Mass media and communication

Define tabloid journalism and give examples of this type of journalism in both print and non-print media.

"Tabloid journalism" is a catchall phrase for publications that emphasize coverage of celebrities and popular culture. In print media, tabloid journalism is known best for weekly newspapers such as the National Enquirer and magazines such as People and Us Weekly that are sold at supermarket check stands. In electronic media, the success of Entertainment Tonight (ET) in the 1980s demonstrated the increased demand for news regarding the personal lives of celebrities. Often broadcast following the local news, ET attracted a loyal following and commanded higher advertising rates than other shows in similar time slots.

Describe "dummying," and discuss how this practice helps create a finished publication.

A "dummy" is a simulated version of a newspaper. Also known as a mockup, the dummy shows where the copy, photographs, and advertising will appear on each page. The dummy also indicates the amount of room available for editorial and advertising content. Since advertising space on each page is fixed, copy and photographs must be sized and/or reduced in order to fit in the remaining space.

Give an example of how freedom of the press extends to non-print journalism.

A 1938 U.S. Supreme Court decision, Lovell v. City of Griffin, expanded the definition of press freedom. The Court ruled that the city of Griffin, Georgia, could not demand publishers of all printed materials to obtain a license from the city before distributing said materials. The ruling, which defined the press as "every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion," extended First Amendment protection beyond newspapers and magazines. When online blogs became common in the early 21st century, the Lovell decision provided constitutional protection for those writers, as well.

Explain the concept of a cutaway shot, as it applies to broadcast journalism.

A cutaway shot is a video technique that quickly switches from one image to another. Among other examples, a cutaway can show audience reaction to a football game (then cut back to action on the field) or a rock concert (cutting to images of fans shouting and applauding, then switching to a close-up of the band's lead singer).

Define a transition as utilized in a videotaped news segment.

A transition shot assures a smooth segue between stories. An example of a transition is to fade or "dissolve" from one on-screen image to the next. The effect is not jarring, but it offers enough of a visual change for the viewer to understand that a new segment is about to begin.

Describe a voiceover, and discuss this technique's use in journalism.

A voiceover is the technique of reading audio commentary to accompany video images. An effective voiceover must include a concise script and an audio presentation that is not "rushed." In addition, the audio track must match what appears on the screen.

Define the field of organizational behavior, and describe a variety of types of organizations.

An organization is a group of two or more individuals working toward a set of shared goals in a manner that is coordinated, methodical and ongoing. Organizations can serve a primarily social-cultural purpose, such as schools, museums, churches; a primarily economic purpose, such as manufacturing and service industries, retailers, and banks; or exist in order to maintain order within a larger social grouping, such as military, government and police organizations. Because organizations are composed of human beings, these organizational types have considerable overlap. For example, a school adheres to schedules both within its own field of reference (staggered lunch periods and managing hallway travel are two instances), as well as outside its own needs (school holidays coincide with bank and business holidays). A hospital is both a business that schedules staff, negotiates salaries, and markets its product, as well as a community organization offering community education programs.

Provide examples of how Joseph Pulitzer changed the direction of daily newspapers (both positively and negatively) in the late 19th century.

As publisher of the New York World, Joseph Pulitzer introduced two seemingly conflicting styles: new journalism and yellow journalism. Pulitzer used the World as a vehicle to attack big business and corruption; however, he also introduced yellow journalism, a style of writing that exaggerated and fabricated stories to increase circulation. In terms of readership, the World was an unqualified success. Circulation increased from 15,000 to 600,000 during Pulitzer's time as publisher. The World was one of the first newspapers to depend upon advertising for revenue. Pulitzer's vision of a publication that appealed to the common person ushered in the era of mass-circulation journalism.

Define attribution, and discuss its importance in a news story.

Attribution indicates the source of information in a news article. Clearly indicating which person provided certain information is essential to writing a credible story. When a journalist includes information that does not come from his or her own firsthand observation, he or she should always employ attribution. The journalist always should include the source's full name; if important to the story, the source's job title should appear as well. Journalists can use both paraphrased information and direct quotes from attributed sources.

Explain why audiences are important to the mass media

Audiences are important to mass media because advertisers purchase time and space based on whether readers and viewers will notice their messages. Advertisers provide the bulk of revenues for newspapers, radio stations, television stations, and online websites.

Explain how Barbara Walters' television career helped women break into electronic journalism

Barbara Walters (b. 1929) was the first female co-anchor of a national evening-news broadcast. She was also the first female co-host of The Today Show on NBC, and she spent 25 years as a correspondent for the ABC newsmagazine show, 20/20. Walters began her career at a time when women were not taken seriously in journalism. After being hired by NBC News in the early 1960s, Walters became the "Today Girl" on The Today Show, giving the weather forecast and reporting feature stories. Such assignments were typical for female reporters, who rarely were seen and were considered incapable of reporting hard news. Walters quickly moved up to full-reporter status on Today. In 1976, she joined Harry Reasoner as co-anchor on the ABC Evening News. In 1979, she joined 20/20 and gained a reputation for in-depth interviews of major political figures and celebrities. Her 1999 interview with Monica Lewinsky, a White House intern involved with President Bill Clinton in a sex scandal, attracted 74 million viewers, a record for a televised journalism interview.

Describe Benjamin Franklin's role in the development of journalism in the United States.

Benjamin Franklin wore many career hats throughout his life. Franklin is perhaps best known for his role in helping write the Declaration of Independence and uniting the American colonies as a nation. However, Franklin also gained notoriety as a newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia. By acquiring The Pennsylvania Gazette in 1729, Franklin had an outlet to publish essays and commentary regarding social issues of the day. He often contributed opinion pieces to the Gazette under assumed names. From the time of Franklin's purchase through the early 19th century, the Gazette was one of the country's most prominent newspapers. It was considered the most successful paper in the colonies and printed the first political cartoon in America.

Discuss the early development of political journalism in the United States.

Common Sense, a 48-page manifesto written by Thomas Paine, called upon the American colonies to declare independence from Britain. This work arguably represents the earliest example of political journalism in America. Published in early 1776, Common Sense sold 500,000 copies within a year. Democracy in America, a two-volume set written by Alexis de Tocqueville in the 1830s, still is considered a benchmark in explaining the strengths and weaknesses of American government. De Tocqueville's political analysis included his predictions that the slavery debate eventually would divide the United States.

Describe how muckraking has evolved in modern journalism.

Contemporary journalism has shed light on many legal, social, and public policy issues. Recent examples include the ongoing coverage of the BP oil spill and examining the pace of recovery five years after Hurricane Katrina. Investigative reporters' collective work reinforces the principle that a major responsibility of journalism involves forcing persons in power to remain honest.

Give an example of how the Internet has affected the legal and ethical principles of journalism.

Copy and graphics posted on the Internet are considered published material; therefore, they are not considered in the public domain (e.g., usable by anyone without proper credit). Whenever possible, journalists should use only material originally sourced by the reporter. The re-use of information accessed online must conform to U.S. copyright law. These laws protect writers, photographers, and artists from having their works used without permission.

Explain why credibility is important to any journalism product.

Credibility addresses the basic trust between journalists and their respective audiences. Readers must have confidence that reported materials are objective and factual. As stated in the Preamble to the Code of Ethics for the Society of Professional Journalists, "The duty of the journalist is to...seek truth and (provide) a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. Professional integrity is the cornerstone of a journalist's credibility.

Analyze coverage of the Vietnam War during the 1970s, and discuss how this coverage increased the influence of the mass media upon society.

Due to the growth of television, the Vietnam War was the first American conflict to broadcast uncensored war coverage to the public. The grim, bloody images viewers saw in their living rooms each weeknight served as a direct contrast to the positive updates provided by government spokespersons. This effect of "bringing the war home" was credited with turning American opinion against the war in the late 1960s. Perhaps the best example of the media's role in this change was Walter Cronkite's visit to Vietnam in early 1968. Cronkite, anchor of the CBS Evening News, returned from Vietnam and delivered a withering editorial commentary that the war was unwinnable.

Describe how Edward R. Murrow helped establish standards for journalism in television news.

Edward R. Murrow (1908-1965) was one of the first journalists to move successfully from radio to television. Already well known for his reports from Europe during World War II, Murrow began his transition to television in late 1951, when his Hear It Now radio show moved to CBS Television and was renamed See It Now. The pinnacle of Murrow's television career was a 1954 See It Now episode entitled "A Report on Senator Joseph McCarthy." McCarthy, a Wisconsin senator, was a fervent anti-Communist. Using his post as chairperson of the House Committee on Un-American Activities, McCarthy ruthlessly accused thousands of U.S. citizens of subversion and disloyalty. The effect of "McCarthyism" was so profound that CBS did not pay for any advance advertising of the See It Now report. When Murrow dug into his own pocket to pay for the ads, CBS did not allow him to use the company's logo. Despite the network's misgivings, Murrow's expose of program demonstrated the impact that investigative journalism could have in the relatively new medium of television.

Define the role of entertainment in mass media.

Entertainment encompasses movies, music, and sports. The evolution of video games has expanded that definition, and consumers now can access more entertainment options from more sources than at any other time in history. In the past, people had to go to a theater in order to view a motion picture. Now people can experience the same motion picture at home on a DVD player, online from the local cable company, or on an iPhone or similar device.

Describe the doctrine of fair use and its role in U.S. copyright law.

Fair use is an element of U.S. copyright law that allows limited use of material without requiring the permission of the copyright holder. In journalism, the concept of fair use applies to issues of comment and criticism. When writing a music review, quoting a few lines from a song lyric qualifies as fair use. The same principle applies when summarizing an article from a professional journal within a news story.

List the factors considered in a fair use dispute

Four factors are used to resolve fair use disputes: 1. Purpose and character. Namely, was the material used to create something new? 2. Nature of the copyrighted work. Fair use applies differently to factual works than compared to works of fiction such as plays or novels. 3. Amount of the portion taken. Using several paragraphs from a short story or several stanzas of a song probably will not qualify as fair use. 4. Effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work.

Describe how the abolitionist views of Frederick Douglass influenced journalism in the 19th century.

Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) became a leader in the abolitionist movement in the United States. His primary contribution to journalism was as publisher of the North Star, a newspaper published from 1847 to 1851. While still an American slave during the 1840s, Douglass left the U.S. and spent two years living in Ireland and England. In the course of becoming a free man during that period, supporters of Douglass helped him purchase a printing press. Douglass began publishing the North Star in 1847, upon his return to Rochester, New York. Through his writings in the North Star, Douglass advocated for the U.S. Constitution as an anti-slavery document. The newspaper helped politicize the anti-slavery and emancipation movements; in addition, it supported women's rights.

Describe the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier and its impact on student journalism.

Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier originated with articles written for the student newspaper of Hazelwood East High School near St. Louis, Missouri. The principal of Hazelwood East High School reviewed each issue of the paper prior to publication, and upon review the principal removed articles scheduled to appear in the paper. The Supreme Court based its ruling-a reversal of a federal appeals-court decision-on a finding that the student newspaper was not a "forum for public expression." By doing so, the Court opened the door for censorship if a school could provide a pedagogical (educational) reason for deleting a story.

Explain how the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Ginsberg v. New York established an obscenity standard for minors as opposed to adults.

In 1968, the Supreme Court decided in Ginsberg v. New York that material not considered obscene by adult standards still could be harmful to minors. Ginsberg, who owned a store that sold magazines on Long Island, was accused and found guilty of selling a "girlie" magazine to two 16-year-old boys. The conviction rested upon a New York state law prohibiting the sale of pictures depicting nudity to minors under age 17. The high court rejected Ginsberg's argument that New York State could not define obscenity for one group (adults), yet apply a different definition to another group (minors under age 17). The majority opinion held that states had the power to protect minors, including barring them from purchasing magazine intended for adults.

Describe how Johann Gutenberg influenced the early development of journalism

Johann Gutenberg (1398-1468) invented the printing press and was one of the first persons to use movable type printing. He also developed a process to mass produce movable type. Book production previously had consisted of handwritten manuscripts produced in limited supplies. Gutenberg's innovations effectively introduced the era of mass media. As printing technology spread across Europe, news and information traveled much faster. The ability to share ideas increased literacy across the continent and foreshadowed all subsequent advancements in communication.

Describe the trial of John Peter Zenger, and discuss how this trial established freedom of the press in colonial America

John Peter Zenger, an 18th-century publisher and printer, was arrested in 1734, after William Cosby, the colonial governor of New York, became angry at criticisms of Cosby published in Zenger's newspaper, the New York Weekly journal. Zenger spent eight months in prison before his case came to trial. Noted Philadelphia lawyer Andrew Hamilton defended Zenger at his trial. Hamilton literally based his defense on the facts. Even if it could be established that Zenger's published criticisms of Cosby were defamatory, all statements within the articles were based upon established facts. In such cases, Hamilton argued, such statements could not be considered libelous. Although Governor Cosby selected the members of the jury, they agreed with Hamilton's defense and found Zenger not guilty. In doing so, the jury effectively rejected the libel laws of that era and allowed journalists to express their opinions freely.

Provide examples of how Katharine Graham's role as publisher of The Washington Post changed American journalism in the 1970s.

Katharine Graham (1917-2001) assumed control of The Washington Post in 1963 after her husband, Philip, committed suicide. At that time, no other woman held the top position at a major American newspaper. Graham and her editor, Benjamin Bradlee, played a major role in uncovering the Watergate scandal, the major political story of the 1970s. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, then lower-level reporters at the Post, began uncovering evidence of illegal tactics employed by members of President Richard Nixon's re-election campaign. At several critical points, Graham and Bradlee published Woodward and Bernstein's stories despite angry denials and not-so-subtle threats from the Nixon administration. Other newspapers, notably the New York Times, noticed the Post's Watergate coverage and uncovered significant evidence over the next two years. The steady stream of investigative reporting led to Nixon resignation from the presidency in August 1974.

Define obscenity as it relates to a free press and journalism.

Legally, "obscenity" refers to words or images that the average person (applying contemporary community standards) would find offensive and lacking in literary or artistic values. Obscene material can become a minefield for student journalists. A reporter might consider something humorous or "cutting edge, while readers, parents, and/or school officials might consider the same material obscene. The consequences for publishing legally offensive material can range from cancellation of future issues to possible further legal action. Faculty advisers, in cooperation with school administrators and the student staff, should adopt an anti-obscenity policy. In addition to the legal definition, student journalists also should be aware of obscenity laws at the local level.

Define the role of journalism in mass media.

Mass media is designed to reach a wide audience. The earliest mass media materials consisted of printed matter (books, manuscripts) and evolved in the early 20th century with newspapers, magazines, and national radio networks. In many cases, electronic media supplanted printed media in the late 20th century. The emergence of online technologies has enabled journalists to extend their reach beyond the local newspaper or television station. However, online expansion also has commoditized the news. Consumers can obtain information from any number of online sources; in most cases, consumers' only cost is the monthly charge for an internet or wireless connection.

Define "muckraking," and describe how it emerged as a common news-reporting practice.

Muckraking was a journalistic movement that emerged in the late 19th century. Muckraking reporters' goals were to expose political corruption, business fraud, and dangerous labor conditions. This investigative style of reporting led to many government reforms that addressed issues raised by muckraking journalists. One of the most notable instances of reforms spawned by muckraking occurred following publication of Upton Sinclair's The Jungle in 1906. Sinclair's unflinching description of dangerous and unhealthy conditions in the meatpacking industry led to the passage of the federal Pure Food and Drug Act later that year.

Discuss Nellie Bly's career, and give reasons for considering her one of the first muckraking journalists.

Nellie Bly was the nom de plume of Elizabeth Jane Cochran. Frustrated by assignments to cover fashion, gardening, and other topics for the women's section of a Pittsburgh newspaper, Bly moved to New York City in 1887. After the New York World hired Bly, she accepted an undercover assignment that changed her career. Bly checked into a boarding house and acted as if she were mentally ill. Her portrayal was so convincing that a judge had her committed to a women's asylum in the New York area. Bly witnessed the demeaning and wretched conditions inside the asylum before the World arranged to have her released. Subsequently, Bly described her experiences in Ten Days in a MadHouse, a book that generated a grand-jury investigation, increased funding for mental health care, and established more thorough examinations for persons prior to commitment to mental institutions.

Explain how New York Times Co. V. Sullivan established the prevailing standard of libel protection for journalist.

New York Times Co. V. Sullivan was a 1964 U.S. Supreme Court decision that established the "actual malice" standard in libel cases against journalist. Sullivan evolved from a full-page advertisement published by the Times in March 1960. The ad sought funds to defend Martin Luther King Jr. In Alabama prejury case and included statements regarding the actions of police officers in Montgomery, Alabama. The public safety commissioner of Montgomery, L.B. Sullivan, claimed that the inaccurate information defamed his role as police supervisor. He demanded that the Times publish a retraction. when the newspaper rejected his demand, Sullivan filed a lawsuit. In ruling against Sullivan, the high court held that any public figure suing for libel must prove that the allegedly harmful material was published with "actual malice" As such, the plaintiff had to demonstrate that a reporter or new organization knew the published material was untrue or published the material in reckless disregard for the truth. The Sullivan decision established a high burden of proof. Furthermore, as a result of this suit, it is virtually impossible fro public figures or public officials to prevail in a libel suit against the media.

Provide an example of how journalists have overcome the limitations of prior restraint.

One of the best-known examples of prior restraint occurred in the 1971 Pentagon Papers case. The administration of President Richard Nixon attempted to stop the New York TImes and Washington Post from publishing excerpts of a confidential government history of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. The U.S. Supreme Court overturned the government order and thus allowed the excerpts to become public record.

Describe the impact of media consolidation on journalism

Over the past 20 years, mass media ownership increasingly has become concentrated among a handful of companies. For example, the Disney Corporation owns ABC and ESPN, Comcast recently purchased NBC, and Time Warner owns CNN and Time magazine. Potential problems with concentrated media ownership include the following: divided loyalties to sponsors and advertisers, less innovation and higher prices for printed and electronic content, and reduced motivation to investigate stories that might reflect badly upon the parent company.

Describe the concept of prior restraint

Prior restraint is an action taken by various branches of governments to prevent release of information to the public. Prior restraint can be exercised before a document is published, or it can be used to stop the ongoing release of documents. Often used during wartime, prior restraint can prevent military secrets from becoming public. The judicial branch of government often exercises prior restraint with a gag order. Such an order prevents attorneys or anyone involved with the trial from commenting. It also prevents journalists from reporting any comments.

Define public-service advertising and its use in a newspaper.

Public-service advertising raises awareness of a social issue, humanitarian cause, or religious viewpoint. This type of advertising differs from display or classified advertising, both which focus on marketing or selling a specific product. Usually a non-profit organization such as the United Way, the Red Cross, or another civic group sponsors public-service advertising. In most cases, the newspaper donates the cost of this space. These ads can prove useful when a newspaper's ad sales are insufficient to fill all of the advertising space in an issue.

Describe how the introduction of radio affected the evolution of broadcast journalism.

Radio was the dominant mass communication medium from the 1920s to the early 1950s. Used extensively by armed forces during World War I, radio became enormously popular following the war. By early 1922, one million radio sets were in use in the United States. The commercial development of radio crystallized in the early 1920s, as national networks (e.g., NBC Radio, CBS Radio) established a framework of individual stations broadcasting the same shows at the same time. News became one of the mainstays of the programming mix, along with music, comedy, and drama.

Define shield laws, and discuss their importance to the field of journalism

Shield laws protect reporters from being forced to reveal their sources to the courts or to law-enforcement officials (through subpoenas or other court orders). These laws are an extension of a basic journalism tenet-without sources providing information to reporters, many news stories never would find publication. Shield laws currently exist in 36 of the 50 states. Depending on the statute, shield laws may apply to civil court cases but not to criminal proceedings. Shield laws also can extend to publishers, editors, and others involved with gathering and publishing information. Reporters must not assume that a shield law will keep them out of jail. Some journalists have faced incarceration rather than name sources. One example is Judith Miller, a New York Times reporter jailed for 85 days in 2005 after refusing to disclose her sources for a story she wrote regarding leaks within the Central Intelligence Agency.

Explain the responsibilities of a television news producer.

Television news producers work much like journalists; they identify story ideas, research those stories, and then report their findings. However, a producer has the additional job of mixing images with words. This task requires the skill to present a story visually and work with a team of writers and reporters. The producer also needs basic technical knowledge and understanding of how those aspects of a news story fit together (e.g., writing a script that matches the video images).

Describe how the introduction of television affected broadcast journalism.

Television supplanted radio as the dominant mass communication medium after World War II. The NBC network introduced the first regularly scheduled television news show (The Camel Newsreel Theatre) in 1948; the 10-minute program showed newsreels from Movietone News. In 1963, both NBC and CBS expanded their nightly news reports from 15 minutes to 30 minutes. The networks also introduced early-morning news programs such as The Today Show on NBC. By combining words with powerful images, television news extended the impact of radio and became an integral part of broadcast journalism.

Define Associated Press style, and discuss reasons for its use in journalism.

The Associated Press ("AP") style book is a reference guide for a journalistic writing style and is considered the standard in the field. Editors and reporters use it as a guide for basic grammar and punctuation; they also use the AP style book to insure the proper principles and practices of reporting. The AP style book is alphabetical and covers everything from the use of grammar and punctuation to specific styles for sports writing and business writing. It also includes a section on media law and a bibliography of other writing reference materials.

Define the rights and responsibilities of a free press.

The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution grants broad rights to journalists: "Congress shall make now law...abridging freedom of the press." This statement protects the press from interference from all levels of government: state, local, and federal. At the same time, many media consumers believe that a free, independent press must also regulate itself. This includes making print and electronic journalism more open and accountable to public scrutiny. While newspapers quickly report errors, they rarely take the time to examine the overall quality of their work. Public perception of the media has declined over time; readers and viewers tend to judge the quality and credibility of journalism by its least responsible members.

Explain how the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier limited First Amendment protections for student journalists.

The Hazelwood case represents a further interpretation of Tinker v. Des Moines, which established that students did not check their First Amendment rights at the schoolhouse door. Their rights to freedom of speech and expression extended to the classroom. Hazelwood amended that guarantee by giving administrators more control over school-sponsored publications. Nonetheless, any decision to censor stories must have a "legitimate pedagogical concern." School officials do not have the absolute right to cancel a story they find objectionable. Since the Hazelwood ruling, some states have passed laws granting greater First Amendment protection to student newspapers. In addition, the decision does not affect publications produced by students in private schools.

Define the first Amendment and its impact on print journalism.

The first Amendment of the United States Constitution states,"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or of the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. As it relates to freedom of the press, the First Amendment prohibits any government entity (federal, state, or local) from interfering with the printing and distribution of information. Nonetheless, some limits to First Amendment press freedoms exist, such as those regarding issues of defamation law and copyright law.

Describe a gutter as it relates to publication design.

The gutter is the crease that appears between two facing pages of a newspaper. Text and photos (when possible) should not extend across a gutter. This makes copy difficult to read and disrupts the overall structure and flow of the page design.

Describe the role of the news director in a broadcast news program.

The news director is responsible for the overall production of the broadcast. This includes camera assignments, the positions of the news anchor and the reporters on the set, and selecting the camera shots and recorded elements used during the program.

Describe the role of the technical director in a broadcast news program.

The technical director controls and mixes the video and audio elements of a televised news program. Video elements include camera shots within the studio, stories taped in advance, and live reports from the field. Then the technical director uses video and audio switches to select these video elements as well as audio tracks. The switchers select the specific tracks and video shots in the order they will appear on the broadcast. (Note: in smaller television markets, the same person often acts as the news director and the technical director.)

Describe the elements of effective page design in student newspapers

While digital imaging and desktop technology has made it easier to produce and design student publications, the traditional criteria for layout and typography still apply. An effective, well-designed page attracts the reader's eye through the prominent placement of dominant elements within the page. The overall presentation should reinforce and enhance the written message. From a graphics perspective, the page should be easy to read, with advertising presented in a manner that does not detract from the editorial content.