45 degrees North. Water extraction will be performed by the life support units. The rover will deposit soil into a water extractor in the life support units. The water extractor will heat the soil until the water evaporates. The evaporated water will be condensed and stored, the dry soil expelled, and the process repeated to extract more water. About 1500 liters of reserve water will be stored in each life support unit, which will be consumed primarily at night, and during periods of protracted low power availability, for example during dust storms. Since Mars has gravity, water can be used in the same way as on Earth. Each astronaut will be able to use about 50 liters of water per day. The water will be recycled, which takes much less energy than extracting it from the Martian soil. Only water that can not be recycled will be replaced by water extracted from the soil. Oxygen Oxygen can be produced by splitting water into its constituent parts, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen will be used to provide a breathable atmosphere in the living units, and a portion will be stored in reserve for conditions when there is less power available, for example at night, and during dust storms. The second major component of the living units' atmosphere, nitrogen, will be extracted directly from the Martian atmosphere by the life support unit. Food production on Mars When the astronauts land, there will be limited rations of food available for them to use. Food from Earth will only serve as emergency rations, the astronauts will eat fresh food that they produce on Mars. Mars One will make use of high efficiency plant growing methods that require much less space. Food production will be hydroponic, eliminating the need for soil. Food production will happen indoor, lighted by LED lighting. By providing the plants with only the frequencies of light that they use most efficiently, power consumption is limited. Some of the plants will be grown in multiple levels on top of each other, limiting space requirements. In total there will be about 50 m2 available for plant growth. A thick layer of Martian soil on top of the inflatable habitat will protect the plants (and the astronauts) from radiation. CO2 for the plants is available from the Mars atmosphere and water is available through recycling and from the soil of Mars. There will be sufficient plant production capacity to feed about three crews of four. Any plant production surplus will be stored as emergency rations for the second crew, and for other emergencies. Non-edible parts of the plants will be recycled, or will be stored until more advanced recycling equipment is shipped from Earth.

Outcrop

Outcrop: continuous expanses of bedrock or surficial deposits exposed at the surface.

Optical Depth

Outside global dust storm seasons, the optical depth typically varies from 0.1 to 2 (unitless). The atmospheric opacity on Mars has seasonal variations. During the dust storm events optical depths can vary from 1 to 5 and higher. The density profile along heights is modified by the presence of dust in the atmosphere leading roughly to a hotter and therefore more expanded atmosphere when dust is present during the storm. Outside of the global dust storm season, dust storms can occur at a regional scale with quite high optical thicknesses and these events can last for 60 sols.

Selection and Preparation: What are the qualifications to apply?

Qualifications Mars One will conduct a global search to find the best candidates for the first human mission to Mars. The combined skill set of each astronaut team member must cover a very wide range of disciplines. The astronauts must be intelligent, creative, psychologically stable and physically healthy. On this page, Mars One offers a brief introduction to the basics of our astronaut selection process. The astronaut selection process In spaceflight missions, the primary personal attributes of a successful astronaut are emotional and psychological stability, supported by personal drive and motivation. This is the foundation upon a mission must be built, where human lives are at risk with each flight. Once on Mars, there are no means to return to Earth. Mars is home. A grounded, deep sense of purpose will help each astronaut maintain his or her psychological stability and focus as they work together toward a shared and better future. Mars One cannot stress enough the importance of an applicant's capacity for self-reflection. Without this essential foundation, the five key characteristics listed below cannot be utilized to the fullest potential. Five Key Characteristics of an Astronaut Resiliency Your thought processes are persistent. You persevere and remain productive. You see the connection between your internal and external self. You are at your best when things are at their worst. You have indomitable spirit. You understand the purpose of actions may not be clear in the moment, but there is good reason—you trust those who guide you. You have a "Can do!" attitude. Adaptability You adapt to situations and individuals, while taking into account the context of the situation. You know your boundaries, and how/when to extend them. You are open and tolerant of ideas and approaches different from your own. You draw from the unique nature of individual cultural backgrounds. Curiosity You ask questions to understand, not to simply get answers. You are transferring knowledge to others, not simply showcasing what you know or what others do not. Ability to Trust You trust in yourself and maintain trust in others. Your trust is built upon good judgment. You have self-informed trust. Your reflection on previous experiences helps to inform the exchange of trust. Creativity / Resourcefulness You are flexible in how an issue / problem / situation is approached. You are not constrained by the way you were initially taught when seeking solutions. Your humor is a creative resource, used appropriately as an emerging contextual response. You have a good sense of play and spirit of playfulness. You are aware of different forms of creativity. Age The astronaut selection program will be open for applicants who are 18 years or older. This is the age by which children become legal adults in most countries in the world. Mars One believes it is important that applicants who enter the astronaut selection program are capable of entering into a legal contract without the supervision of others. There is not an upper age limit to apply for the astronaut selection program. If the applicant enjoys good health and he or she has all the other characteristics needed for the mission he or she has what it takes to apply. Medical and Physical Requirements In general, normal medical and physiological health standards will be used. These standards are derived from evidence-based medicine, verified from clinical studies. The applicant must be free from any disease, any dependency on drugs, alcohol or tobacco; Normal range of motion and functionality in all joints; Visual acuity in both eyes of 100% (20/20) either uncorrected or corrected with lenses or contact lenses; Free from any psychiatric disorders; It is important to be healthy, with an age- and gender-adequate fitness level; Blood pressure should not exceed 140/90 measured in a sitting position; The standing height must be between 157 and 190 cm. Country of Origin & Language Mars One accepts applicants from any country in the world. The official language, will be English. It is possible however, to enter the selection program without an extensive knowledge of English. Applicants can apply in one of the 11 most used languages on Internet: English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German, Russian, Arabic, Chinese Mandarin, Korean, Indonesian, Japanese. As applicants progress through the selection procedure, requirements on their English skills will increase. For the second round of the selection program, selected applicants will meet a Mars One selection committee for an interview. For this interview, A2 English level (elementary) will be essential. Please check CEFR to get a good sense of what language abilities are expected.

Regolith

Regolith: unconsolidated surface material, i.e. a layer of loose, heterogeneous material which usually covers the bedrock. It includes dust, soil, broken rock and other related materials.

Mars Rock

Rock: solid aggregate of minerals. Rocks are usually classified by mineral and chemical composition, by the texture of the constituent particles, by the processes that formed them, and according to particle size. Referring to the formation processes, one distinguishes igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.

Selection and Preparation: How will the astronaut selection proceed?

Round 1 All candidates must submit an online application. The online application consists of general information about the applicant, a motivational letter, a resume and a one minute video in which the applicant answers some given questions and explains why he or she should be among the first humans who set foot on Mars. At this stage the potential candidates can submit their application in one of the 11 most used languages on Internet: English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, German, Russian, Arabic, Indonesian, Chinese Mandarin, Japanese, Korean. If an applicant decides to make his or her public profile public, the application videos is available to be watched on community.mars-one.com. At the end of the first selection round, a team of Mars One experts will decide which applicants will pass to the next selection round. Round 2 Candidates for the second selection round will need to get a medical statement of good health from their physician. The applicant will be invited to meet with a Mars One selection committee. After conducting an interview with the candidates, the selection committee determines who will pass to round three. This interview could be aired on TV and internet. Round 3 This is an international selection round, which could be aired on TV and internet in countries around the world. Candidates who made it into this third selection round will participate in group challenges that demonstrate their suitability to become one of the first humans on Mars, and will be interviewed. The Mars One Selection Committee will determine who will pass to the final selection round. Round 4 The final selection round will be broadcast throughout the world. The Mars One selection committee will create international groups of four candidates. The groups will be expected to demonstrate their ability to live in harsh living conditions, and work together under difficult circumstances. The groups will receive their first short term training in a copy of the Mars outpost. From the first selection series, up to six groups of four will become full time employees of the Mars One astronaut corps, after which they'll train for the mission. Whole teams and individuals might be selected out during training when they prove not to be suitable for the mission. The selection terms and procedures are subject to change.

Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rock is made up of particles and fragments derived from disintegrated rocks that are subjected to pressure and cementation.

Finance and Feasibility: What's the historic success rate of Missions to Mars?

Sending a spacecraft to Mars is obviously extremely complex. For this reason, the first mission that Mars One will send to surface of Mars will be a full demonstration mission, using a controlled lander. Assuming this mission succeeds, seven more cargo missions will follow. Also see: the Mars One roadmap. Each of these eight relatively low-risk cargo missions will teach us more about the end-to-end process. Meticulous analysis of mission data from each mission will provide invaluable knowledge that can be used to ensure that future missions run as smoothly as possible, and that all possible safeguards and system redundancies have been properly implemented. In this way, all risks to payloads and transport vehicles can be absolutely minimized. Only after these eight cargo missions have successfully landed, and the mission process has been perfected as far as is humanly possible, will our first crew depart, using an identical system.

Selection and Preparation: Which group of astronauts will go first?

Several months before the first human departure, the Mars One selection committee will determine which groups in training are ready to depart to Mars. It is expected that at least six groups will be ready for the trip. Because this mission is humankind's mission, Mars One has the intention to make this a democratic decision. The whole world will have a vote which group of four will be the first humans on Mars.

Construction & Research

Several new components will be delivered to Mars while the first group of four astronauts are settled. In preparation of the arrival of the second group of four astronauts, the components will include a second living unit and a second life support unit. With use of the rovers, the astronauts will connect these units to the main base. When this task has been performed, the first crew has prepared the settlement for the arrival of additional astronauts, and, in the meantime, the astronauts will enjoy more room for themselves and extra safety as the duplicate living environments provide back-up life support systems. When the second crew of astronauts lands, the first crew will have already applied technology and physical labor to the construction of additional living and working spaces, using local materials. Mars One is working on concepts, such as the inclusion of tunnels and domes made from compressed Martian soil, which may be able to hold a breathable atmosphere for the astronauts to live in. There will be a great deal of research conducted on Mars. The astronauts will research how their bodies respond and change when living in a 38% gravitational field, and how food crops and other plants grow in hydroponic plant production units. Research will include extra-settlement exploration to learn about the ancient and current geology on Mars. Of course, much research will be dedicated to the determination if life was once present or now exists on Mars.

Mars Soil

Soil: the part of the surface material, for example upper regolith, that consists of unconsolidated or poorly consolidated material; i.e. any loose materials that can be distinguished from float rocks, bedrock, or strongly cohesive sediments.

Health and Ethics: How will the Mars mission physically affect the astronauts?

Spaceflight missions of extended duration result in astronaut deconditioning, including a decrease in muscle mass and performance, reduced aerobic capacity, and losses in bone density, in addition to a host of other physiological changes. However, well-structured countermeasures systems, including exercise and nutrition, help to mitigate these losses. Mars One astronauts will be well prepared with a scientifically valid countermeasures program that will keep them healthy, not only for the mission to Mars, but also as they become adjusted to life under gravity on the Mars surface. A great example of the effectiveness of in-flight exercise countermeasures in maintaining astronaut health and performance is illustrated by American astronaut Shannon Lucid's 188 day stay aboard the Russian MIR space station, during which time she relied heavily upon the use of exercise countermeasures. When her mission came to an end, she was able to walk out of the landing vehicle unassisted. When Mars One astronauts arrive on Mars (62% less gravity than Earth), they would theoretically be stronger compared to an astronaut returning to Earth's gravity after a mission of similar duration. A recent study of International Space Station (ISS) astronauts, with mission durations ranging from 4-6 months, showed a maximum loss of 30% muscle performance (and maximum loss of 15% muscle mass). However, we intend even to lower these numbers. With recent and emerging scientific research of effective long-duration countermeasures, Mars One will take advantage of the ~10 years prior to the launch of the first colonization mission to observe and select the most suitable astronauts and countermeasures to ensure a safe and successful mission. Osteoporosis Astronauts will suffer a loss of bone density; however, the problem can be mitigated with appropriate and well-designed countermeasures, including but not limited to exercise and pharmaceuticals. Continued research and advancements in this area will surely produce even more effective countermeasures within the ~10 year period of preparation prior to the first Mars One launch. Once on the Mars surface, astronauts will be able to take advantage of the force of gravity (albeit, less than that of Earth) to assist them in the reconditioning and adaptation process, which will result in bone remodeling that will help to strengthen the astronauts' bones.

Sulfate Rock

Sulfate rock is rock rich in sulfate minerals. Sulfates all contain the sulfate anion, SO_4 2− (neg)

Mars Terrain

Terrain: Martian surface in the general sense, consisting of regolith and bedrock, with associated relief properties.

The Life Support Unit

The Life Support Unit is a Lander rigged with extra technologies which capitalize on the natural resources available on Mars. It uses these resources to create a habitable living environment for the astronauts, as follows: Electrical energy is generated through the application of thin film solar photovoltaic panels. These are flexible and can be rolled up for compact transportation to Mars. Potable water will be created through the heating of water ice in the local ground soil. About 60 kilograms of soil is loaded into a container within the Life Support Unit by the Rover and heated to evaporate the water. The water is condensed and the dry soil returned to its origin. A portion of the water is stored while a portion is used to produce oxygen. The Life Support Unit is able to collect 1500 liters water and 120 kilograms oxygen in 500 days time. Nitrogen and argon gas are extracted from the Mars atmosphere and injected into the habitable space as inert gases. Remember, 80% of what we breathe on Earth is the element nitrogen. The Life Support Unit is connected to the Living Unit by a tube which feeds the oxygen, nitrogen, and argon to create a habitable atmosphere. Once the astronauts have landed, it will also be in charge of the water purification and removal of waste gas, carbon dioxide, from the Living Unit atmosphere. The Life Support Unit is hosted inside a Lander. This system will be very similar to those units which are fully functional on-board the International Space Station.

The Living Unit

The Living Unit is a Lander that has a unique, inflatable living section and an airlock used by the astronauts when leaving the sealed, habitable settlement. The Living Unit will be set in place by the Rovers and filled with breathable air by the Life Support Unit prior to the arrival of the astronauts. In addition, the Lander contains construction materials for the astronauts to construct rooms, floors and install electrical outlets. The Lander itself contains the 'wet areas', such as the shower and kitchen. The inflatable Living Unit will be built around existing technologies in use as Space Inflatables with such equipment as NASA's space suits and landing airbags on the three Mars rovers prior to Curiosity.

Mars Transit Vehicle

The Mars Transit Vehicle is a compact space station that will carry the astronauts from Earth orbit to Mars. It is comprised of four parts which are docked in Earth orbit: two propellant stages, a Transit Habitat and a Lander. The propellant stages are used to propel the Transit Vehicle from Earth orbit to Mars. The Transit Habitat is the home for the astronauts during their seven month journey. In it, they sleep, train and prepare for their arrival and landing. When they are near Mars, the astronauts enter the Lander which is then disconnected from the Tranisit Habitat. The Transit habitat and the propellant stages are left behind to orbit the Sun. The Lander is the only component that sets foot on Mars, with the astronauts inside. The Transit habitat has a mass of about 20,000 kg. It will carry close to 800 kg of dry food, 3000 liters of water and 700 kg of oxygen on board. No water or Oxygen will be recycled, because the trip lasts only 210 days. Not recycling these components eliminates the need for recycling systems, backups, spare components and reduces power and cooling requirements. The 3000 liters of water is also used for radiation shielding.

Mars Atmosphere

The Mars atmosphere is very thin and is mostly composed of carbon dioxide plus nitrogen, argon and traces of oxygen and water (96% CO2, 2% Ar, 2% N2, trace O2 and CO). The average pressure on the surface is less than 1% of the Earth's pressure and it varies strongly with altitude. The atmospheric variations can have a great impact on a spacecraft that enters the atmosphere, because atmospheric uncertainties are a major contribution to variations in entry trajectory. Surface winds on Mars are also highly variable. During some parts of the year, the direction of the wind may be estimated from wind streaks and other surface features, but there is always the question of whether the feature is recent or was formed during a previous climatic regime (and, even if recent, under what season or condition is the inferred direction relevant). The wind is partly influenced by the general atmospheric circulation (and thus can vary with season and local weather). The regional and possibly local settings also significantly control the wind, which includes the effects of topography, albedo, and thermal inertia.

Health and Ethics: How much living space will the astronauts have?

The Mars habitat will be a modular environment made up of multiple inflatable units, and will comprise about 1000 m3 of total living space, which equates to 250 m3 per inhabitant for a team of four. The astronauts will be staying on Mars for a long time, and they will need as much comfort as possible there. As the habitat will be modular, and constructed using fully redundant systems, even if one inflatable unit is damaged beyond repair, the habitat will still be secure and fully functional, and there will be enough remaining volume available for relatively comfortable living until a replacement unit can be delivered. In transit The transit habitat will feature less than 20 m3 of living space per astronaut. The trip to Mars will be tough, as we explain on the page Humankind on Mars. Mars One is proposing a mission of true exploration, not luxurious living in space. However, the astronauts are living their dream - they are going to Mars! By comparison, the explorers that sailed with Columbus across the Atlantic in 1492 had living space on board of less than 10 m3 per person.

The Rovers

The Rover for the Mars One mission is not a scientific Rover. It is a capable and powerful tool, with a robotic hand to carry out a wide variety of tasks. The Rover is accompanied by a trailer, which is used to transport landing modules and for power generation. In contrast to the scientific rovers dispatched to Mars to date, the Mars One Rovers' tasks will be focused more on utility, the deployment and maintenance of the human Settlement on Mars: Autonomous travel to locate the most suitable location for settlement. Measure the amount of water in the soil. Move the Landers to the preferred locations on the trailer. Remove protective panels from the Landers. Unroll and lay down the thin film solar panels. Extract, from the Lander, and assist with inflation of the Living Unit. Connect the air tube between the Life Support Unit and the Living Unit. Deposit soil in the Support Unit for water extraction and remove the dry soil.

Technology

The Technology Mars One has developed a realistic plan to establish a permanent settlement on Mars. This plan is built upon existing technologies available from proven suppliers. Mars One is not an aerospace company and will not manufacture mission hardware. All equipment will be developed by third party suppliers and integrated in established facilities. The mission is comprised of the following primary hardware components. Simulation Outpost: Mars One will build several Earth based simulation outposts for training, technology try-outs and evaluation. The construction technology behind the first simulation outpost will match the simplified level of outpost complexity. The entire outpost will be made of rigid modules - even the "inflatable" volumes. Launcher: Several rocket launches will be needed to take payloads into Earth orbit and then onto Mars. Payload may be satellites, rovers, cargo or humans. Mars One anticipates using Space X Falcon Heavy, an upgraded version of the Falcon 9, which is in use by Space X currently. The Falcon Heavy is slated to undergo test flights in 2014, granting ample time for fine-tuning prior to the Mars One missions. Mars Transit Vehicle: Human crew will travel through space for around seven months. The transit vehicle will consist of two propellent stages-- a landing module and transit habitat. On reaching Mars the crew in their Marsuits will descend to the Mars surface in the landing module, leaving their living quarters behind, which is too heavy to land. Mars Landing capsule: Mars One will secure the landing capsule from one of the experienced suppliers in the world, for example Lockheed Martin or SpaceX. The SpaceX capsule under consideration is a variant of the Dragon Capsule, tested on several occasions since 2010. Similar Landers will be equipped to perform different functions. Carrying Life Support Units that generate energy, water and breathable air for the settlement. Carrying Supply Unit with food, solar panels, spare parts and other components. Carrying Living Units that are outfitted with deployable inflatable habitats. Carrying Humans to the surface of Mars Carrying Rovers to the surface of Mars Rovers: Two Rovers will be sent to Mars to set up the outpost before the humans arrive. One of them will explore the surface of Mars in search of the most suitable location for the settlement, for transport of large hardware components and then general assembly. It will be accompanied by the second rover, a trailer used for transporting the landing capsules. Mars Suit: All astronauts must wear their Marssuits when exposed to the Mars atmosphere. Like those used by the Apollo astronauts on the Moon, Marssuits protect astronauts from extreme temperatures, the very thin, non-breathable atmosphere, and otherwise harmful radiation. Communications System: The communications system will consist of two communications satellites and Earth ground stations. It will transmit data from Mars to Earth and back. Suppliers No new technology developments are required to establish a human settlement on Mars. Mars One has visited major aerospace companies around the world to discuss the requirements, budget and timelines with their engineers and business developers. The current mission plan was composed on the basis of feedback received in these meetings.

Finance and Feasibility: What happens after the first humans' arrival on Mars?

The arrival of the first four Mars inhabitants is just the beginning of this great adventure. The astronauts will be followed by more groups, spaced every two years, which will eventually lead to the base becoming a small village. At first, expansion will be limited due to provisions, oxygen and water. Other landings will provide everything they might need to expand the colony: solar panels, new living quarters and plastic components. The settlement will develop as those inhabiting it become architects of their own environment.

Mission to Mars: Is this a sustainable mission?

The arrival of the first four Mars inhabitants is just the beginning of this great adventure. The astronauts will be followed by more groups, spaced every two years, which will eventually lead to the base becoming a small village. At first, expansion will be limited due to provisions, oxygen and water. Other landings will provide everything they might need to expand the colony: solar panels, new living quarters and plastic components. The settlement will develop as those inhabiting it become architects of their own environment.

Mission to Mars: What governmental system and social structure will be implemented on Mars?

The astronauts will be facing the task of determining how to organize themselves politically in order to ensure fair and reasonable decision-making processes. During the preparation program, they will expand their knowledge on different forms of social organization on Earth, and how cultures vary in terms of determining issues of social structure (e.g. social hierarchy, distribution of power, approaches to decision-making, kinship structure, and management of resources). Early on, because the settlement will be very small, it is likely that most decisions will be collective and require unanimity. As the community grows it will become necessary to develop more complex systems for managing conflict and maintaining effective ways to make decisions. Mars One will provide training and a database of knowledge about human social organization to assist in that process as the settlement grows.

Health and Ethics: What kind of medical facilities will be available on Mars?

The astronauts will be put through many physical checks before they leave. At some point however, an astronaut on Mars will get ill or will get involved in an accident. Medical equipment will be present on Mars and on the way to Mars to treat the most common injuries and illnesses. Two of the four astronauts will have received comprehensive medical training, and the other two will have extensive knowledge of first-aid. All these elements together will provide the group with the tools to help itself. The medical possibilities on Mars will be more limited than those of a modern hospital. Big, heavy equipment won't be present in the settlement for the first few years. Certain conditions will be more difficult or even impossible to treat on Mars. Subsequent years will see more advanced medical technology make its way to Mars to make more complex care possible.

Reports from Mars

The astronauts will not only submit routine reports, but will also share all that they enjoy and find challenging. It will give the people on Earth a unique and personal insight view of life on Mars. They could answer intriguing questions like: What is it like to walk on Mars? How do you feel about your fellow astronauts after a year? What is it like living in the reduced Mars' gravity? What is your favorite food? Do you enjoy the sunsets on Mars?

Communication System

The communications system consists of a satellite in orbit around Mars, over the Mars One settlement, one in orbit around the sun, and ground stations on Earth. The satellite over the Mars settlement is an areostationary satellite, the Mars equivalent of a geostationary satellite. It is always in the same place in the sky on Mars, receiving data from the settlement and transmitting it to Earth. On Earth the data is received by ground stations using large satellite dishes. The areostationary satellite enables almost 24/7 communication, which is interrupted only when Mars is in between the satellite and the Earth. This is solved by placing a second satellite in an orbit around the sun, trailing 60 degrees behind the Earth. With this second satellite in place, when Mars is in between the areostationary satellite and the Earth, the signal can be relayed by the second satellite. Once every 26 months, the Sun is exactly in between Mars and the Earth. This occultation lasts about six weeks. The second communications satellite will also be used to relay signals during this period. However, when the Sun is in between Mars and the Earth and at the same time Mars is in between the areosynchronous satellite and the second satellite, we will have no contact with Mars for about two hours. Fortunately this is a rare situation and occurs when it is after midnight on Mars.

Selection and Preparation: What roles do views, rating and popularity play in the astronaut selection?

The decision of selecting the applicants that will pass to Round 2 will lie solely with the Mars One selection committee and will be based on the quality of the applicant according to this criteria. An audience vote will be crucial in later stages of the application program when all applicants in the running have been selected by experts, in subsequent selection rounds, or fully trained, in the decisive audience vote before the launch.

Dust Particle mean Radius

The dust particle mean radius in absence of dust devils varies from 25 nm and 30 micro(μ) meters.

Technology: Why is the Rover on the second instead of on the first mission to Mars?

The first mission to Mars will be a demonstration mission. A rover will be sent on the following mission two years later. The demonstration mission will be the first Lander of Mars One on Mars. In the unlikely event of any problems with the deployment of the Lander on the first mission, the only risk will be to the payload, and to the Lander itself. Any lesson learned from the demonstration mission will be used to perfect the Lander deployment process, and minimize risk to the high-value Mars Rover during the following mission.

The Journey to Mars

The flight will take between seven to eight months, depending upon the relative positions of the Earth and Mars. The astronauts will spend those seven months together in a very small space—much smaller than the home base at the settlement on Mars—devoid of luxury or frills. This will not be easy. Showering with water will not be an option. Instead the astronauts make do with wet towelettes wet wipes as used by astronauts on the International Space Station. Freeze dried and canned food is the only option. There will be constant noise from the ventilators, computer and life support systems, and a regimented routine of 3 hours daily exercise in order to maintain muscle mass. If the astronauts are hit by a solar storm, they must take refuge in the even smaller, sheltered area of the rocket which provides the best protection, for up to several days. The journey will be arduous, pressing each of them to the very limits of their training and personal capacity. But the astronauts will endure because this will be the flight carrying them to their dream.

Health and Ethics: Will psychological issues become a problem for the astronauts?

The key to successful survival on Mars is a very careful selection procedure. There are many people who would not be suitable for a Mars mission, especially for settlement in the first few years, when the colony is still small. However, not everyone is alike. "Men wanted for hazardous journey, small wages, and bitter cold, long months of complete darkness, constant danger, safe return doubtful, honour and recognition in case of success." Not everyone who reads this would have applied for a position on the team with intrepid South Pole explorer Ernest Shackleton in the early 1900s. Despite the ominous tone of the ad, the response was overwhelming. Mars One will carefully select the crew for a number of skills and qualities. They will be people who have dreamt their whole life of going to Mars, and in many case will have pursued careers that increase the odds of being selected for this kind of mission. The selected team will be very smart, skilled, mentally stable and very healthy. They will go to Mars to live their dream. On Mars, they will be busy. They will improve the habitat and extend it with new units sent from Earth, and with local materials. They will do research - their own research, plus the gathering of data for the research of others (for example, universities). And they will prepare the settlement for the second crew that lands two years later. Every two years a new crew will arrive, such that the settlement will slowly become a small village, and an attractive place to live, for more and more people. We have discussed our plan with experienced and respected psychologists. One of Mars One's team members is Dr. Norbert Kraft, who has worked on astronaut selection at NASA and JAXA. He wrote an interesting article on this topic in the Huffington Post together with one of Mars One's advisors Prof. Dr. Raye Kass: The Uncharted Territories of Mars: Is Science Enough?

Solar Wind

The solar wind originates from the Corona, which is the Sun's outer atmosphere. The high temperature of the plasma near the Sun causes it to expand outwards against gravity, carrying the solar magnetic field lines along with it. The solar wind starts at the Sun as a hot dense, slowly moving plasma but accelerates outwards to become cool, much less dense at the Earth and beyond. Most of the solar wind's acceleration takes place near the Sun. The solar wind velocity typically lies in the range 300-1200km/s. It is most commonly around 400km/s but there are frequent high-speed streams with velocities around 700km/s. The strong variability of the solar wind is the driving force, putting energy into the magnetosphere and ultimately causing surface charging and radiation effects. More severe but less frequent disturbances in the solar wind can be caused by coronal mass ejections. At Mars at the average distance from the Sun the average density of the Solar wind is 3.8 cm-3 and the average speed of the solar wind is 468 km/sec.

Mission to Mars: How long does it take to travel to Mars?

The trip takes around seven months; a bit longer than astronauts currently stay on the International Space Station. The precise duration of each journey depends on when it is taken. Because both Mars and Earth's orbits are not perfectly circular, the time it takes to travel between them varies from six to eight months. How to determine the dates of departure and arrival The exact dates and years in which Mars One plans to execute the various stages of the plan were chosen for the beneficial astronomical position of Earth and Mars. When determining the course to Mars, the maximum travel time for the astronauts is very important. The most efficient route to take from Earth's orbit to that of Mars is called the 'Hohmann Transfer Orbit' (see: illustration). The illustration shows a simplification of the process, as both Earth and Mars' orbits are not perfect circles.

Mission to Mars: How safe is the journey?

The trip to Mars cannot be called risk free. Like any venture in any means of travel, there are always things that could go wrong. In the case of Mars One, the following risks are conceivable: Accident(s) during launch Vital components could malfunction during the journey there A number of issues might present themselves when entering Mars' atmosphere There could be problems when landing Mars One will take every possible precaution to make sure the mission is as safe as can be: The rocket will be tested unmanned dozens of times before the astronauts so much as see it. Mars One uses technology that has been operating on the International Space Station for years, and have already planned for important components to be meticulously tested before use. By the time the astronauts start their journey, the process of entering Mars' atmosphere will already have been performed eight times by unmanned capsules. Although travelling to Mars will evidently bring risks, if you were to compare our mission to the first Moon mission in 1969, it quickly becomes apparent that this mission is much safer. At the time of Apollo 11, there was a great deal of pressure to rush proceedings, and was therefore never properly tested. For example, the lunar lander hadn't even been tested once.

Geological History

Three primary periods: 1) Noachian period (named after Noachis Terra): formation of the oldest surfaces of Mars, 4.5 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. The Noachian age surfaces can be identified by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, which was created by volcanic activity, is thought to have been formed during this period followed by extensive flooding by liquid water later in the same period. 2) Hesperian period (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 2.9-3.3 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains. 3) Amazonian period (named after Amazonis Planitia): 2.9-3.3 billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions are characterized by having few impact craters and vary a lot in terms of different rock composition. The largest volcano in our Solar System Olympus Mons formed during this period, along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars. Some geological activity still takes place on Mars. On February 19, 2008, images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed evidence of an avalanche coming down from a 700 m high cliff. There are even scientists who claim that Mars could still host volcanic activity in the form of hydrothermic spots, similar to those found in the deep sea and, for example, Iceland (Geysirs).

Technology: Will Mars One use advanced technologies like terraforming and nuclear propulsion?

We are receiving many suggestions to make use of advanced technologies like nuclear propulsion and terraforming. Mars One is only considering technologies that can be purchased from existing suppliers. When new technologies become available, Mars One will consider the applicability of the technology for our plans, but only when the technology is proven and ready to use.

Health and Ethics: Is this ethical?

We want to emphasize a number of issues: A 'one way' trip (or, in other words: emigration) to Mars is currently the only way we can get people on Mars within the next 20 years. This in no way excludes the possibility of a return flight at some point in the future. It is likely that technological progress will make this less complex down the line, not to mention the fact that once the planet is inhabited, it will be that much easier to build the returning rocket there. This means that in time it could be possible for astronauts to return to Earth at some point in the future, should they want to do so; Mars One will take every possible precaution to ensure the journey to Mars will be as safe as can be; All those emigrating will do so because they choose to. They will receive extensive preparatory training so that they fully know what to expect. Astronauts that have passed the selection process can always choose not to join the mission at any time, and at any point during preparations. Back-up teams will be ready to replace any crew member that drops out, even at the very last minute. Our first and foremost priority is to offer the people on Mars as high a quality of life as we can, which encompasses the following: Unlimited access to email and other communication channels to keep in touch with friends and family back on Earth; As many exploration and experimentation opportunities as are available; The means to build and develop as much as they can themselves. They can work on the expansion of their Mars base and use the new rooms as they wish. Our second priority is to have at least four people emigrate every two years, so that the community continues to grow. Despite all of the above, it still sounds rather extreme nowadays to only offer a one way trip, but it bears mentioning that thousands of Europeans agreed to do just that - they took all they owned and moved to Australia, for example. That agreement did not come with a return ticket. The boat went back, but that did not mean they could afford to go with it. Maybe they could buy another ticket after saving up for a few years - just like our astronauts could build a rocket after some time. The emigrants of the 60s could never have imagined that, 30 years later, they would be able to fly back to Europe for a small amount. Perhaps, at some point, a trip to Mars will become just as commonplace. Considering all of the above, we do indeed think it is ethically conscientious to allow people to emigrate to Mars.

Technical Feasibility & 5 Pillars

While complex, the Mars One Mission is feasible. The science and technology required to place humans on Mars exists today. Much of what was learned from Skylab, Mir and the International Space Station has resulted in vital data, experiences with systems and related know-how -- all of which are applicable to living on Mars. Mars One is not the first organization to ponder upon the idea of a manned mission to Mars. Blueprints of a Mars human settlement are flung across much of history-- from science fiction books to dossiers of national space agencies. And yet, no human has landed on Mars to this day. Why should Mars One succeed? The Mars One mission plan is based on five pillars that ensure its practicality and success.

Mission to Mars: Why should we go to Mars?

Why did Columbus travel west? Why did Marco Polo head east? Because it is that pull, that unknown, that prospect of adventure that compels humans to seek new frontiers to explore. There are a number of reasons to travel to Mars. The first is the realization of an amazing dream! Sending a manned mission to Mars is a fantastic adventure. Imagine living on another planet, millions of miles from the Earth; looking up into the sky with the knowledge that one of the 'stars' is actually the planet you were born on. Who can even envision the incredible feeling of being the first human in history to step out of the capsule and leave your footprint on the surface of Mars? By this we implore you to not just think of that feeling for the astronaut, but the experience for all those watching back home. Those who observed Neil Armstrong land on the Moon all those years ago still remember every detail - where they were, who they were with and how they felt. This will be our moment, in 2025. A second reason is good, old-fashioned curiosity. Where did Mars come from? Can it teach us about Earth's history? Is there life on Mars? These are just three of the hundreds of burning questions for scientists all over the world. Thirdly: progress. You could say that sending people to Mars is 'the next giant leap for mankind'. This mission will jumpstart massive developments in all kinds of areas, a few examples being in recycling, solar energy, food production and the advancement of medical technology.