MAXIMUM CONTENT BIOL 2130 FINAL EXAM
Which of these tissues, found in the lungs, permits gas exchange by diffusion?
simple squamous epithelium
collenchyma
simple tissue; long and thin;just under epidermis; just outside vascular bundles;stretch to allow flexing stems for shoots
embryogenises
single-cell zygote becomes multicellular embryo
Why did only birds live, of dinosaurs?
size selectivity favored small organisms that need less food and hibernative animals
_____ muscle is attached to bones.
skeletal
voluntary movements
skeletal
long cell for voluntary movement
skeletal muscle
attaches to bones and exerts a force on them when it contracts. skeletal muscle is responsible for most body movements.
skeletal muscles
it has long cells with a striated/striped appearance produced by an overlapping arrangement of proteins
skeletal muscles
loose heat and water rapidly
small animals
when the season is ending, drying again, what does wood look like?
small, darker late wood
contraction and relaxation moves food through the digestive tract regulate blood pressure
smooth muscle
tapered cells for involuntary movement
smooth muscle
spore-producing structures in some modern nonvascular plants
sporangia/ium
single haploid cell that divides mitotically and grows into a new organism
spores
what problems came from a reproductive perspective
spores needed to resist drying, move, etc.
life table
summarizes the probability that an individual will survive and reproduce in any given time interval over the course of its lifetime
collenchyma function
support (stem and leaves)
type i survivor-ship
survivorship throughout life is high and plummets at old age
when did the atmosphere become oxygen rich?
when algae evolved and diversified, not long before animals appeared and diversified
carbonic anhydrase and PCO2 in RBCs
when it converts CO2 to bicarbonate theres less CO2 and thusly a higher PCO2 affinity in RBCs
can parasites manipulate hosts?
when laying eggs they can change the appearance of the individual (like for them nematodes that make ants look like berries so birds can eat them and shit out and eaten by ants again)
dispersal as means to metamorphosis
when limited movements as adults, larvae can move to newer habitats
plantlets
when mature drop off of parents and develop into indivisuals
negative feedback in global warming
when more climate change affects occur, CO2 will be more sequestered and attempted to be reduced.
cloaca
where anus, and vag combine in chicken
individuals produced when the mutation results in doubling chromosome number and the chromosomes all come from the same species
autopolyploid
replacement rate
average fertility required for each woman to produce exactly enough offspring to replace herself and her offspring's father.
fertility rates
average number of survivnf children that each woman has during her lifetime
The nodes where leaves attach to the stem are the site of _, which form just above the site of leaf attachment
axillary/lateral buds
carries electrical signals from the cell body to other cells
axon
relativity long structure on neurons
axon
maximum number of individuals that can be supported by a particular habitat in a sustained period of time
carrying capcity
rises from organ that develops penis and males, becomes erect, and covered in foreskin equivalent
clit
as the vascular cambium grows the primary xylem
clogs and rots
apomixis
clone seeds (dandelion)
asexual reproduction
clones
Why study?
closest living relatives to land plants (monophyletic group), and the transition from aquatic to terrestrial life occurred when land plants evolved from green algae
ganglia
clusters of nerves
barbed cnidoctye to capture pray bring to mouth and ingest. polyps produces asexually, medusa produces sexually sometimes.
cnidaria
Body cavity lined entirely by mesoderm-derived tissue:
coelomate
plasmodesmata
connects cytoplasm and segments smooth ER of adjacent plant cells
criticism of hotspot criteria
considers cumulative past loss not current rate of loss doesnt consider south america which has the most plants in such little area bcs it hasnt lost 70% yet; it will if they dont conserve it Focuses on species diversity and not ecosystem diversity despite how important it is
Balancing Selection
constantly changing favorable guppy colors
animals are the key _ to every ecosystem
consumers
one organism absorbs nutrients from another. increases one's fitness, decreases the others.
consumption
zone of cellular division
contains apical meristem where cells actively divide, w protoderm meristem procambium where additional cell division occurs
carpel
contains protective structure called ovary
all animals share homologous genes for _ proteins
contractile
what pushes flow, contraction or relaxation?
contraction
heat exchange between a solid and a moving liquid or gas
convection
wind blowing causes heat loss from skin. the faster the wind, the faster the rate of transfer
convection
what do primary producers do?
convert energy in sunlight into chemical energy (sugars support all other organisms through food chain), also take (more) CO2 than they make
main role is to produce cork cells
cork cambia
derive support from rigid structures inside the body like bones
endoskeletons
provides food for the developing plant
endosperm
produce adequate heat to warm its own tissues
endotherm
can be active in cold environments but needs lots of energy to fuel their metabolism
endotherms
extremely high BMR to warm body (endo ecto)
endotherms
humans (ecto or endo)
endotherms
retain heat with fur and feathers
endotherms
wilt
entire tissue looses turgor pressure
what can trigger adaptive radiations?
environmental, intrinsic, evolution of key traits
stores sperm
epididymis
acts as barriers and protective layers. closely packed.
epithelia
gatekeepers for water, nutrient, etc are transported across (ex. skin not absorbing water when we swim)
epithelia
interface between an interior of an organ and the exterior
epithelia
Which barrier(s) must and cross to pass between air and blood inside lungs?
epithelial cells capillary wall extracellular fluid
covers the outside of the body, line the inner surface of many organs, and form glands
epithelial tissue
replace cells that are lost constantly on apical side
epithelial tissue
a layer of tightly joined cells that covers the interior and/or exterior of the animal
epithelium
1.5% of oxygen goes where when breathing?
dissolves into plasma, which still can move to tissues
D
distance (thickness of diffusion barrier)
strong, short-lived disruption to a community that changes the distribution of living and/or nonliving resources
disturbance
disturbance regime
disturbances occur with a predictable frequency and severity
totipotent
divide and develop even in mature plants
bask in sunlight or warm rocks and soil (ecto endo)
ectotherms
do not require much energy but their activity depends on environmental temperature
ectotherms
generate heat a by-product of metabolism
ectotherms
lizards (ecto or endo)
ectotherms
low BMR (ecto endo)
ectotherms
biomass efficiency better in ecto or endotherms?
ectotherms because they devote their energy to growth instead of heat n respiration
_'s low BMR means they need _ food and have _ babies
ectotherms; less; more
best way to control fertility rates?
educate women on birth control and let them go to school.
_ takes action to return a parameter value to its set point.
effector
any structure that helps restore the internal condition being monitored by the system
effector
furnace
effector
vitelline envelope
egg whites to protect egg
Which tissue acts as a filter on the water absorbed by root hairs (exo or endodermis?)
endodermis
inside skin/ between cortex and vascular tissue
endodermis
if one population is better competitor for shared resources, then the poorer competitor driven to extension
extinction of one population
nectar robbers and deceit pollination
fake mutualism thats actually +/-
total theoretical range of environmental conditions that a species can tolerate
fundamental niche
main challenge of sustainability
live off replenished resources and not petroleum and groundwater
spatial avoidance
location too far
jointed limbs
locomotion and feeding
habitat destruction
logging, burning, damming, dredging, plowing, building, having cows
What does the orange graph line represent?
logistic growth
ootid
matures into a mature egg (ovum) after fertilization
an ancestral population, all of its descendants, and ONLY those descendants
monophyletic group/clade/lineage
clade/ linage
monophyletic groups (cuttable)
animals are a _ group that originated from a _ ancestor that was probably similar to choanoflagellates
monophyletic; protist
did all the key innovations rise at once?
no, there were some tinkering steps in developing traits
does transpiration power the pressure-flow hypothesis? how?
no, turgor pressure in phloem near source tissues and turgor pressure in the phloem near sink tissues generate the necessary force
A stem consists of _, where leaves are attached, and _ the segments between them
nodes; internodes
exotic species
nonative species to a new area; can benefit or not affect
Seeds in nonvasculars
none
fertilization in angiosperm
nonflagellated sperm through pollen tube to reach female gametophytes; water not needed
Inbreeding- mating among relatives (or in some species, self-fertilization), is a form of _ mating. It leads to an increase in _ and a decrease in _ .
nonrandom; homozygosity; heterozygosity
ev. of plants
nonvascular -> seedless vascular -> seeded
usually 5-10 cm tall. flagellated sperm that swim to eggs through rain or puddles on the plant. spores dispersed by wind
nonvascular plants
lacking vascular tissue
nonvascular; usually lack seeds; rely on spores for reproduction and dispersal
deltaN / deltat = births - deaths + immigration - emigrants
normal population growth
biological
not applicable for extinct species
horizontal diversity
number of species that occur within each tropic level
nervous tissue and connective tissue in brain aid in sight, smell, memory and thought
organ level
brain and nerves send signals throughout body to do functions
organ system level
organs that work together in integrated function to perform one or more functions
organ systems
nervous system coordinates the functions of other systems to support life
organism level
ethical reasons non-humans are important
organisms have intrinsic worth, industrialized nations are exploiting poor countries resources good resources for money; unethical to deprive future generations from ecosystem services
when its cold they reduce their metabolic rate and allow their body temperature to drop. (p or h)? what is this called?
p. torpor.
curve shifts to the right, what happened to cause it and what changes?
pH drop or temperature rise. makes O2 more likely to release, lowers % saturation.
initiate contraction
pacemaker cells
basal cell divides _ to the future apical-basal axis to produce the _
parallel; suspensor
sponges are (monophyletic or paraphyletic?)
paraphyletic, containing some but not all decedents of a common ancestor
Ground tissue contains _ cells, which function in material synthesis, transport and storage
parenchyma
babies from females by fusion of two products of meiosis or mitosis alone
parthenogenesis
baby jesus'd
parthenogenesis
pressure of a particular gas in a mixture of gases per unit of volume of air.
partial pressure
there is just as much oxygen at sea level as there is on mt. Everest, so what is the difference?
partial pressure
biotic factors
past and current presence of other species that provide habitat, food, or competition
baculum
penis bone in some animals
(r) = (ln * R0 ) / (generation time)
per capita growth rate
how can polyspermy be blocked?
quick depolarization and when a sperm enters OR Ca2+ wave is released, which is a barrier that creates a fertilization envelope to clear excess sperm
when growth is exponential _ is constant
r
The _ species concept identifies species as the smallest monophyletic groups on the tree of life
phylogenetic
Species identified based on evolutionary history of populations
phylogenetic species concept
eudicots regions
pith and cortex
How do plants hold water
plant tissues take up and retain water, soften impact of rainfall on soil (the capacity is enhanced by the bulk of plant organic matter)
50-65% of blood volume is an ECM called
plasma
once a bicarbonate ion forms where are they transported?where do released H+ go?
plasma.; stays in RBCs
The channels indicated by the pointer, are _____. The figure shows a structure of the root. The arrow indicates the channel between the cell from the outer layer of the root and the inner one.
plasmodesmata. Water and ions can pass from cell to cell via these channels. Also, recall that plasmodesmata are a type of cell junction.
cell fragments that minimize blood loss from ruptured blood vessels (clot, clot)
platelets
how does biodiversity increase productivity
plots with more species and functional groups are more productive because they weren't all taking water from the same level and had different heights for the sun, facilitation (provide nutrients, shade, or help other plants), includes high-prod species by chance
allow body temperature to fall depending on environmental conditions
poikilotherms
land invertebrate, fish, amphibians and non-bird reptiles
poikilotherms
Change in single base-pair in DNA
point mutation
tiny male gametophyte with tough coat of sporopollenin in heterosporous seed plants
pollen grain
supporting services
pollination and pest control, photosynthesis
b < d and r < 0
population decaying
r > 0 and b > d
population growing
r = 0
population size does not change
density independent
population size does not limit the growth rate
the key to understanding populations change through time in their abiotic and biotic environments
population thinking
A stoma (stomata) consists of a _____. See Section 28.3 ( page 569) .
pore surrounded by specialized guard cells
sponge
porifera
turgor pressure in living cells is always
positive
pushing/high turgor pressure
positive (unfavorable) water pressure
Differential growth
producing more leaves and branches exposed to more light to maximize photosynthesis
wood
product of secondary growth and occurs only in species with cambia and apical meristems
prop roots (adventitious)
prop stem up, stabilize stem
sclerenchyma function
protect outer surface of seeds and fruits, and fibers support stems and leaves.
shoot function in dermal tissue system:
protection and gas exchange
root function in dermal tissue
protection and nutrient absorbtion
ovary
protective structure containing ovules
root cap
protects rot apical meristem
LUREs
proteins created by synergids to direct growth of pollen tube
Green algae are hypothesized to be the closest _ relatives to land plants.
protist
Bilaterians can be _ or _.
protosomes or dueterostomes
mouth before anus
protostomes
ecdysozoans
protostomes grow by shedding external skeletons or outer covering and expanding bodies
suspensor
provides a route for nutrient transfer from the parent plant to the developing embryo
Body cavity lined on the inner side by endoderm-derived tissue and on the outer side by mesoderm-derived tissue
psudeocoelomate
enclosed body cavity partially lined with mesoderm
psudeocoelomtes
the sun and all animals and objects do this as a function of tempature
radiate
the transfer of heat between two bodies that are not in contact
radiation
most ctenophores and cnidarians have _ symmetrey, _ embryonic germ layers, and neurons organized into a _.
radical; 2; nerve net
node/fork
recent hypothetical ancestors
99.9% of the "formed elements" (non-plasma) parts of blood
red blood cells
Genetic drift is particularly important in small populations, and it tends to _ overall genetic diversity.
reduce
outcrossing disadvanage
reduced chance polination will occur
dormancy in trees
reduced metabolic activity, when dry or winter.
gametophytes in angiosperms
reduced, because they are sporophyte dominant
low blood pH
releases more oxygen
burning how does it accelerate nutrient export?
releases nutrients into the atmosphere
What does the right y-axis represent?
resources, with quantity decreasing from bottom to top
division of the body or part of the body into a series of similar structures
segmentation
vertebrates
segmented backbone
seminal, prostate and bulbourethral fluids plus sperm makes
semen
deviation detected by
sensor
senses some aspect of the external or internal enviornment
sensor
thermometer
sensor
protective, outermost part of a flower. Green and photosynthetic, thick.
sepals
All flowers have these four organs:
sepals, petals, stamen, carpel
radical axis
seperates interior from exterior
adults live permanently attached to a substrate rather than moving freely
sessile
which has more oxygen, deep bodies or shallow ponds? why?
shallow ponds they have a higher SA:V ratio
weather
short term temperature, moisture, sunlight, wind
vessel elements
shorter, wider (reduces resistance makes more efficient), upper and lower perfortations both primary and secondary wall are missing.
where does phylum sap move between?
sieve plate
stimulus is light
sight
What type of epithelial tissue, found in the intestines, absorbs nutrients?
simple columnar epithelium
What type of epithelial tissue lines kidney tubules?
simple cuboidal cells
where is productivity highest underwater?
-where rivers delivered nutrients and deposit them on the coast -nearshore ocean currents bring cold nutrients upwards (up-welling)
(in logistic growth) when N = K, there is _ growth
0
What percent of the air is CO2
0.04%
a 235/1575 b 25/235 c 3/25
14.9, 10.6, 12.0 %
over-exploitation
2/3 harvestable marines are exploited or depleted and need regulation overhunting is a major threat to all species exotic animals for pet trade is illegal but continues threaten plants and fungi too
humans originated (time place)
200,000 yo africa
decide if (a. warm water and several fish, b. cold water several fish, and aquatic algae c. contains warm water and sedentary animals) whether or small or large amount of air should be bubbled to maintain oxygenation of the water.
A: Large amount of air, because the oxygen-carrying capacity of warm water is low. B: Small amount of air, because the oxygen-carrying capacity of cold water is higher and because algae contribute oxygen to the water through photosynthesis. C: Small amount of air, because sedentary animals require relatively little oxygen.
Root system specialization
Absorbing water and key nutrients. Anchoring.
How is the time frame of adaptation different from acclimatization? See Section 39.1 ( page 820)
Adaptation occurs over years to eons, while acclimatization occurs with a change in season. Adaptation is the production of evolutionary selection. This typically requires many generations of a given organism.
Adventitious roots are _____. See Section 34.1 ( page 706) .
Adventitious roots arise from the shoot system instead of the root system.
Which lung structure is a tiny sac that functions as an interface between air and blood?
An alveolus is a tiny sac in the lung that functions as an interface between air and blood.
A stamen consists of _____.
Anther and filament
How is most carbon dioxide transported from tissues to the lungs?
As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
Which is first, atrium or ventricles?
Atrium
Cats, Turtles, Humans, Snakes, Octopi
Bilateral symmetry
Intersexual selection qualities
Both or either physical characteristics that signal male genetic quality or behavioral characteristics that indicate their ability to provide parental care
explain how thorns originated in roses
By chance, a mutation arose in some roses that resulted in sharp bumps on the stems. Individuals with these early thorns survived herbivore attacks and produced more offspring than roses without the mutation, increasing the frequency of the thorned roses in the population over time. Note that roses cannot cause a mutation to occur because they want or need it (see Table 22.3).
Br > C
C, cost in less than the Benefit times the coefficient of relatedness
breathing rate is regulated to keep the _ content of the blood stable during rest and exercise
CO2
a very thick cuticle and wax on a plant means they
live in a dry soil
most bilaterians have a _ and a cephalized body.
CNS
Bilaterians
CNS or nerve net
which gas level is more important to breathing rates in animals?
CO2, which it rapidly reacts with water to make carbonic acid so it can make a bicarbonate ion.
Where is the velocity of blood flow the slowest in your body? See Section 42.5 ( page 889) .
Capillaries. The very high total cross-sectional area of capillaries means that blood flow there is very slow, providing opportunity for diffusion into and out of the blood.
consistent with prediction made by _, repository epithelial tend to be extremely thin and folded to increase surface area
Fick's law of diffusion
Seperated precambrian and phanerozoic
Carniborous explosion
_ produces the female gametophytes
Carpels, particularly ovules inside the ovary
Why does it take 10 times more energy to grow a kilogram of beef than a kilogram of wheat? See Section 53.1 ( page 1118) .
Cattle only integrate 10 percent of their food into biomass. Much of the energy is spent on body maintenance and is unavailable to the higher-order consumer.
identify 2 structures common to gills, trachae, lungs and one unique.
Common features include large surface area, short diffusion distance (a thin gas exchange membrane), and a mechanism that keeps fresh air or water moving over the gas exchange surface. Only fish gills use a countercurrent exchange mechanism; only tracheae deliver oxygen directly to cells without using a circulatory system; only mammalian lungs contain alveoli—small air sacs surrounded by capillaries where gas exchange occurs.
How does connective tissue differ from the other three major tissue types?
Connective tissue often consists of relatively few cells embedded in an extracellular matrix.
give an example of a structure that enables the connective tissue to preform a specific function.
Connective tissues consist of cells embedded in a matrix. The density of the matrix determines the rigidity of the connective tissue and its function in padding/protection, structural support, or transport.
Vicariance
Continental drift, climate fluctuations, etc.
Genetic Isolation
Gene Flow
explain why the cuticle, uv-absorbing compounds, vascular tissues were important to survival or reproduction?
Cuticle prevents water loss from the plant; UV-absorbing compounds allow plants to be exposed to high light intensities without damage to their DNA; vascular tissue moves water up from the soil and moves photosynthetic products down to the roots
Steps of sympathetic speciation
DONT geographically isolate, new population diverges due to a prevention of gene flow, genetic isolation
one cotyledon per embryo
monocot
parallel veins
monocot
Which of these structures is diploid?
D, the diploid sporophyte
dN / dt = rM
DISCRETE (like over one year) instantaneous growth rate
Genetic Homology
DNA RNA or amino acid sequences differ.
_ and _ proposed that evolution occurs by natural selection. This was the beginning of _ thinking, whereby variation among individuals is the key to understanding evolution.
Darwin; Wallace; Population
High light intensity _ xylem pressure
Decreases
why the age structure of human populations differs between developed and developing nations
Developed nations have roughly equal numbers of individuals in each age class because the fertility rate has been constant and survivorship high for many years. Developing countries have many more children and young people than older people, because the fertility rate and survivorship have been increasing.
Relax
Diastole
How does spermatogenesis differ from oogenesis?
Diploid cells give rise to four functional gametes in spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis results in the production of four sperm cells, whereas oogenesis only produces one ovum.
Changes average value of trait
Directional
management plans for endangered species
ESA exists; best example brought the eagle back from DDT and hunting through laws
Population thinking
Emphasizes the importance of variation among individuals in a population, unlike typological which ignores variation
Name the 5 mass extinction
End-Orovician extinction Late Denovain extinction End-Permian extinction Late Triassic extinction End-Cretaceous extinction
Why is the transport of phloem sap considered an active process
Energy is used to transport sucrose into companion cells near sources, against a concentration gradient
Triggered the rapid selection for hard exoskeletons and defensive adaptions
Evolution of predation
Baron Georges Cuvier
Extinction is a fact, because if these mammals still existed we would notice them very easily.
villi
FOLDING. extensive surface area in low volume.
True or false? Root pressure can move water a long distance up the xylem because of the higher water potential of the xylem in comparison to the water potential in the surrounding cells. Why?
False, Root pressure can move water a short distance up the xylem because of the lower water potential of the xylem in comparison to the water potential in the surrounding cells.
True or false? Heterozygote advantage refers to the tendency for heterozygous individuals to have better fitness than homozygous individuals. This higher fitness results in less genetic variation in the population.
False. Heterozygote advantage results in more genetic variation in the population.
True or false? The production of sperm begins at puberty when spermatogonia undergo meiosis I to form primary spermatocytes, which then undergo meiosis II to form secondary spermatocytes. These secondary spermatocytes go on to form spermatids, which mature into sperm cells.
False. Spermatogonia divide by mitosis and differentiate into primary spermatocytes. Starting at puberty, hormones stimulate the primary spermatocytes to undergo meiosis I to form secondary spermatocytes, which then undergo meiosis II to form spermatids.
True or false? The driving force for the unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin into tissues is the difference in PCO2 levels between the blood and body tissues.
False. The PCO2 levels affect the diffusion of carbon dioxide; the driving force for the diffusion of oxygen from hemoglobin into tissues is the difference in PO2 levels between the blood (100 mm Hg when oxygenated) and body tissues (40 mm Hg at rest).
True or false? The rate of sugar transport in a plant depends on the rate of photosynthesis, the rate of transpiration, and the difference in turgor pressure between the source and the sink. Why?
False. While the rate of photosynthesis and the difference in turgor pressure between the source and the sink do influence the rate of sugar transport in the phloem, the rate of transpiration does not; transpiration mainly influences the rate of water transport through the xylem.
_ is the process by which haploid gametes form a diploid zygote.
Fertilization
Which is better, 64 cells with the same volume organized as: a cube, a tube, or a flattened structure?
Flattened structure, its got a higher surface area:volume ratio.
What important tole does the Casparian strip play with the movement of water through plants
Forces water to move through the cytoplasm, of living endodermal cells as it makes its way from the soil to the xylem
Which of the following statements is correct? See Section 22.2
Fossils form in sedimentary rocks.
Whoever founds a new generation determines the new allele frequencies
Founder effect
What term is defined as the change in allele frequencies that occurs when a new population is established? See Section 23.4
Founder effect is a change in allele frequencies because the founder group is a small subset of the population, and thus is not likely to be completely representative of the entire population.
What products are formed when a diploid cell undergoes meiosis?
Four haploid cells
Increases genetic diversity in a recipient population if new alleles arrive with immigrating individuals. May decrease if alleles leave with emigrating individuals.
Gene Flow
Increases genetic variation when it introduces new alleles, decreases by removing them
Gene Flow
Movement of alleles between populations; reduces differences between populations
Gene Flow
If there is fertilization, secretion of _____ by the early embryo maintains the corpus luteum.
HCG, secreted by the early embryo, maintains the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone, which maintain the endometrium for implantation.
how to access threats
Habitat destruction and fragmentation in Borneo are obvious from the clear-cut areas. Overexploitation could be assessed by interviewing local citizens and law enforcement officers on the history of poaching orangutans for the pet trade or for other uses. Effects from invasive species could be assessed through published or local accounts of community structure over time. Pollution could be assessed by direct measurement of soil, water, air, and possibly tissue samples (in dead orangutans, feces, or blood samples). The effects of climate change could be assessed based on local long-term temperature and precipitation data, which could affect the species present in the orangutan forest habitat.
Where do fern antheridia develop?
Haploid antheridia in ferns develop on the (underside of mature haploid gametophytes).
What does Evolution propose?
Heritable characteristics of populations change over time
Which statement describes primary growth?
It produces the dermal, ground, and vascular tissues
Which statement best characterizes secondary growth?
It results from cell divisions in the vascular and cork cambia
carrying capacity (variable)
K
A mutant plant lacking the ability to pump protons out of leaf companion cells will be unable to?
Load sucrose into sieve cells
What compounds to nitrogen fixing bacteria put it in from N2?
NH4+ and NO3
What characterizes the rates of photosynthesis and transport in a plant on a dry cloudy day?
On a cloudy day with low soil moisture, the photosynthesis rate is low and stomata are closed, so the transpiration rate is low.
What part of the flower turns into a seed?
Once pollination has occurred, the fertilized ovule develops into the seed.
what happens when double fertilization occurs?
One sperm fertilizes the egg, while another fuses with the polar nuclei
Appearance of most major animal lineages and ends with massive extinction "permian"
Paleozoic (old life) era
Which is the first step in allopatric speciation? See Section 24.2 ( page 486) .
Physical isolation of two populations
Where do the sieve tube elements communicate with companions?
Plasmodesmata
Which of the following is developed from the male spore? See Section 38.1 ( page 795)
Pollen
4.6 bya to 541 mya
Precambrain
Which of the following are functions of a fruit? See Section 38.4 ( page 803) .
Protecting and Dispersing Seeds
what happens when PCO2 lowers in the blood while CO2 exchanges with aveloi, which have a higher CO2 affinity?
Protons leave hemoglobin and react with bicarbonate agian to make CO2 and diffuses out of the lung
Lophotrohozoan
Protosome that grows continuously
Types of biological causation (2)
Proximate/mechanical /HOW actions occur Ultimate/evolutionary/WHY actions occur
blood returns to the heart via the
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
npp = gpp - (_)
R, the energy used/lost in cellular respiration
pacemaker cells location
RA's SA node
Hydra and Jellyfish
Radical symmetry
Why do root cells need oxygen?
Root cells need oxygen to carry out aerobic cellular respiration, which generates ATP needed to keep cells alive
Epithelium functions?
Regulates the excretion of waste. Controls the exchange of nutrients between the internal and external environments. Creates an internal environment that is different from the external environment.
Prezygotic isolation favored because in mating because offspring would be fertile
Reinforcement
Aristotle's Philosophy
Scale of nature, a linear culturally influenced system in which organisms are ordered greater to lesser
- include club mosses and ferns, which have small, free-living gametophytes and large, longer-lived sporophytes. Dispersal is carried out using spores.
Seedless vascular plants
Why can the phyletic group system be neglectful?
Several subspecies can form two or less monophyletic groups, and not diverge much in DNA sequences but do in location. if they are crossed, the resulting generation has less diversity and risks extinction
_ is a type of natural selection that leads to the evolution of trait that enable individuals to attract mates. Its usually has a stronger effect on _ than on _.
Sexual Selection; males; females
The mark-recapture method would be best for sampling a population of _____.
Sharks. The mark-recapture method works best for active species whose individuals tend to be highly mobile.
Low turgor pressure (So/si)
Sink
sinks (anti or sym)
antiporter
why do fleshy fruits have tough seeds?
So the seeds can survive the mechanical forces and conditions in an animal's gut
High turgor pressure (So/si)
Source
_ is a splitting event in which one lineage gives rise to two or more independent lineages
Speciation
Which statement about polyploidy is correct? See Section 24.3
Speciation by polyploidy may be almost instantaneous. Some of our youngest species were formed that way.
How do species richness and species diversity differ? See Section 54.1 ( page 1141) . It is easier to determine species diversity than species richness. Species diversity is always greater than species richness. Species richness is a count of the number of species in an area. Species diversity incorporates both species richness and the relative abundance of each species. Species diversity is a more accurate means of quantifying the diversity of species.
Species richness is a count of the number of species in an area. Species diversity incorporates both species richness and the relative abundance of each species.
Sperm develop in the _____.
Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules, found within testes.
Sperm become capable of movement while in the _____.
Sperm mature and become motile while in the epididymis.
micropyle
opening in ovule for sperm
Gametophyte Dominant difference (from general)
Sporophytes (2n) are very temporary, attached to top of mature female gametophytes (n), and release spores.
Sporophyte dominant difference (from general)
Sporophytes are longer-lived then the gametophyte, which it depends on for nutrition in young age.
_ eliminates phenotypes with extreme characteristics. It decreases the diversity of alleles in populations.
Stabilizing selection
- occurs when populations diverge genetically despite living in the same geographical area
Sympatric speciation
Speciation that occurs when populations live in the same geographical area
Sympatric speciation
Explain why the DNA sequences of chimpanzees and humans are 96% similar.
The DNA sequences of chimpanzees and humans are so similar because we share a recent common ancestor.
Explain the relationship between an apical meristem and the tree primary meristems
The apical meristem gives rise to the three primary meristems. The apical meristem is a single mass of cells localized at the tip of a root or shoot; the primary meristems are localized in distinctive sites behind the apical meristem.
apoplastic
The apoplastic pathway is a continuous route formed by cell walls, extracellular spaces, and the interior of dead xylem cells
estimate the npp per unit area for the open ocean, how does this explain the high total npp despite its low npp per swquare meter
The average NPP is about 125 g/m2/year. Area = 65 percent. Although NPP in the ocean is very small, the ocean is so vast that it ends up being the largest contributor to total NPP.
Which of the following statements about the oxygen-hemoglobin interaction is true?
The binding of one oxygen molecule to hemoglobin stimulates the binding of other oxygen molecules. This interaction is called cooperative binding.
Do all endosperm have the same nutrition?
The characteristics of the endosperm tissue vary by plant species; some tissues contain large amounts of starch (corn), while others contain large amounts of protein (beans).
Which of the following statements about the distribution of sap throughout a plant is true?
The mechanism that explains the movement of sugars throughout a plant is called the pressure-flow hypothesis.
what happens to the pH of a glass of water when u low water of it through a straw
The pH of the water will decrease (acidity will increase) because CO2 from your breath reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
The cells of a certain plant can accumulate solutes to create very low solute potentials. What will happen?
The plant can compete for water effectively and live in relatively dry soils
what if a plant couldn't develop the casparian strip?
The plant would not be able to exclude toxic solutes from the xylem, since water would not be forced through living cytoplasm of endodermal cells on its way to the xylem.
explain how the presence or absence of a species like alder, where nitrogen fixation occurs, might alter the course of succession
The presence or absence of a plant species where nitrogen fixation occurs would dramatically alter nutrient conditions, and thus the speed of succession and the types of species that could become established. For example, species that require high nitrogen would be favored on sites where alder grew, and species that can tolerate low nitrogen would thrive on sites where alder is absent.
At 50% of maximum life span, how does the survivorship of Albertosaurus compare to the survivorship of the crocodile?
The survivorship of Albertosaurus is about 100 times greater than that of the crocodile
how early succession species alter the environment in ways that make growing conditions more difficult for themselves
The shade provided by early successional species increases humidity, and decomposition of their tissues adds nutrients and organic material to the soil. These conditions favor growth by later successional species, which can outcompete the early successional species
Imagine a plant without phloem. For sugars to move from one region of the plant to another, what must happen? See Section 35.4 ( page 739) .
The sugars would be actively transported from cell to cell. ATP-mediated protein transport is still possible.
A student drew a model to represent her measurements of insects in urban and rural communities. Interpret her model.
The urban community has higher evenness. False The rural community has higher species richness. True The rural community has higher species diversity. True Each drawing in the model represents more than one individual. True The student should have included more anatomical detail to show how the species differ. False
A fertilized egg usually implants itself and develops in the _____.
The uterus is the usual site of the implantation and development of the fertilized egg.
How can you tell alt of generations is occurring?
There are multicellular haploid stages (gametophytes) and multicellular diploid stages (sporophytes) in these plants
How are vestigial traits inconsistent with special creation?
These proves creations are not static and also not perfect beings
Role of companion cells in the movement of sugars through plants?
They accumulate sucrose, which is transferred to adjacent seive-tube elements
Why are allopolyploids usually sterile?
They have combinations are chromosomes that do not normally pair during meiosis. Occasionally a mutation occurs which allows the chromosome number to double in mitosis so the can have a homolog.
What role do germ cells play in gametogenesis?
They produce cells that divide by mitosis and then undergo meiosis to form gametes The cells produced by mitosis then undergo meiosis to form gametes.
What makes pioneering plant species successful? See Section 52.3 ( page 1108) .
They rapidly colonize soil that is exposed and have few or no competitors already present.
What does the FDA think drug companies will do regarding voluntary label changes on antibiotics for livestock?
They will comply with the new recommendations.
true or false plants create energy so that animals will have food
This statement is incorrect for two reasons: (1) according to the first law of thermodynamics, plants cannot create energy—rather, they transform light energy into chemical potential energy; (2) it is common for humans to apply our goal-oriented perspective to other organisms, but plants do not act purposefully to help other organisms
True or false? The lungs of humans form from the embryonic foregut.
This statement is true. Digestive organs such as the stomach and part of the small intestine also develop from the foregut.
Why would it take 10x more energy to grow a kilogram of beef than a kilogram of wheat
To grow a kilogram of beef, first you have to grow 10 kg of grain or grass and feed it to the cow. Only 10 percent of this 10 kg will be used for growth and reproduction—the other 9 kg is used for cellular respiration or lost as heat.
_ are water-conducting cells found in all vascular plants; in addition, angiosperms, gnetotypes, and a few species of seedless vascular plants have water-conducting cells called _.
Tracheids; vessels
_____ provide(s) the major force for the movement of water and solutes from roots to leaves.
Transpiration, the evaporation of water from leaves, exerts a pull that bears the primary responsibility for the movement of water and solutes from roots to leaves.
membrane proteins and ions
atomic and molecular levels
why would you get mercury poisoning from eating tuna (top predator) everyday but not the same amount of sardines (primary consumers)
Tuna are top predators in marine food webs. Mercury occurs in low concentrations in the water, but accumulates in higher concentrations at each trophic level. By eating a lot of tuna, you will accumulate mercury over time and potentially get mercury poisoning. Sardines are primary consumers, a low trophic level, and so they are not in danger of biomagnification of mercury.
In biology, an adaptation is defined as _____. See Section 22.5
a heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment
bleh
You can infer from this curve that the sunlight, nutrients, water, and space available to the dandelions are plentiful (that is, are not limiting population growth). True Population growth is exponential. True The value of r is higher after three months than after one month. False The slope of the curve is steeper after three months than after one month. True Each dandelion is producing more seeds after three months than after one month. False More dandelions are reproducing after three months than after one month. True
how does ur body relate to a tube within a tube model?
Your tube-within-a-tube body plan consists of a bilaterally symmetrical, slender body with an inner tube (gut and associated organs) derived from endoderm; an outer tube (mostly skin) derived from ectoderm; muscles and organs derived from mesoderm in between; and one end (head) cephalized with sensory organs and brain (derived from ectoderm).
Zootoca vivipara lizards maintain feeding and mating territories within their range. Based on these facts, what would you conclude? See Section 51.1 ( page 1072) .
Zootoca vivipara are likely uniformly distributed within their range.
tb selection
a point mutation in rpoB alone was the only difference between pre-death and post death bacteria, changed the amino acid sequence and changed the shape of the protein
meta-population
a population of populations connected by migration
habitat degradation
a reduction of the quality of a habitat
Geologic time scale
a relative sequence of eons, eras, and periods
What kind of island has the highest rate of extinction?
a small island
evolution of coelm?
acoelemate -> psudeocoelomates -> coelomates
No body cavity
acoelomate
sperm drill
acrosome
A pressure gradient is generated by the _ transport of sugars into _ in source tissues, coupled with the transport of sucrose out of _ elements at sink tissues.
active;seive-tube;seive-tube
heritable traits that make individuals more likely to survive and reproduce in a certain environment than individuals that lack those traits
adaption
What is wrong with "evolution is goal directed"
adaptions do not occur because organisms want or need them. mutation happens by chance. evolution is not progressive. loss of traits can be adapted. there is no such thing as a higher or lower organism.
Sometimes a loss-of-function allele can be _.
adaptive
single lineage rapidly produces many descendant species with a wide range of forms
adaptive radiation
Oyster populations are primarily, if not exclusively, composed of _____.
adults
PVA combines data from
age-specific surviorship and fecundity, geographic structure, rate and severity of habitat disturbance
fruits in angiosperm
aid in protection and dispersal of seeds by animals, wind and water
dead space
air passages not lined by a respiratory surface
tracheae
air-filled tubes in insects
Which sequence of organisms represents a primary producer -> primary consumer -> secondary consumer -> tertiary consumer in a food chain?
algae -> snail -> otter -> shark
green algae and land location etc
algae can be unicellular, colonial or multicellular. they can live marine, freshwater, or terrestrial most are aquatic. some land plants live in ponds or rivers, but most are land.
primary plant body
all cells and tissues derived directly from apical meristems, most non-woody plants only have this
fossil record
all fossils that have been found on earth and described in scientific literature
cooperative binding definition
all four subunits of hemoglobin unload oxygen at the same time
examples of homology
all organisms have molecular machinery responsible for copying and repairing DNA; drugs can be used on mice if the gene products targeted by drugs are homologous
historical restraints
all traits evolve from previous traits. our ear bones were once in our jaw, we needed to hear airborne sounds better at once point in history so it adapted to amplify those sounds, and better solutions could have existed and adapted but it was what was possible at the time
Genetic Drift causes random changes in _ frequencies.
allele
Speciation by geographical isolation
allopatric speciation
Populations that are geographically separated
allopatry
Members of two different species (2n=6) (2n=4) have (2n=10) offspring
allopolyploid
individuals are created when parents of different species mate, and then in error in mitosis occurs, resulting in viable, non-sterile offspring with two full sets of chromosomes.
allopolyploid
why is secondary growth needed?
allows to anchor large root systems, and stop long stems from falling over or breaking. e
Mutation occurs too infrequently to be a major cause of change in allele frequency _ , but it is important when _ with natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow.
alone;combined
thin walled chamber of the heart
atrium
birds, mammals, amphibians which is most threatened?
amphibans(41%) than mammals (26%) than birds(13%). threatened means vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered.
On what kind of island would new species be most likely to arrive?
an island close to mainland
polytomy
ancestral branch with three or more (instead of two) descendant branches
biodiversity highest in endemic species
andes mountain
Which hormone(s) is(are) directly responsible for triggering the development of the secondary sex characteristics of males, such as beard growth?
androgens
produce seeds in ovaries
angiosperm
angiosperm difference from gymnosperm, sperm-wise
angiosperm fertilization involves two sperm cells. one sperm makes a diploid zygote, white the other fuses with the nuclei to form an endosperm.
encased seed flowering plant
angiosperms
perennial
angiosperms that live for many years
fossil
any trace of an organism that lived in the past (bones, branches shells, poop)
big and carries clean blood from heart has secondary pumping action to continue flow during contractions
aorta
the top of each stem and branch contains an _, where growth occurs that extends the length of the stem or branch
apical bud
During the growing season, what are the sinks?
apical meristems, lateral meristems, developing flowers, seeds and fruits, and storage cells .
faces away from other tissues, toward the environment
apical side
Each _ meristem gives rise to three primary meristems: _, _, and _.
apical; protoderm; ground meristem; procambium
egg producing gametangium
archegonia
why do higher tropic levels get more POP biognification?
because they have much less biomass and the same amount of tissue; so the concentration is intense
blastospore
becomes anus in deuterostomes
Altruism
behavior that has a fitness cost to the individual exhibiting the behavior and benefits the recipient
populations do not interbreed because their courtship displays differ
behavioral
Water's properties of surface tension, cohesion, and adhesion are central to the ability of transpiration to pull water up from the roots to the leaves through the xylem. Sort each statement into the appropriate bin to indicate if the change described in the statement would increase, decrease, or not affect the pull that transpiration generates in the xylem of a tree.
below
sponges are diverse _ suspension feeders
benthic
alveoli are little clusters at the ends of small _ covered in _
bronchioles; capillary networks
types of modified leaves
bulbs (onion), fake flowers (poinsettias), tendrils (climbing), thick leaves (store water/succulents), trap (pitcher plant), cactus spine (protects stem)
how does xylem stay in one long column?
bulk flow
in fish gills, _ (counter or con) exchange ensures that the differences in O2 and CO2 partial pressures between water and blood are favorable for gas exchange over the entire length of the ventilatory surface
countercurrent
lobe-like limbs
crawl
FIBOUROUS found in tendons and ligaments that connect muscles, bones and organs. ECM of collagen from fibroblasts. holds tissue together tightly.
dense connective tissue
After ovulation, high levels of _____ inhibit _____ secretion
estrogen and progesterone ... FSH and LH. By secreting estrogen and progesterone, the corpus luteum maintains the endometrium and inhibits FSH and LH secretion.
Developing ovarian follicles primarily secrete _____.
estrogens
nitrogen based run off causes overfertilization of algal blooms in aquatic systems
eutropification
only leads to heat loss
evaporation
when liquid becomes a gas
evaporation
both terrestrial and aquatic animals pay a price for exchanging gases: land-dwellers lose water to _; freshwater animals lose _ and gain excess _; marine animals gain _ and lose _.
evaporation; ions, water; ions, water
structural support for root hairs, conduct water and nutrients to the shoot, stores photosynthetic product, and anchor the plant to soil
every part of the root but the root hair
decreasing volume of chest cavity
exhalation
diaphragm moves upward, towards lungs
exhalation
t or f once carbon enters a plant it can....be turned into energy for plant growth
false, because carbon can store energy, it doesn't provide any
ram ventilation
fast fish open their mouths while they swim to force deoxygenated water out of their body
Transitional features example
feathers and flight in birds; stomata and vascular tissue in plants; flat faces, upright posture and large brains in humans; jaws in vertebrates; limb loss is snakes
megaspores
female
the lone surviving megaspore that divides by mitosis to create a haploid nuclei is a
female gametophye/embryo sac
what binds tighter adult or fetal hemoglobin?
fetal.
dry air
few water molecules present, pressure low, more evaporation
types of sclerenchyma
fibers and sclerids
slender stalk, (male. female)
filament. style.
all-taxa surveys
finding and cataloging all the species present in an area
instantaneous finite rate of increase
finite rate of increase = e ^ r
how do i predict the size of a population if the future growth is not continuous?
finite rate of increase = population size one breeding interval later/ population size at time 0
microfossils
first fauna, tiny sponges and coral just before cambrain; filtered organic debris
fossils support of sponge-first theory
first to appear 700 mya, absence of other multicellular organisms; could survive low oxygen levels found in their fossils
helped trigger diversification of angiosperms
flowers
If conditions are appropriate apical or axillary buds may turn into _ or other _ structures
flowers;reproductive
LIQUID ECM, blood which transports materials throughout the vertebrate body, contains a variety of cell types and has a specialized ECM called plasma.
fluid connective tissue
blood pressure relatively low and osmotic pressure relatively higher
fluid enters capillary from lymphatic duct or interstitial fluid
suck up or mop up liquids like nectar or blood
fluid feeders
blood pressure relatively high and osmotic pressure relatively lower
fluid leaves capillary and excess enters lymphatic ducts
In species like sea turtles with high juvenile mortality, low adult mortality, and low fecundity, conservationists can most effectively help them by _____. See Section 51.6 ( page 1087) .
focusing on keeping adults alive
Stratified side of epithelium (vagina, skin, mouth)
for rough exposure
surface-tension
force among air-water interface. water on top can only bond with below or beside waters, and strong attractive forces that bind them tightly to minimize surface area
sedimentary rocks
form from the gradual accumulation of sediment, where most fossils are found
if the combination of genes in hybrid offspring allows them to occupy distinct habitats or use resources
formation of new species
What is the combination of resources used and conditions tolerated in the absence of competitors called? See Section 52.1 ( page 1093) .
fundemental niche
ecotourism allows
funds from transportation tax to be given to people who conserve ecological services because the money they make from preserving scenic beauty
two populations freely interbreed every time they come into contact
fusion of populations
if an individual is colder than its environment it will _ heat
gain
diffusion makes marines _ ions, and freshwater _ them
gain; loose
multicellular haploid phase
gameophyte
gamete-forming structure in all land plants but angiosperms
gametangium
Spores are not formed by the fusion of _
gametes
matings fail because eggs and sperm are not compatible
gametic barrier
both spermatogenesis and oogenesis
gametogenesis
Nonvascular plants are (sporophyte or gametophyte) dominant
gametophyte
Over the course of land plant evolution, the _ phase became more prominent. _ also became more common.
gametophyte; heterospory
Spores develop into
gametophytes
produce sperm/egg
gametophytes
make up gill filaments
gill lamellae
curve shifts to left, what happened to cause it and what increases
gotta be a fetus and increases hemoglobin saturation
Scientists grew a population of yeast cells in a flask to which they provided a constant supply of nutrients. As the population of yeast cells increased, competition for the nutrients also increased. This caused the population to grow more slowly, until the rate at which the yeast cells used the nutrients was equal to rate at which the nutrients were supplied to the flask. Which of the three graphs shown in Part G best represents the growth of these yeast population?
graph a
A female darkling beetle laid her eggs in a sack of corn meal. The corn meal was an excellent source of food for the beetle larvae (mealworms), and the beetle population quickly increased. After four months, the beetles had eaten all of the corn meal, and the adult beetles flew away to find new food sources. Which graph best represents the growth of the beetle population in the sack of corn meal?
graph c
GPP
gross primary product
climate change effects on biodiversity
habitat decreasing endangers species; sea level rising endangers species; biomes are redistributed from temp and rain change; trees and other slow dispersal species cant keep up with rapid climate change; coral reefs most diverse and threatened by temp and bleaching ocean acidification because co2 is making too much carbonic acid intake hurting animals
patterns behind increasing threatened species
habitat loss for 90% of land cases, almost always more than one factor, overexploitation in marine, pollution in freshwater, some background extinctions because of pred/comp/fires/niches
Ovulation usually occurs on or about day _____ of a 28-day ovarian cycle
halfway, 14.
synergids
haploid cells that lay close to the egg
Both male and female gametophytes produce ________. Through what process?
haploid gametes by mitosis
secondary cell wall
hard and rigid
Taxonomic and Tissue bias in fossilization
hard shells and bones last longer than skin or worms or cartilage
seeded plants without wood
herbaceous
feed on plants and algae
herbivores
seed plants are (homo/hetero)
heterosporous
(micro/mega)sporangia make (micro/mega)spores, which make separate gendered gametophytes and individually produce eggs and sperm
heterospory
Animals are multicellular, _ eukaryotes that lack cell walls and _ their prey.
heterotropic ;ingest
torpor that lasts for weeks or months
hibernation
(in logistic growth) if N is small, the growth rate should be _
high
in birds lungs, structural adaptions lead to a _ ratio of useful ventilatory space to dead space
high
rmax of species that breed at a young aage and produce may offspring a year
high
theory as to why those areas are the most diverse?
high NPP because abundance of sun and rain and large plant biomass supports lots of consumers and thusly more speciation, niche formation etc.
what is the water-breathing equivalent of mt. everest?
hot water
age structure
how many individuals of each age are alive
When biologists refer to community stability, resilience is a measure of _____. See Section 54.3 ( page 1153) . how community members work together to maintain stability how quickly a community recovers following a disturbance how many members of a community succumb to a disease, blight, or parasite how many species are present in a community
how quickly a community recovers following a disturbance
resilience
how quickly a community recovers from disturbance
resistance
how unchanged a community is during a disturbance
Which of the following was NOT a consequence of breeding Texas panthers with the Florida panthers?
hybrid panthers had kinked tails
nerve net
in cnidarians, radical and diffuse and send signals
where is productivity highest, land or sea?
in general, on land because there is more light for photosynthesis in the land than underwater
open circulatory system
in low oxygen demand animals, hemolymph pumped by heart in low-pressure limited vessels that come in direct contact with tissues
fecundity of z. vivipara :
in netherlands 1 year olds dont reproduce. intermediate death, in britnanny half of the 1 yos reproduce, die alot in austria females dont breed until they are 4, survive long
Grass contains carbon. When a cow eats grass, where does the carbon from the grass end up?
in the biomass of the cow and in the atmosphere as CO2
How do trachieds differ from vessel elements, in addition to their overall different shapes
in tracheids, water flows from cell to cell primarily through gaps in the secondary cell wall called pits
gill filliaments
inbetween gill arches
stamen
includes structure called anther
transpiration rate when dry air blows in
increase as dry air blows in.
From the capillaries of the abdominal organs and hind limbs, blood flows to the _____.
inferior vena cava Blood enters the inferior vena cava from the capillaries of the abdominal organs and hind limbs.
animals are the only multicellular heterotrophs that _ before they digest
ingest
diaphragm moves downward
inhalation
increasing volume of chest cavity and pressure within the lungs decreases
inhalation
muscles contract
inhalation
pressure is more negative, pulled down by the diaphragm
inhalation
established species stop growth of other species
inhibition
when presence of one species stops the regrowth of another
inhibition
natural experiment
instead of direct manipulation and controlled conditions, the treatment groups are compared by unplanned condition changes
fossil where decomposition doesnt occur, organic remains intact
intact fossil
evaluates the incoming sensory information by comparing it to the set point and determines whether a response is necessary to achieve homeostasis
integrator
sends instructions to effector
integrator
thermostat
integrator
taxon-specific surveys
intensive search for a specific taxon in a well defined
capillaries blood pressure?
intermediate
coelom
internal body cavity completely or partially lined with mesoderm
between species
interspecific
within species
intraspecific
what happens when algae leaves water? why?
it collapses bcs the water that fills it cells are 800 times denser than air. strong from cellulose not strong enough to resist gravity
why is countercurrency for efficient in gills?
it extracts all the oxygen to the blood it needs instead of having an egalitarian oxygen diffusion with water and ensures constant P2-P1 difference.
What is r max in a species like the giant panda? See Section 51.3 ( page 1077) .
it is low
A key aspect of cooperative binding by hemoglobin is that ___________. See Section 42.4 ( page 885) .
it permits rapid uptake of oxygen in the lungs and greater delivery of oxygen once blood reaches capillaries in the body's tissues. Cooperative binding is critical to the high rate of oxygen transport in the circulatory system.
why is burning fossil fuels bad?
it releases carbons that have been purposefully contained in reservoirs for millions of years, which is more than our depleting trees can handle
What is wrong with "evolutionary change occurs in organisms"
it sorts existing variants in organisms, doesn't change them. evolutionary change only occurs in populations
there are genes coding for mesoderm in diploblasts, what does this suggest?
it was a product of convergent morphological evolution based on a foundation of homologous genes
how does a male pollen grain mature?
its haploid generative cell will undergo mitosis and produce two sperm cells
NPP affect from global climate change
its increasing in some places, but its decreasing where it matters. the biggest sink is the southern hemisphere and its loosing the most and becoming more of a source than a sink
non-mammal vertebrae RBCs transport oxygen in _
its nuclei
what has valves?
large veins to prevent dirty back flow
step one (inhalation) of bird breath
lung empties formerly posterior air that had just occupied lungs to anterior sacs. new air goes to posterior air sacs.
internal respiratory organ for most landies and some fishies
lungs
negative pressure ventilation
lungs are like balloons kept deflated by having pressure around the lung that can allow it to expand and differ
step 2 bird breath (exhalation)
lungs fill with air from posterior sacs. the anterior sacs release its air.
if an animal doesnt have aveoli what do they have?
lungs lined directly with blood vessels
top-down hypothesis
lynx populations reach high density in response to increases in hare density. at high density, lynx eat so many hares that the prey population crashes
zone of cellular elongation
made of cells recently derived from primary meristems and that increase in length
fun sensory abilities:
magnetic (birds for navigation) electrical (sharks reading muscle of prey) barometric pressure (air pressure to avoid storms)
fruits
make seed dispersal possible. attract animals to eat it, and therefore leave the seeds inside around.
character displacement
makes niche differentiation possible
In sexual reproduction of land plants, generations alternate between _____. See Section 38.1 ( page 795) .
making gametes and making spores, the two generations are called gametophyte and sporophyte
microspores
male
ecosystem diversity
measure of vertical and horizontal diversity plus interactions with nonlivng environment
matings fail because male and female reproductive structures are incompatible (too big)
mechanical
what part of the brain regulated breathing rate?
medullary center
Ovules
meiosis occurs, forming megaspores, which divide mitosis to make female gametophytes
Megasporocytes divide by _, resulting in _ _ _.
meiosis, four, halpoid, megaspores
H+ATPases
membrane protein breaks down ATP and uses the energy to transport protons across the membrane to the exterior. This makes protons favor entry into the cell.
Surface tension occurs at _ that form as water evaporates from the walls of leaf cells, and it it transmitted downward via _ bonding between water molecules
menisci
stem cells of plants
meristem
gives rise to tissues inbetween the skin and digestive tract
mesoderm
measured in terms of oxygen consumption per hour
metabolic rate
overall rate of energy consumption by an individual
metabolic rate
drastic change from one developmental stage to another
metamorphosis
Pollen grains gain entry into the ovule via the _
micopyle
what 2 theories would explain why more species exist near the equator than the poles?
more biomass in tropics = more speciation = less exintion. high-productivity age and area means that tropical regions had more time and more space to spread and speciate (may be wrong because forests are young)
how does biodiversity lead to stability?
more likely to live through problems with lots of diversity surrounding them, less prone to invasion by exotic species
how did leaving water give plants an advantage?disadvantage?
more sunlight = more photosynthesis. BUT more uv exposure, which creates thymine dimers. Water had absorbed UV light, so alga didn't deal with it.
How to study green algae and land plants?
morphological traits, fossil record, phylogenetic trees from estimated similarities and differences in DNA
The _ concept identifies species using distinctive morphological traits.
morphospecies
distinguishing features arise when populations are independent and isolated from gene flow
morphospecies
ground tissue
most photosynthesis, structure ,pigment/hormone/toxin production, and carb storage
Bees visiting flowers to harvest nectar and pollen would be considered examples of _____. See Section 52.1 ( page 1093) .
mutualism
both increase in fitness
mutualism
types of greenhouse gasses
n2o methane (ch4) and co2
Batesian mimicry
natural selection favors nontoxic species copying toxic species
direction-pollination hypothesis
natural selection made different things favorable to attract pollinators, and provide them with nectar in exchange
passive process
natural selection, because it is not a choice it is differential production as a result of heritable variation
when a parameter is not at its set point, what feedback loop occurs?
negative
what results in homeostasis
negative feedback loops
transmits electrical signals which are produced by changes in permeability of the cell's plasma membrane to ion concentrations in the space surrounding neurons, supplying neurons with nutrient and support.
nervous tissue
NPP
net primary productivity
send electrical signals to other cells
neurons
Mutation is the only evolutionary process that creates _ alleles. They may be beneficial, neutral, or deleterious.
new
biotic factors
new parasite or extinction of a predator
Range of ecological resources that a species can tolerate
niche
Triggered the ecological ability to drive speciation and ecological diversification
niches
spiracles
openings in insects exoskeletons that can be closed to minimize loss of water by evaporation
ocean acidicfication due to climate change
ocean does 1/3 of the CO2 but reacts with water to form H2CO3 which turns into HCO3-, carbonic acid.
lowest underwater productivity?
oceanic zones with no upwelling or river input; it is somewhat of a dessert full of dead cells
ancestral species
older
zone of cellular maturation
older cells complete their differentiation into dermal, vascular, and ground tissues
feed on any combination of plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea and bacteria
omnivores
How do sources supply sinks, location-wise?
on the same side of the plant(left/right) , and same end (root/ apical meristems)
early hearts
one atrium and one ventricle, one circuit serving whole body
functional role of double fertilization zygote
one product of double fertilization is the diploid zygote, which will eventually grow by mitosis into a mature sporophyte. The other product is the triploid endosperm nucleus, which will grow by mitosis to form a source of nutrients for the embryo.
asymmetric competition
one species suffers greater fitness decline than than the other species does
Homosperms
one spore for same gender of gameophyte, which develops separate eggs/sperm
how many cells are in a fresh egg?
one. even in 6 inch ostrich eggs.
CAM
open stomata at night and store CO2 that diffuses by adding it to organic compoinds, which are released during the day when sunlight is available.
stomata
opened and closed by guard cells, creating pores allowing CO2 to diffuse into the interior of leaves and stems, usually on the underside.
acclimitization
reversible adaption, in laboratory setting
horizontal stem which grows above ground
rhizome
modified below-ground stems that grow horizontally produce new plants at nodes
rhizomes
corona ratida
ridiculously thick layer that must be digested before zona pellucida and eventually fertilizing egg
oxygen-hemoglobin curve shifts to the _ when pH declines
right
abiotic factors example
rise in temperature or drop in sea level
furnish the actual sites of water and nutrient absorption
root hairs
light secondary xylem that transports water
sapwood
primary "succession"
soil begins building with solid rock weathering and dead tissues from organisms to make dynamic mixture of organic and inorganic particles to allow plants to make root and structure the landscape
_ concentration of solutes in a cell or tissue
solute potential
why do we rotate crops
some are more nitrogen active, some are more nitrogen producing. if you don't keep rotating, the soil could die out.
pollution
some dont break down and may bioaccumulate; pesticides and herbicides; eutrophication from nutrients;drugs;sulfur mercury lead and arsenic
internal fertilization
some insertion
Vascular cambium produces
some schlerencyhma for strength and some parenchyma cells
clements-gleason
some species can disperse easily and can colonize any available habitat; while others cant.
continuous throughout adult life
spermatogenesis
innovations land plants adapted
spores that resist drying, complex multicellular structures, embryo retained on mother/parent plant, and nourished by it.
multicellular diploid phase
sporophyte
Zygotes develop into
sporophytes
produce haploid spores
sporophytes
a waxy substance that encases spores and pollen of modern land plants to help them resist drying
sporopollenin
keeps spores from drying, durble polymer
sporopollenin
What types of cells found in epithelial tissues (tissue that usually cover the outside of the body and line organs and cavities within the body)?
squamous, cuboidal, and columnar cells
favors an average phenotype
stabilizing selection
clumped arrangement
stay in social groups
capture food by filtering floating particles
suspension feeders
spermatophore
swallowing up a discarded nut sac
source
symporter
over the ocean which has a higher net gain of water, the ocean or the atmosphere
the atmosphere; more air evaporates than it precipitates into the ocean
generation
the average time between a mother's first offspring and her daughter's first offspring
how is wind-pollination less successful than animal?
the chances of pollen hitting a stigma are less guranteed
polyploidy
the condition of having two or more complete sets of chormosomes
How can algae grow, but out-of-water plants can't?
the density is similar to water's density
why do beetles not get bigger?
the diameter of their trachease would be so large that their would not be enough space in their bodies for much else (muscles, tissues)
2 key notes about water/blood countercurrency
the difference down a gradient between the tissues will be consistent (10% difference every time), and the start and end of a system has a large percentage range.
why can solar panels only reach 20% efficiency and plants and stuff?
the efficiency of enzymes is temperature dependent, seasons can affect photosynthesis rates, only a fraction of the light wavelengths available
embyro retention in algae
the egg/zygote receives nutrient from the mother plant during fertilization. parent dies, egg stays attached and spores develop into haploid adult plants
dry species coping
the water potential drops because of solute potential dropping below the soil's water potential
a single common ancestor gave rise to all the green algae and plants
the green plants are monophyletic
cortex
the ground tissue that that is between the vascular tissue and the epidermis
haploid nuclei segregate into diffrent places in the embryo sac, one of which becomes
the haploid egg
ctenophores and cnidarians have a body plan that looks like a sac, this does __________ and is called the _.
the ingestion of food, releases gametes, eliminates wastes ; gastrovascular cavity
over the land which has a higher net gain of water, the land or the atmosphere
the land; more water precipitates that evaporates
why is npp low in deserts despite low altitude and closeness to equator
the low rainfall
The study of the Zootoca vivipara lizard showed that _____. See Section 51.2 ( page 1073) .
the low-elevation Netherlands population was intermediate for fecundity and survivorship when compared with other populations
parsimony
the most simplified amount of times a trait could have evolved in species
the nonvascular plants include some but not all decedents of a single common ancestor
the nonvascular plants are paraphyletic
the nonvascular plants are the most ancient living group of plants
the nonvascular plants are the most ancient living group of land plants
fecundity
the number of female offspring produced by each female in the population
why is it hard to breathe on everest?
the partial pressure gradient between the tissues and the air is little so fewer O2 diffuses in the tissues than we are used to
why does water flow from the xylem to the phloem at high sucrose concentrations?
the phloem has a low solute potential, much higher than just water alone, so it moves over across the selectively permeable membrane to sieve tubes, which makes turgor pressure build.
niche differentiation ?
the populations evolve to reduce overlap between niches
grazing food chain
the primary producer is alive, eaten by a consumer
decomposer food chain
the primary producer is dead, eaten by detrovore which is eaten by consumer
if extinction is natural why are biologist concerned with conservation?
the rate of extinction is at mass extinction levels; bove the basal extinction rate
vascular tissue evolved once
the seedless vascular plants are paraphyletic, but the vascular plants as a whole are monophyletic
Succession in an ecological context refers to _______. See Section 52.3 ( page 1108) .
the sequence of changes in species composition over time within the community after a disturbance
what was noted in venous blood of exercised fish?
their dirty blood was almost completely stripped of oxygen because their muscles needed so much, while their arteries had consistent levels
how do plants create soil?
their fallen and decaying peices are food for decomposers, which add organic matter to soil, changing soil structure and the ability of soils to hold nutrients and water.
how is the small tension at the meniscus enough to pull so much water, steep enough to overcome gravity?
there are many leaves pulling and many menisci
how do plants keep nutrients and soil in place
they absorb nutrients before it can be blown away, and their roots keep soil particles in place
Whats wrong with the statement that phloem always carries sugars down a plant?
they can also carry up to flowers or fruit developing at the tip of the stem
root morphological difference
they can be completely different if its the same species right beside each other. when they have all different roots, they dont compete for the same sources of water and nutrients
open/uncontained aquifer
they can be recharged by water percolating down from the surface
why can beetles get so big?
they have large cross-sectional area for gas exchange (trachea)
how are land plants embryos special?
they nourish their parent, instead of being shed in water or soil
food web
this eats this and this which eats this and this overlapping chains
Nervous tissue functions _____.
to sense stimuli
absence of influence of early-arriving species on late-arriving species
tolerance
do not affect the probability that the subsequent species will become established
tolerance
is segmentation homologous or convergent?
tool kit homologous, but co-opted and expanded on differently (convergent)
certain consumers limit things at lower tropic levels
top down
tropic cascade
top-down control causes effects two-three links away in food web
consumers are tops or bottoms of tropic levels
tops
which has more oxygen, tops or bottoms?
tops
gpp
total amount of energy produced in a given area and timer period
long thin cells with tapered ends and pits
tracheids
Carbon dioxide functions as a greenhouse gas because it _____. See Section 53.3 ( page 1130) . traps heat that has been radiated from Earth similar to the way the glass of a greenhouse traps heat makes tropical plants grow more rapidly than normal, just like in a greenhouse creates moist, humid environments similar to a greenhouse (eventually) makes plants grow year-round, just like in a greenhouse
traps heat that has been radiated from Earth similar to the way the glass of a greenhouse traps heat
greenhouse gas
traps heat that has been radiated from earth and keeps it from being lost to space
hairlike appendages made of specialized epidermal cells in shoot systems
trichomes
ABA (Abiscis Acid)
trigger accumulation of storage compounds, desicciation tolerance, prevents germination
three types of tissue
triploblasts
endosperm
triploid cell that stores nutrients
most diverse/species rich patterns land/sea
tropical forests and coral reefs
t or f once carbon enters a plant it can.... be consumed by an insect feeding on the plant and become part of the insect's body
true
mullerian mimicry
two toxic species look alike
To view the animation, click here. Then click on the image to start the animation. This is an animation of the movement of water and ions through the root
via the apoplastic route. The animation illustrates water and ions moving along a cell wall continuum.
Geographical isolation by the physical splitting of a habitat
vicariance
Geographical isolation occurs through _, when a large population becomes fragmented into isolated habitats
vicariance
species nourish embryos internally and give birth live
viviparous (most animals)
when is fishies mating season?
warmer water and lengthening days
Robert Paine's experiment removing the predatory sea star Pisaster ochraceous from intertidal habitats showed that the sea star _____. See Section 52.2 ( page 1104) .
was a keystone species
aquatic ventilation disrupts water and electrolyte balance. osmosis causes marine to loose _ across the gas exchange surface (freshwaters gain)
water
ex situ conservation and reintroduction
"out of place"; no longer exist in the wild and can only in captivity can sometimes leave and reestablish themselves in the wild
Homology
"the study of likeness," similarity that exists in species due to common ancestry
summarize hypothesis for ecological opportunity and morphological innovation
(1) Ecological opportunity: Many resources were available because no other animals (or other types of organisms) existed to exploit them. Also, the evolution of new species in new niches made new niches available for predators. (2) Morphological innovation: changes in form like limbs and complex mouthparts were important because they enabled animals to live in habitats other than the benthic area and to consume new types of food.
Three hallmarks of adaptive radiation
- speciated rapidly - monophyletic grouo - diversified ecologically into many niches
Gene Flow
-a result of the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes -can introduce new alleles into a population's gene pool
morphological and phylogenetic
-accommodates asexual reproduction -species acceptance criteria can be subjective
what ways can a nutrient exported to other ecosystems
-carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere, which is shared -herbivore can poop plants in another ecosystem -water or wind can transport any nutrients and drop it off anywhere
standing defenses
-cryptic coloration -escape behavior -toxins and chemicals -flocking -defense armor
germ layers (list)
-ectoderm -medoglea (di) or mesoderm (tri) -endoderm
Genetic Drift
-responsible for the bottleneck effect -responsible for the founder effect -causes allele frequencies to fluctuate
what factors control the rate of nutrient cycling
1. abiotic factors (oxygen, temperature, precipitation) 2. the quality of detritus as a nutrient source for fungi and accomplish decomposition 3. abundance and diversity of detritovores present
angiosperm diversification
125 mya to now. grass, daisies, maples.
Assume there are 200 MendAliens living on an island in my back yard. If my island has an area of 20 hectares, what is the population density of MendAliens in terms of MendAliens per hectare?
200 MendAliens / 20 hectares = 10 MendAliens per hectare
origin of land plants period
475 mya. cuticle, sporopollenin, sporangia
larger and more complex animals presence
50 mya
the expansion of water as it freezes can rip cells apart if tissues go below 0C and heat denatures cells
?
compare and contrast cotyledon with a radicale in terms of tissue and stem cells
A cotyledon and a radicle develop into organs with distinct functions, but both are composed of the same tissues: Epidermis is derived from protoderm, ground tissue is derived from ground meristem, and vascular tissue is derived from the procambium.
is cardiac arrest same thing as myocardial infraction?
A myocardial infarction occurs when some of the heart tissue dies due to a lack of oxygen. It is not the same as when the heart stops beating. Only a massive infarction could interfere with proper pumping of the heart and stop it from beating.
Which component of a homeostatic system perceives changes in some parameter of the environment?
A sensor perceives changes in some parameter of the environment.
The basic bilaterian body form plan can be thought of as simply _____. See Section 30.2 ( page 616) .
A tube within a tube. The inner tube is the individual's gut, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other, and the outer tube forms the nervous system and skin.
Metamorphosis is ______. See Section 30.3 ( page 624) .
A type of life cycle. In animals that undergo metamorphosis, the larval form looks radically different from the adult form.
By picking up hydrogen ions, hemoglobin prevents the blood from becoming too _____.
Acidic. If not carried by hemoglobin, hydrogen ions would reduce the pH, or increase the acidity, of the blood.
no enclosed body cavity; no coelm
Acoelomates
Together, the respiratory and circulatory systems function to ____________. See Section 42.1 ( page 875) .
Aerobically active tissues require oxygen to carry out metabolism and must get rid of the waste product, carbon dioxide
Which of the following statements describes a negative feedback response?
After a meal, blood sugar levels in the body rise; insulin is secreted to lower blood sugar levels.
sieve tube elements and their companions are _ (Dead or Alive) at maturity, and _ secondary cell walls.
Alive; lack
_ speciation occurs when populations diverge in geographic isolation
Allopatric
Which of the following actions is NOT a function of the epithelium?
Allows the internal environment to alter its conditions to match those of the external environment. The epithelium allows the internal environment to remain constant even if the external environment changes.
Decreases individual ability to produce offspring and help others produce more.
Altruism, a self-sacrificing behavior
Which component of a homeostatic system compares sensory information to a target value?
An integrator sends instructions to an effector based on sensory information.
Phylogenetic species advantage
Applied to any population (fossil, asexual, sexual), and is logical because different species have different synamorphies only if they are isolated fro gene flow and evolve independently.
why does npp diminish with increasing tropic levels
At each trophic level, most of the energy that is consumed is lost to cellular respiration and ultimately heat, metabolism, or other maintenance activities, which leaves only a small percentage of energy for biomass production (growth and reproduction).
Diploid (2n) parents have nondisjunction during meiosis and have (2n) gametes, resulting in (4n) offspring
Autopolyploid
capillaries
BRANCHING. sites where things diffuse into blood
Genetic variation maintained
Balancing
_ occurs when no single phenotype is favored; there is a balance among alleles in terms of fitness and frequency. [It] preserves _.
Balancing selection; genetic variation
the rate at which an animal can consume oxygen while at rest, with an empty stomach, under normal temperature and moisture conditions
Basal Metabolic Rate
For the experiment shown in the figure, which is the most accurate statement of the prediction made by the experimental hypothesis? See Section 22.4
Beak depth will differ between pre- and post-drought populations.
Innate behavior
Behaviors that are unlearned/ inherited
What is biological fitness? See Section 22.3
Biological fitness measures the reproductive success of an individual relative to others in the population.
From the superior vena cava, blood flows to the _____.
Blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae.
compare and contrast megasprocyte and microsporocyte
Both are diploid cells that divide by meiosis to produce spores. The megasporocyte produces a megaspore (female spore); a microsporocyte produces a microspore (male spore).
In roots the _____ forces water and solutes to pass through the plasma membranes of _____ cells before entering the _____.
Casparian strip ... endodermis ... xylem. The Casparian strip is a waterproof barrier that forces water and solutes to pass through the plasma membranes of endodermis cells.
angiosperms are most dominant and mammals rapid diversification
Cenozonic
Why does increased species richness increase NPP? See Section 54.3 ( page 1153) . Diverse assemblages of plant species may utilize the same resources in the same way, increasing efficiency of resource extraction and increasing NPP. A diverse assemblage of plants species will perform many ecosystem services. Certain species or functional groups may facilitate the growth and productivity of primary producers by modifying the environment to make it more favorable. In a diverse assemblage of plant species, all surviving plants are likely to be high-productivity species.
Certain species or functional groups may facilitate the growth and productivity of primary producers by modifying the environment to make it more favorable.
explain coevolution and give an example with a +/- interaction
Coevolution occurs when two interacting species act as agents of natural selection on each other over time. An example of coevolution in a + / − species interaction includes crab predators and their mussel prey. The thick shells of mussels function to select for crabs that have large enough and strong enough shells to break them (the ones that don't will have lower fitness). Conversely, the strong claws of crabs select for mussels that have thick shells (the ones that don't will get eaten). As a result, traits in both populations evolve over time.
Which of the following is true?
Countries besides the U.S. have legislation in place regarding the use of antibiotics in livestock
why is it more efficient to eat lobster than chicken even though they feed at the same tropic level
Crustaceans and fish are ectothermic, so they are much more efficient at converting primary production into the biomass in their bodies than are endothermic birds and mammals.
Favors extreme phenotypes
Directional
_ favors phenotypes at one end of a distribution, causing the average phenotype to change. It tends to decrease the diversity of alleles in populations.
Directional
Long necks make it easier for giraffes to reach leaves high on trees, while also making them better fighters in "neck wrestling" contests. In both cases, which kind of selection appears to have made giraffes the long-necked creatures they are today?
Directional selection
Black-bellied seedcrackers have either small beaks (better for eating soft seeds) or large beaks (better for hard seeds). There are no seeds of intermediate hardness; therefore, which kind of selection acts on beak size in seedcrackers?
Disruptive selection
Genetic Variation increased
Disruptive selection
discuss the advantages and disadvanages of endothermy and ectothermy
Endotherms can remain active during the winter and at night and sustain high levels of aerobic activities such as running or flying, but they require large amounts of food energy. Ectotherms need much less food and can devote a larger proportion of their food intake to reproduction, but they have a harder time maintaining high activity levels at night or in cold weather.
What is the correct order of the flow of sperm in the male reproductive system of mammals? See Section 47.2 ( page 987) .
Epididymis ➜ vas deferens ➜ urethra. Sperm from the testes are stored in the epididymis and flows from the body via the vas deferens then the urethra.
give an example of a structure that enables the epithelial tissue to preform a specific function.
Epithelial tissue consists of one or more layers of closely packed cells with distinct apical and basolateral sides. Structures that hold the cells tightly together, such as tight junctions and desmosomes, enable epithelial tissues to protect underlying tissues and to regulate the passage of materials.
design an experiment to test the hpothesis that the rain forest of borneo is more effective at building soil, retaining soil nutrients, and minimizing soil erosion than oil palm plantations are
Establish several study plots in an area of Borneo where some of the forest has been converted to oil palm plantation but the adjacent forest (of similar elevation and topography) has rain forest still intact—half of the plots in the plantation and half in the rain forest. Monitor soil depth, soil nutrient levels, precipitation, and stream sediment levels regularly, and compare after several years.
The equilibrium theory of island biogeography predicts that large islands close to the mainland will have more species than small islands that are distant from the mainland. Which of the following factors does not contribute to that prediction?
Evolution occurs more rapidly on large islands, thereby increasing species diversity.
why human population is projected to continue its rapid growth even though fertility rates are declining
Fewer children are being born per female, but there are many more females of reproductive age due to high fecundity rates in previous years combined with increased survival of infants and children.
The dispersal event alone doesnt always lead to speciation, what can?
Founder effects from genetic drift, natural selection of the new environment. It cant instantly be considered a species on its own, because gene flow can still occur
explain why fragmentation reduces habitat quality and can lead to the reduction of genetic diversity
Fragmentation reduces habitat quality by creating edges that are susceptible to invasion and loss of species, due to changed abiotic conditions. Genetic diversity can be reduced inside fragments as inbreeding occurs, exposing rare deleterious alleles to natural selection, and/or as populations lose genetic diversity via genetic drift
Which of the following is NOT a form of asexual reproduction? See Section 47.1 ( page 982) . Fission Parthenogenesis Budding Fusion of sperm and egg
Fusion of sperm and egg
why internal fertilization is more common on land
Gametes that are shed into aquatic environments can float or swim. This cannot happen on land, so internal fertilization is more common there. Also, gametes are more at risk of drying out on land, and internal fertilization eliminates that risk.
Alleles (NOT ORGANISMS) moving between populations
Gene Flow
Totally random with respect to fitness
Gene Flow
_ can result from random fusion of gametes at fertilization, founder events, and population bottlenecks.
Genetic Drift
A storm kills many plants at random
Genetic Drift, allele frequencies change but no predictably
A person uproots the five closest plants, which all happen to be white flowers.
Genetic Drift, frequency of purple allele increases
Random changes in allele frequencies: most important in small populations
Genetic drift
Lamarck's Example
Giraffes necks get longer to reach high leaves, and produce offspring with longer necks
You are a cattle rancher and will abide by the new legislation. Which of the following will you be allowed to do?
Give antibiotics to an animal in your herd that is ill.
Photsynthetic for aquatic habitats
Green algae
_ include single-celled and multi-cellular marine and freshwater species.
Green algae
why morphological data, fossil record and molecular phylogenies support land plants evolving from green algae
Green algae and land plants share an array of morphological traits that are synapomorphies, including the chlorophylls they contain, and phylogenetic trees estimated from DNA sequence data, green algae and land plants share a most recent common ancestor—green algae are the initial groups to diverge, and land plants diverge subsequently.
Sometimes a loss-of-function mutation can be adaptive
Green aphids had deletion of their carotenoid synthesis-genes
carbonic anhydrase
H2CO3 from CO2 + H2O
How is variation in shoot systems important?
Helps minimize competition because they all have their own place and thrive in a wide variety of habitats
how do polyploids benefit
Higher heterozygosity, higher toleration of self-fertilization/inbreeding depression, increase genetic variation because genes diverge independently
David Tilman and colleagues planted varying numbers of species from different functional groups of grassland plants in an experiment that examined which question? See Section 54.3 ( page 1153) . How does species richness affect biomass? Do grassland species produce more biomass than woody species? How does inbreeding affect biomass? Do pesticides increase pest resistance?
How does species richness affect biomass?
Played a key role in organizing the development of the larger, complex bodies in diverse animals by signaling where cells are in the embryo
Hox genes
_____ bonds are responsible for the cohesion of water molecules.
Hydrogen bonds among water molecules are responsible for the tendency of those molecules to stick together.
Determine what kind of evidence would support that hypothesis that birds evolved from Dinosaurs.
If birds evolved from dinosaurs, you would expect to find transitional fossil dinosaurs with feathers (such fossils have been found). You would also expect birds and dinosaurs to share many homologous traits (and they do).
what would happen IF water to blood flow was concurrent?
If concurrent flow occurred, less oxygen would be transferred from water to blood because the partial pressure gradient driving diffusion would fall to zero partway along the length of the capillary.
Island biogeography theory is based on which two processes? See Section 52.4 ( page 1112) .
Immigration rates and extinction rates. This theory predicts species richness as a function of species finding or leaving a certain area.
why tarweeds and Anolis lizards on mainland not species-rich or genetically diverse?
In habitats on the mainland, complex communities have been established for a long time, so tarweeds in California and Anolis lizards on the mainland experience greater competition for resources and are limited to specific niche
why are tropical farms unsuccessful?
In the tropics, nutrients cycle rapidly through forests, meaning that most of the nutrients are tied up in biomass rather than slowly decomposing in the soil. When the trees of tropical rain forests are hauled away, the nutrients are exported from the site, leaving only poor soil to nourish the crops.
Declines average fitness because loss of heterozygous advantage, which favors genetic diversity
Inbreeding
Declines average fitness because of over-concentration of homozygousity in normally hetero loss-of-function mutations
Inbreeding
how can homeostasis might change with global warming
Individuals could acclimatize by normal homeostatic mechanisms (increased sweating, seeking shade, etc.). Individuals with alleles that allowed them to function better at higher temperatures would be likely to produce more offspring than individuals without those alleles. Over time, this would lead to adaptation via natural selection.
Populations
Individuals of the same species that live together in the same area at the same time
How does fitness of plant and flowers increase by visiting eachother
Insects feed on nectar and/or pollen in flowers. Flowers provide food rewards that encourage insects to visit them. The individuals that attract the most pollinators produce the most offspring.
Which group has an open circulatory system? See Section 42.5 ( page 889) .
Insects have an open circulatory system. However, their tracheal respiratory system is able to provide oxygen directly to the tissues as well.
What occurs in a hybrid zone? See Section 24.4
Interbreeding
The most common form of _ occurs when females choose to mate with males who exhibit "good alleles" or ability to provide resources to females.
Intersexual selection
The most common form of _ occurs when males compete with each other to gain access to female mates.
Intrasexual selection
How might genetic drift be important in a small population. See Section 23.4
It decreases genetic diversity via the loss of alleles due to inbreeding depression. Genetic drift is of large concern with populations of a small size because you are more likely to have mating between close relatives.
What important role does lignin play in vascular plants?
It forms the tough, rigid cell walls of water-conducting cells
How might gene flow be important in managing an endangered population? See Section 23.
It increases genetic diversity by introducing alleles from one population into another.
Which of these describes loose connective tissue?
It is a loose weave of fibers that functions as a packing material. Loose connective tissue is a packing material that serves, for example, to hold organs in place.
Why is the emergence of the radicalw an important first step in germination
It is important for establishing a supply of water to the growing embryo
What is DNA barcoding primarily used for? See Section 54.1 ( page 1141) . It is primarily used to build phylogenetic trees. It is primarily used to estimate species diversity. It is primarily used in environmental sequencing. It is primarily used to estimate ecosystem diversity.
It is primarily used to estimate species diversity
if u decided to eat 100 kcal of chicken instead of beach, how much less land would be required to support your feast?
It takes about 150 m2 for a year to produce 1000 kcal of beef, and about 5 m2 for a year to produce 1000 kcal of chicken, so you would use about 145 m2 less land by eating chicken instead of beef today.
why did mammalia began to rise after what mass extinction?
K-Pg killed dinosaurs, which were total niche hoggers. Fur and lactation also benefited due to chance comet.
cambrain macroscopic fossils
LOTSA sponges jellyfish comb jellies, also mollusks, wormish creatures. These could burrow, run, slither, flat and be predators or scavengers or graze or filter.
are salamanders w/o lungs and skin-breathe smaller or larger than those with lungs.
Lungless salamanders that breathe through their skin are all small compared to salamanders with lungs. Their surface area/volume ratios are high enough that gas exchange across the skin can support the salamanders' metabolism.
Malthus and artificial selection's influence on natural selection
Malthus "living humans compete for resources a struggle for existence" Artificial selection Natural populations had the possibility of variation
Which of the following plant organs may act as a source for translocation of sugars inside a plant? See Section 35.4 ( page 739) .
Mature leaves photosynthesize, manufacturing sugars.
How did the 1977 drought on Daphne Major cause evolutionary change in the medium ground finch population? See Section 22.4
Medium ground finches with large and deep beaks had higher survival rates during the drought.
The Hardy-Weinberg principle played an important role in the synthesis of _ genetics and _ evolution
Mendelian ; Darwinian
Begins with the end-Permian extinction and ends with the extinction of dinosaurs
Mesozoic (middle life) era
Pangaea breaking up. Reptiles and angiosperms rise
Mesozoic (middle life) era
are plant sperm and eggs produced by mitosis or meiosis?
Mitosis. Haploid cells in the gametophyte produce haploid gametes. There is no change in number of chromosomes, and the ploidy level remains constant. The formation of sperm and eggs in plants is different from that in animals, whose gametes are formed directly by meiosis
Stolons, rhizomes, and tubers are examples of which part of the plant? See Section 34.1 ( page 706) .
Modified Stems. Even though they have different functions than typical stems, they can be recognized during development as being stems.
given a neuron's structure, is a neuron more likely to provide signals to specific cells and tissues OR to broadcast signals widely throughout the body?
Most neurons have an axon, which transmits signals to specific cells and tissues rather than widely throughout the body.
Most polyploid plants arise as a result of _____.
Most polyploid plants are the result of the hybridization of two different parental species.
What group of organisms was likely ancestral to land plants? See Section 28.2 ( page 565) .
Multicellular green algae found in freshwater habitats
What might be the function of the muscle contraction in the walls of veins? See Section 42.5 ( page 889) .
Muscle contraction reduces the volume of veins, increasing blood pressure and, thereby, increasing the velocity of blood flow. This is a key response when a person enters of period of intense physical activity.
If this did not occur, evolution would stop
Mutation
Increases genetic variation by producing new alleles
Mutation
Random production of new alleles
Mutation
Random with respect to fitness, most are neutral or lower fitness slightly
Mutation
The ultimate source of genetic variation
Mutation
During an extreme heat wave, plants with white flowers survive better
Natural Selection, frequency of white allele increases
Inbreeding can accelerate _ and can cause inbreeding _.
Natural Selection; depression
Produces adaption, increasing fitness
Natural selection
give an example of a structure that enables the nervous tissue to preform a specific function.
Nervous tissue is composed of neurons and supporting cells. Neurons have long projections that function as "biological wires" for transmitting electrical signals.
If seeds are dormant, the dormancy has to be broken before the seed can germinate. Which of the following is most likely to break seed dormancy? See Section 38.4 ( page 803) .
Nicking or damaging the seed coat to allow water to penetrate the seed, thus hydrating cells inside the seed
did "epitheliomuscular cells" evolve from true mesodermal cells?
No they evolve independently, and were co-opted and elaborated upon differently in different lineages later in time (convergent evolution)
Does a catastrophic event have to make organisms extinct?
No, 99% of organisms that have existed gone extinct continuously
Is bigger always better for these Galapagos finches? See Section 22.4
No; bigger beak size seems to be significantly favored initially but is selected against later.
_ include mosses and liverworts that are small and have a gametophyte-dominant lifestyle
Nonvascular plants
How do i predict size of a population in the future if growth is continuous?
Nt = N0 * e^rt
how to determine population size at the end of time t given a finite growth increase
Nt = N0 * finite rate of increase^t
Total population (N) =
Number of marked animals (M), x Total number of individuals marked and unmarked in the recapture (n) / Number of marked animals in the recapture (m)
whats a density-dependent factor that limits growth in the lizards and design an experiment to test it
One possible density-dependent factor is competition for food. To test this idea, compare carrying capacity in identical fenced-in areas that differ only in the amount of food added. (You could also test a hypothesis of space limitation by doubling the size of the enclosure but keeping the amount of food the same.)
Humans are diploid and have 46 chromosomes (or two sets). How many sets of chromosomes are found in each human gamete?
One. Meiosis cuts the number if chromosomal sets in half. (2/2 is 1)
green algae closely related to land plants alt of generations
Only the zygote is diploid, still on parent. never matures, immediately undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. the spores grow into haploid adults, that have both sperm and eggs present, which fertilize to make the zygote.
transitional features during evolution of tetrapod limb
Originally all fin, but gradually developed stable bones to allow them to move on land, and further evolved to be completely semiaquatic and like the tetrapods of today
exercise partial pressure change
PO2 of blood decreases because muscles need it more, PCO2 of blood increases because muscles need to get rid of it.
Rapid diversification of animals, life moves to land (plants and animals), 1st vertebrae
Paleozoic (old life) era
Which of these cell types are still alive with a functioning nucleus at maturity? See Section 34.2 ( page 714) .
Parenchyma. Both parenchyma and collenchyma cells are alive at maturity and have functioning nuclei.
541 mya to now
Phanerozic Eon
_, _, and several religious texts present species as unchanging types. This view is called _ thinking.
Plato; Aristotle; Typological
where (lineage) did pollen, flowers, and fruit originate?
Pollen originated in the lineage leading to the splitting of gymnosperms and angiosperms. Flowers and fruits originated in the angiosperms.
Mutation that produce _ can trigger rapid speciation in sympathy because they lead to reproductive isolation between diploid an haploid populations
Polyploidy
Which statement is correct? See Section 22.3
Populations can evolve, but individuals cannot.
What is net primary productivity (NPP)? See Section 53.1 ( page 1118) .
Primary producer biomass or organic material that can be consumed. NPP measures the amount of primary producer material that is available for consumption after the primary producers have used some portion of GPP for cellular respiration or lost it as heat.
Which term describes a mechanism by which the internal conditions of an organism are kept at set values without regard to the external conditions?
Regulatory homeostasis involves adjusting the internal conditions of an organism to set values without regard to the external conditions.
Selection against interbreeding because hybrids offspring represents a wasted effort by the parents, reducing their fitness.
Reinforcement
With reinforcement, the number of hybrid individuals is reduced and natural selection continues to operate differently on the two populations.
Reinforcement is natural selection against interbreeding and production of hybrid offspring.
Why do related species share homologous traits? See Section 22.2
Related species inherited homologous traits from a common ancestor.
Law of succession
Resemblances between underlying fossils of a region and the living species succeeding them, used as supporting evidence in Darwin's theory
Which of the following actions acts to warm a homeothermic body?
Shivering generates metabolic heat and warms the body.
What type of muscle is responsible for contractions of the digestive tract and arteries?
Smooth muscle is responsible for the involuntary contractions of the digestive tract, arteries, and bladder.
Which diploid cells are produced by an embryonic germ cell?
Spermatogonia are male diploid cells that are produced by embryonic germ cells.
Which phylum includes the most basal lineages of animals? See Section 30.2 ( page 616) .
Sponges (phylum Porifera) include the two most basal animal lineages.
Small Aristelliger lizards have difficulty defending territories, but large lizards are more likely to be preyed upon by owls. Which kind of selection acts on the adult body size of these lizards?
Stabilizing selection
Women often have complications during labor while giving birth to very large babies, whereas very small babies tend to be underdeveloped. Which kind of selection is most likely at work regarding the birth weight of babies?
Stabilizing selection
Genetic variation reduced (two)
Stabilizing, Directional
net reproductive rate: R0 equals
Sum of all ages * survivorship at age x * fecundity at age x
Label each target to indicate if the interaction between the molecules inside the rectangle contributes to surface tension (T), adhesion (A), or cohesion (C). Note that one target should be left blank because the molecules inside that rectangle are not involved in any of these interactions.
Surface tension most commonly occurs at air-water interfaces, where it resists breakage of the surface. Hydrogen bonds tend to pull water molecules at the surface together, reducing the curvature of the surface. Cohesion tends to keep water molecules that are away from surfaces from separating. Adhesion makes water stick to hydrophilic surfaces, such as cell walls. a. T, b. T, c. C d. N/A e. C f. A g. A
_ can occur when disruptive selection favors individuals that breed in different ecological niches and/or chose different mates
Sympatric speciation
Condition in which two or more populations live in the same geographic area, or close enough to permit interbreeding
Sympatry
A trait found in certain groups of organisms and their common ancestors but missing in distant ones
Synamorphy
homologous traits that can be identified at the genetic, developmental, or structural level
Synamorphy
Which of the following people is most likely to be against the new antibiotics legislation?
The CEO of the National Pork Producers Council.
which mammal must eat more to support each gram of its tissue: a Chihuahua or a Great Dane?
The Chihuahua must eat relatively more because it has a higher mass-specific metabolic rate than the Great Dane.
760 mm Hg when fraction of air that is O2 is 0.21, what is the partial pressure of oxygen?
The PO2 is 160 mm Hg.
Which of the following statements are true of a population at carrying capacity? The birth rate equals the death rate. The population continues to grow at a constant rate. The population growth rate equals zero. The rate at which resources are used is equal to the rate at which they are supplied.
The birth rate equals the death rate. The population growth rate equals zero. The rate at which resources are used is equal to the rate at which they are supplied.
How do autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy differ? See Section 24.3
The chromosomes of an autopolyploid individual come from the same species, while an allopolyploid individual has sets of chromosomes from different species.
Why was the evolution of a coelom a critically important innovation for animals? See Section 30.2 ( page 616) .
The coelom can act as a hydrostatic skeleton. A soft-bodied animal with a coelom acting as a hydrostatic skeleton can move effectively even if it lacks fins or limbs.
what are the o-h curves of tibetians?
The curves of Tibetans should be shifted to the left relative to the curves of people adapted to sea level—meaning that Tibetans' hemoglobin should have a higher affinity for oxygen at all partial pressures.
Which of the following prompted the passing of the new legislation regarding antibiotic use in livestock?
The decreasing effectiveness of antibiotics in humans.
what extinction event ended the dinosaurs 66 mya? what percentage of families went extinct?
The dinosaurs went extinct during the end-Cretaceous. About 15 percent of families went extinct.
Which statement about genetic drift is correct? See Section 23.4
The direction of evolutionary change due to genetic drift is random. Genetic drift is not driven by a directional effect but occurs as a magnification of chance effects due to small population size.
what cells are diploid, haploid and triploid after fertilization
The endosperm nucleus in the central cell is triploid; the zygote is diploid; the synergid and other cells remaining from the female gametophyte are haploid.
Which of the following best describes conservation triage? The idea that some species are worth more to their ecosystem than others The idea that you can't help all species survive, so you should prioritize which ones you help The idea that to save some species, you must kill others (like invasive species) The idea that we are currently in the sixth mass extinction
The idea that you can't help all species survive, so you should prioritize which ones you help
In a bell-shaped curve, the x-axis (horizontal direction) of the graph represents which of the following? In a bell-shaped curve, the x-axis (horizontal direction) of the graph represents which of the following?
The value of a particular characteristic; characteristics of an organism can include such traits as size and color.
Which zones of roots are actively pushed through soil?
The zones of cellular division and cellular elongation are actively pushed through soil. The zone of maturation remains in place (this is why root hairs can emerge here without being torn off as the root grows through soil).
Plato's Philosophy
Typological. Every organism was a perfect unchanging essence/type, created by god, differentiation in species were "trivial deviations"
what would happen if u stuck poison straight into a tracheid?
Unlike many other plant cells, tracheids (and vessel elements) perform their function after they die. The remaining secondary cell walls serve as conduits through which water flows, by a process that does not require ATP. Therefore, the poison will have no effect on water transport through the injected tracheids.
calculate r for a population of lizards with R0 = 1.0 and g = 3 years
Using Equation 51.5, r = (ln1)/3 = 0, which means that the population is neither growing nor declining.
population currently has 50 individuals and is expected to sustain an r of 0.048, predict the size of the population in 10 years
Using Equation 51.6, Nt = 50e(0.048)(10) = 81; the orchid population will grow to only about 81 individuals in 10 years
for 2 years, gamma = 1.2, about 225 now, predict the population size in 5 years
Using Equation 51.8, Nt = (225)(1.2)5 = 560; the squirrel population will reach about 560 individuals in 5 years.
Dont have ABA, what do they have?
Viviparity/ they grow off their mama
Which of the following statements about xylem transport is true?
Water and minerals move through the root cortex into the xylem and upward through the stem and into leaves.
Permia Mass Extinction
Water heated from volcano pollution, became anoxic, life in the ocean died, had to adapt to live in low-oxygen ocean and hot air
How is vascular cambium maintained?
When a vascular cambium cell divides, one cell differentiates and the other cell remains meristematic.
Tension
When pressure is negative. Draws liquid up through straw.
Meiosis happens once in plant reproduction. When is it?
When the sporangium produces spores.
An advantage of cross-pollination is that _____. See Section 38.3 ( page 800)
While both forms of pollination produce diverse offspring, the amount of diversity should be greater in cross-pollination because new genetic material is being introduced from the pollen parent.
why is AV waiting important?
Without the delay at the AV node, the ventricles would not have the chance to fully fill with blood from the atria. Consequently, the volume of blood ejected from the ventricles would decline.
phylogenetic tree
a branching diagram that describes ancestor-descendant relationships among species or other taxa
The diagram below illustrates the alternation of generations that is characteristic of the angiosperm life cycle. Label structures and processes (using white labels), indicate whether different structures are haploid or diploid (using pink labels), and indicate the types of cell division that occur at different points in the life cycle (using blue labels). Drag the labels to their appropriate locations on the diagram of the angiosperm life cycle. Labels can be used once or more than once. Use only white labels for white targets, pink labels for pink targets, and blue labels for blue targets.
a. meiosis b.haploid c.mitosis d.gametophyte e. pollination f.meiosis g.haploid h.mitosis i.gametophyte j.fertilization k. zygote l. diploid m. sporophyte
ANS for thing
a. prezygotic b. postsygotic c. behavioral isolation d. mechanical isolation e. temporal isolation f. gametic isolation g. reduced hybrid fertility h. two fish i. a coral's j. offspring k. lion-tiger
Nonvascular plants (informally called bryophytes) generally live very close to the ground, sprawling out rather than growing upward. This growth form is due to their thin body parts and lack of vascular structures that would support upward growth. Three phyla of bryophytes exist today: liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. Part A - Bryophyte structure Label the structures on this diagram of a moss. Drag the labels onto the diagram below. Not all labels will be used.
a. sporophyte b. seta c. sporangium d. foot e. gametophyte f. rhizoid
stability
ability to maintain productivity and other aspects of ecosystem function as conditions change over time; recover to former levels of productivity or species richness over a disturbance
determines range
abiotic and biotic factors
In a population of 1,000 elephants, how many individuals would survive for 50% of the species' maximum life span?
about 100
In Brazil, a research group that set up plots to study forest fragments of different sizes found that _____. See Section 54.2 ( page 1146) . fragments of all sizes responded to disturbance more efficiently than intact forests fragmented forests and intact forests cannot be differentiated aboveground biomass dropped sharply in fragmented forests intact forests lost biomass
aboveground biomass dropped sharply in fragmented forests
An epithelial cell with a relatively large amount of cytoplasm probably has what function?
absorption and secretion
salt adapted species
accumulate solutes in their root cells, to lower their solute potential. have enzymes to increase the concentration of organic molecules in the cytoplasm, to keep the water potential of their tissues lower than the salty soils in order to absorb whatever water is available.
meniscus
air-water interface where water is being pulled against gravity and gravity pushes towards the middle surface
Which of these removes carbon from the atmosphere?
algae
how do trachae work with movement in bugs?
alternately compressed and dilated as muscles contract and relax
porous cell wall movement but needs to go through the cytoplasm of the endodermal cell to move to the xylem
apoplastic
Look closely at the scale on the y-axis. What number would be represented by the point midway between the tick mark labeled 10 and the tick mark labeled 100?
approximately 32
A
are for gas exchange
often basolateral cells
are just concrete to the basal lamina and otherwise dont do much
feeding efficiency as means to metamorphosis
babies dont have to compete with adults for fod
dorsal-ventral axis formation
back-belly
emerging disease, predation, competition reduces populations
background extinction
Current Evolutions
bacterial drug resistance, weed herbicide resistance, pesticide resistance
cork cambium
bark
epidermal tissue produced by the apical meristem during primary growth _, which takes over the role of preventing pathogens and herbivores
bark
prevents water loss by producing a layer of wax, making them impermeable to water and gasses
bark
secondary phloem and cork cambium combined make
bark
secondary phloem makes up the inner part of a tree's
bark
tough barrier in species whose cork cells secrete a strong secondary cell wall containing lignin
bark
order of tree trunk
bark, vascular cambium, sapwood, heartwood
receptors for blood pressure change
baroreceptors
phylogenetic
based on evolutionary history
faces interior of animals and connects to connective tissues
basolateral side
look dangerous but arent
batesian
The Galapagos Islands were the first place on Earth to _____.
be declared a world heritage site
Tourism on the Galapagos Islands is being restricted by requiring tourists to _____.
be escorted by trained guides at all times
later organisms depend on water less, reproductively?
because pollen. they need wind, not water to carry their sperm cells.
live at the bottom of aquatic enviornments
bethic
most animals species are _. they have _ embryonic germ layers, and a coelom (tube-within a tube body)
bilateralians; three
the study of how species and populations are distributed geographically
biogeography
You can get mercury poisoning if you eat daily meals of tuna, a top predator. However, you can safely eat sardines, which are primary consumers, every day. What biological process explains this? See Section 53.1 ( page 1118) .
biomagnification
density-dependent factors that limits population size
biotic usually
Which of the following factors does not contribute to environmental resistance? environmental toxins competition for food weather conditions birth rate competition for space
birth rate
intrinsic rate of increase, rmax is
birth rates per individual are as high as possible and death rates per individual are as low as possible
closed circulatory system
blood is continuous circuit pressured by heart to flow. can be selective like crabs (open) and chose wear it needs to focus.
arteriole beginning of capillary
blood pressure high; fluid leaves to ducts
symmetric competition
both experience a similar decrease in fitness due to an overlap in their niches
sclerenchyma
both primary and secondary cell wall; 2nd is cellulose and lignin; primary cell wall expands and allows growth; 2nd is strong and supportive of stems; dead inside
when lower tropic level effects higher ones
bottom up
producers are tops or bottoms of tropic levels
bottoms
98.5% of oxygen goes where from breathing?
bound into the hemoglobin of RBCs
cerebral ganglion
brain
Cardiac muscle is the only muscle composed of _____ fibers.
branched
shells exoskeletons, endoskeletons, legs, heads, eyes, antennae, muscles, brains
cambrain explosion
ovary can or cant have more than one ovule?
can
capillary action
can draw water up the cell of the xylem
Is the following statement supported or not supported by the data shown in the graph? The maximum life span of Albertosaurus was about 100 years
cannot be determined from graph
exchange gasses between blood and tissue
capillaries
one cell thick
capillaries
enzyme that causes bohr shift
carbonic anhydrase
involuntary movements
cardiac and smooth
branched cells for involuntary movement
cardiac muscle
branching pattern of allows electrical signals to spread throughout all the cells of the (redacted), resulting in their coordinated contraction an relaxation
cardiac muscles
makes up the walls of the heart and responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.
cardiac muscles
feed on animals
carnivores
trachea
carries inhaled oxygen to narrow tubes called bronchi
types of pollinators
carrion, smell like flesh for carrion flies. Hummingbird flowers are red tubes with nectar at the base, bees are bright purple at day, hawk moths white at night
organisms decompose after they are buried hole that remains have dissolved materials
cast fossil
convergent evolution
causes homoplasty/ animals in same environment often make same adaptions when unrelated
animals lack _ but have an extensive _.
cell walls; ECM
gastrulation
cells move form the surface into the center of the embryo
meristems
cells that can always divide to make new parts of the plant, some remain meristem others differentiate
ctenophores are planktonic predators; largest animals to use _ for locomotions
cillia
internal gills need
cillia or specialized structures to bring water to it
(5s) the transport of dissolved O2 and CO2 throughout the body- along with nutrients, wastes, and other types of molecules- via the circulatory system.
circulation
mesoderm
circulatory system, muscle, bone, some organs.
aorta takes the _ blood from the _ and brings it to the _
clean, heart, body
red blood
clean/oxygenated
evolution of ovovivparous from ovipatry in what conditions?
cold when raising babies internally is unfavorable
Ground tissue contains _ cells, which provide structural support for growing regions
collenchyma
groups of individuals that are attached to one another
colonies
where is exponential growth common in nature:
colonization of a new habitat and recovery after a disaster
sexual disruption in species
coloration and courtship songs and mating fruit.
ctenophora
comb jellies
other first animal hypothesis
comb jellies may be the sister group to animals, but lack microRNAs which are in animals, but its ancestor coulda had it and passed it to other animals
In the blood most of the oxygen that will be used in cellular respiration is carried from the lungs to the body tissues _____.
combined with hemoglobin
one species benefits, the other is unaffected
commensalism
provides information about patterns of gene expression and change during development (homology or convergent evolution)
comparative development
lignin
complex polymer built from 6-carbon rings. strong for its weight, particularly effective in resisting compression like gravity, makes wood durable
epidermis
complex tissue
sediments accumulate on top of the organism, cementing into mudstone or shale develops thin carbonaceous fil
compression
both gradients are in the same direction (decreasing)
concurrent
large gradients disappear quickly
concurrent flow
direct heat transfer between two solids in direct contact with another
conduction
turtle sits on hot rock, rock heat goes to its body
conduction
can cause heat gain or loss
conduction, convection, radiation
don't maintain constant state (not e types)
conforming
Recent DNA sequence analyses suggest that land plants evolved from freshwater green algae from the _ algae family.
conjugating
Algae most similar to land plants?
conjugating algae (z), coleochates, and stoneworts
basal lamina
connect basolateral side to connective tissues
cells loosely arranged in a liquid, jellylike or solid matrix. the matrix composed of a distinct ECM secreted by the tissues
connective tissue
four main types of animal tissue types
connective, nervous, muscle, epithelial
under-soil modified stems
corms
protosome blastospore
could be mouth, anus, both, or neither
species richnesss
count of how many species are present in a given community
gills are counter or concurrent?
countercurrent
both gradients are in different directions one increasing one decreasing
countercurrent flow
small gradients are maintained
countercurrent flow
Cows eat grass. If you added up all the biomass of a population of cows and the biomass of all the grass that those cows eat over their lifetimes, which would be higher?
cow biomass < grass biomass. It would take about 100 kg of grass to produce every 10 kg of cow.
worse industry in land use, water use, and greenhouse emissions
cows
tube feet
crawl
parapodia
crawl and swim
tentacles
crawl or grab
hybrids survive and reproduce and also have a combination of more adaptive traits than their parents
creation of a new species
how is projections for biodiversity made?
cross-check projections and validate with empirical data from real world
some planktonic and predatory, some live on ocean floor tho, coloblasts trap prey
ctenophora
how is nitrogen cycle affected by humans?
cultivating crops with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, industrially producing fertilizers which makes that bacteria less needed, and burning fossil fuels which have nitric oxide
extant species
currently existing
The evolution of the _ allowed plant tissues to be exposed to air without dying.
cuticle
plant's epidermis components
cuticle, roots hairs, etc.
apical cell produces _ that divide _ and _ to the apical-basal axis to make the _
daughter cells; perpendicular; parallel; globular stage embryo
Detritus is composed of _____.
dead organic matter and excreted wastes
extinct species
dead species
effect of eutropification, when algae are killed and decoposed by microbes
dead zones, where there is no oxygen production in water
trachieds and vessel elements are (d or A) _ at maturity, and _ secondary cell walls
dead; have
growth rate begins to _ when N increases
decline
R0 less than 1
declining
(In logistic growth) as N increases, K _
decreases
synapomorphies
define body plan of each animal lineage
primary cell wall
defines shape
must be intraspecific
density-dependent factors
dead or alive food chains more favorable?
depend on season, temperature, light levels, species interactions but its mostly much more npp with live food
competition for resources (d-dep or d-indep)
dependent
disease and parasitism (d-dep or d-indep)
dependent
predation (d-dep or d-indep)
dependent
social behavior (d-dep or d-indep)
dependent
toxic wastes like ammonia, alchol, carbon dioxide, and uric acid (d-dep or d-indep)
dependent
tend to digest organic matter in sediments and live in sand or mud; tend to look like worms with a simple mouth
deposit feeder
ingest organic material that has been deposited within a substrate or on its surface
deposit feeders
fruit
derived from the ovary, encloses seeds
stomatas are _ tissue
dermal
protoderm
dermal tissue
nylon polyester
dervied from petroleum, not plant
dead organic matter
detritivores
dead stuff
detritus
anus before mouth
deuterostomes
vena cava take _ blood from the _ and brings it to the _
dirty, body, heart (indirectly lungs)
habitat fragmentation
dividing contiguous habitats into small, isolated fragments (road, pipes etc can limit dispersal)
sporophyte in nonvasculars
does not depend on for nutrients; prefers gametophyte
artificial selection in plants
domesticated plants to be worth more
gametophytes in nonvascular plants
dominant
sporophyte in angiosperms
dominant and provides nourishment and protection from desiccation, uv radiation and predators
Which of these is unique to flowering plants?
double fertilization
Which of these organisms has a survivorship curve similar to that of humans?
elephants
transition from simple water-conducting cells to first vascular tissue
elongated cells with little support at first (primary cellulose cell wall), to some structural support with rings of lignin
What do seeds contain?
embryo and nutritive tissue
All land plants are _, meaning the eggs and embryos are retained on the parent plant. Consequently, the developing embryo can be nourished by the mother plant
embryophytes
individuals leaving a population
emigration
flowers in angiosperm
enable pollination and fertilization w/o water, protect ovary
High SO2 levels caused acid rain, molten rock caused CO2 and heat, coal fires pumped toxic ash like mercury into the air, anoxic oceans, sea level drop
end-permian
mother of mass extinctions
end-permian
_'s high BMR means they need high energy food and have _ energy for reproduction and growth
endo; less
generates digestive structures
endoderm
gives rise to lining of the digestive tract and organs that connect to it
endoderm
live inside hosts and usually have simple wormy bodies
endoparasite
type ii surviorship
equal chance of dying throughout all their life
Gene Flow tends to _ allele frequencies among populations.
equalize
derive support from rigid structures on the outside of the body
exoskeleton
invasive species
exotic species that disrupts natives
phylogenetically isolated species
exp. red panda, couldn't mate with anything else but beetles could do whatever because there is 360,000 species of them, the lineage could easily be lost forever.
bioprospecting
exploration of bacteria animals plants etc as novel sources of drugs
deltaN / deltat = (birth rate per individual - death rate per individual ) * number of individuals
exponential growth equation
why do epithelial cells die so easy?
exposed to harsh environment
indivisual splits into 2 or more descendants
fission
fertilization in nonvasculars
flagellated sperm swim to egg through water
3 effective ways to increase surface area:volume ratio.
flattening, folding, branching.
how do land plants avoid UV light?
flavonoids, plant pigments function as a sunscreen for leaves and stems, we use similar in sunscreen.
how can pollination lead to speciation
flies and bees like different flowers, so they likely wont pollinate the same kind, and the flowers will evolve to be the most fit flower for their animal to land on, further diversifying themselves.
pollination syndromes
flower characteristics associated with certain pollinators
direct evidence of what animals looked like with regard to abundance
fossils
endemic species
found in that particular area and nowhere else
non-cooperative binding definition
four subunits release independentily and gain and lose oxygen in direct proportion to PO2 of oxygen in blood, an only a small response to PO2 changes.
parasitoid
free living as an adult but endoparasitic as a larva (fatal)
when a baby is birthed where does it pass?
from the uterus to the cervix (its guard) to the vag then out.
Which of these statements is true about the gametophyte tissue that surrounds the pine embryo?
functions as haploid food reserve
3 step, general alt generations
gametophytes produce gametes by mitosis. both the gametophyte and the gametes are haploid. gmtophy-multicellular, gametes, unicelllular
pits
gaps in secondary cell wall where only primary cell wall is present
If _ occurs, populations that have diverged may fuse into a single species
gene flow
sponges lack nerve cells and symmetry but have
genes needed to develop working nerves
apical cell
gives rise to almost the entire embryo
The _ tissue system preforms photosynthesis and stores carbohydrtes and other compounds.
ground
ground meristem
ground tissue
cortex
ground tissue that stores carbohydrates
pith
ground tissue towards the center of the stem
cohort
group of same age that can be followed through time
age class
groups of individuals of a specific age exp. all females 4-5 yo
corolla
groups of petals
limp/flaccid stomata
guard cells lost water; closed; often at night
example of root pressure
guttation
naked seed plant
gymnosperms
among seed plants, there was a divergence in seed development
gymnosperms are monophyletic, angiosperms are monophyletic
the seed evolved once
gymnosperms plus angiosperms are monophyletic
mammals RBCs lose their nuclei with maturity so RBCs are basically bags filled with oxygen-carrying _
hemoglobbin
buffer in blood. why?
hemoglobin. takes up H+ so its not in the plasma lowering the pH
type iii surviorship
high death for larvae or seeds but higher survival in later life
many offspring small offspring small body early maturity low resistance to disease and predators short life span
high fecundity and low surviorship
hybrid offspring do not develop normally and die as embryos
hybrid viability
postzygotic isolation ex
hybrid viability, hybrid sterility
Area where interbreeding occurs and hybrid offspring are common
hybrid zone
hybridization occurs in an well-defined geographic area/
hybrid zone
In some cases, _ between species can result in new species with unique combinations of tratis
hybridization
derive support from a flexible body wall in tension surrounding a fluid or soft tissue under comprehension. mostly in soft-bodies organisms.
hydrostatic skeletons
s/d over 140/90
hypertension
hypotonic solution
hypertonic cell, so the NET movement would be into the cell to reduce the concentration
climax community
ideal, stable community that does not change over time
asexual efficiency
if herbivore/disease wipes out surrounding plants, grass will send out rhizomes to fill the unoccupied space before seeds can compete and nourish them as they establish.
boyles law:
if the volume occupied by a fixed amount of gas increases, the gas pressure decreases. if the volume declines, the gas pressure increases.
Populations grow due to births and _____. See Section 51.2 ( page 1073) .
immigration
when muscles relax, bug's tracheal volume _; system pressure _ and air _.
increases; decreases; enters
R0 greater than 1
increasing
net reproductive rate
indicate whether the population is increasing or decreasing as long as immigration and emigration are insignificant
intermediate growth
individual increases in overall body size throughout its life (puppy turns to clifford)
alternation of generations
individuals exist in either a multicell haploid or diploid phase.
what defense declines in a prey species when consumers leave the habitat and focuses where predation is higher due to energetic cost
induced defenses
what defense is nicotine, cocaine, cyadine?
inducible
fitness trade-offs
inescapable compromise between two traits that cannot be optimized simultaneously (flashy to get mates or able to hide from predators) (a car large or fuel efficient)
annelids
invertebrate like worms
anthropods
invertebrates like insects, spiders and crustaceans
species richness
is a count of how many species are present in a defined area
species diversity
is a weighted measure that incorporates both species richness ad evenness, the relative abundance of each species present
The biological species concept uses reproductive _ as a criterion to identify species.
isolation
why should plants need large surface area:volume ratio?
its more efficient in absorption and synthesis when it has a larger surface for these actions to occur
cnidaria
jellyfish, coral, anemones, hydra
trichome abilities
keep leaf surface cool by reflecting sunlight, reduces transpiration, stores toxic compound to thwart herbivores, or trap and ingest insects
early land plants were (height)
lacking rigidity, small and low growth, but needed to grow upwards to compete for space and light
A _ is an appendage that project from the steam laterally. Photosynthetic organs.
leaf
petiole
leaf stick thing u hold
sepals
leaflike organ that encloses a bud, and is the outermost portion after blooming
petals
leaflike organs around reproductive organs of a flower
blade
leafy leaf
phenotypic plasticity in leaves
leaves in sun are smaller than leaves in shade, shade leaves need to be big to catch the sun and dont have to worry about transpiration
bronchioles
little bronchi that enclose both of these structures branches.
trichomes
little hairs to shield deep pits of hidden stomata from the atmosphere/ slow loss of water vapor by creating a layer of still air surrounding the stomata
epithelial cells (prognosis)
live 2-6 days
muscle cells and neurons (prognosis)
live as long as you do
juveniles
look like adults and live in same habitats and eat same food but are sexually immature
rmax of a species that take years to mature and produce few offspring each year
low
few offspring large offspring late maturity large size high disease resistance high predator resistance long life span
low fecundity high survivorhip
take chunks of food into mouths
mass feeders
callus
mass of undifferentiated cells that can generate roots and other tissues necessary to create a mature plant/ identical clones by cutting
Growing season source
mature leaves and stems that produce sugar in excess of their needs
integrated pest management
maximize productivity while using minimum harmful compounds
anther
microsporangia develop, and meiosis occurs to form microspores, which divide by mitosis to make pollen
gymnosperm heterospory difference
microsporangia make (n) pollen grains with male gametes inside, (n) megasporangia is contained in (2n) cone, fertilize to make (2n) zygote, embryo makes seed, which germinates into (2n) sporophyte.
microsporocytes do meiosis to create which divide by _ to create _
microspores, the male gametophyte, which divide by mitosis to make an immature gametophyte- a pollen grain.
can restore extinct populations
migration
eudicots
most plants once considered dicots
how are these algae most similar to land plants?
mostly multicellular, live in freshwater (which is where land plants evolved), Z is the closest.
water comes in through the _ and out through the _
mouth; gills.
passive diffusion in phloem un/loading
move through plasmodesmata
keystone species
much greater impact on the distribution an abundance of the surrounding species than its abundance and total biomass would suggest
often apical sides preform
mucus secretion
look dangerous and are
mullerian
polyspermy
multiple fertilization
how do you calculate the partial pressure of a particular gas?
multiply the atmospheric pressure at a given level by the fraction of air that is O2.
key innovations in the evolution of animals that don't appear in other lineages
muscle and nervous tissue
change shape of body by contracting
muscle cells
does gas exchange happen during exhalation in non-birds?
no
do plants absorb all the light the sun emits?
no only about 0.8%
pollen in nonvasculars
no pollen
did evolution stop with any lineages?
no, even though sponges and other ancient animals are old they never stopped evolving natural selection doesn't cease they've just been fit for many years.
companion cells
not conducting cells but help maintain the cytoplasm and plasma membrane of sieve-tube elements by plasmodesmata
Surface tension in stems
not present
surface tension in roots
not present
vertical diversity
number of tropic levels
endangered species
numbers have decreased so drastically that it is almost certain to extinct unless effective conservation programs are put in place
perforations
opening in the end of walls without any (1 or 2) walls
Adhesion in leaves
opposes gravity
adhesion in stems
opposes gravity
cultural services
outdoors ppl have less obesity diabetes stress and more problem-solving skills, creativity, sleep, curiosity and vision
choanoflaggates
outgroup of sponges
What is the dominant conservation problem faced by marine species? See Section 54.2 ( page 1146) . Pollution Invasive species (introduced competitors, diseases, or predators) Habitat destruction Overexploitation
overexploitation
What is the usual site of the fertilization of an egg cell?
oviduct
species deposit fertilized eggs; embyos nourished by yolk
oviparous (birds)
species retain eggs internally and give live birth
ovoviviparous
higher affinity for oxygen, and carbon dioxide_ in environment or tissues
oxygen in tissues, carbon dioxide for environment
compared with water, air contains much more _ and is much less _ and viscous.
oxygen; dense
responsible for origin of oxygen-rich atmosphere
oxygenic photoshynthesis in cyanobacteria
how do fishies without eyes know when to nut into the water?
pheromones
primary forest or reforested areas have better biodiversity
primary deep evolutionary history and complex ecological interactions
formed in embryo
primary oocytes
induced defenses are
produced in response to attack
cohesion-tension
pulls water up from roots by transpiration
(pulm) carries dirty blood to lungs
pulm artery
(pulm) carries clean blood to heart from lungs
pulm veins
actively remaining in homeostasis with a set point (not e types)
regulation
Secondary contact can lead to _ (the evolution of mechanisms that prevent hybridization)
reinforcement
hybrids have low fitness and dont belong well in either environment
reinforcement
natural selection that prevents interbreeding among populations is called
reinforcement
hybrid offspring have low fitness, natural selection favors evolution of traits that prevent them from interbreeding
reinforcement of divergence
morphological
relies on similarities in structure
fossil fuel origin
remains of plants and animals 359-299 mya subjected to intense pressure
biological species concept
reproductive isolation
(4 things) dead at maturity
sclerenchyma cells, traceids, vessel elements, cork cells
produced toward the outside
secondary phloem
Wood consists of
secondary xylem
produced towards the inside
secondary xylem
an embryo and a store of nutritive tissue, surrounded by a tough protective layer
seed
In flowering plants the integuments of the ovule develop into a(n) ____
seed coat
Fruit is most important in facilitating _____. See Section 28.3 ( page 569)
seed dispersal
_ are dispersed from the parent plant to a new location, encased in a protective housing, and supplied with a store of nutrients.
seed plant embryos
Have vascular tissue, and produce seeds
seed plants
produce seeds and pollen grains
seed plants
rely on spores for dispersal, but have vascular tissue
seedless vascular plants
phloem structure
seive tube elements, seive plates, companion cells
molecular matching
self-incompatible
informs the integrator of deviation
sensor
symbiotic fungi period
silurian-devonian, channeled nutrients from soil into plants, plants made sugars and other products useful to fungi
homoplasty
similar trait in unrelated species (bats and bugs)
Structural homology
similarities in adult organismal structures (limbs, shells, flowers) that re due to inheretence from a common ancestor
Developmental homology
similarity in embryonic form or developmental processes that is due to inheritance from a common ancestor
tapered at each end, lines walls of the digestive tract and the blood vessels
smooth muscles
why does vascular tissue run so close to the cells that make up ground tissue?
so the cells conducting water are close to the water and nutrients they need
Water moves by osmosis from xylem into sieve-tube elements near _ and cycles back to xylem near _.
sources; sinks
2 step, general alt generations
spores germinate and divide by mitosis to develop into multicellular, haploid gametophytes
male gametophytes are produced by _ in angiosperm
stamen, specifically anthers.
According to the graph, which modern animal has a relatively constant mortality rate throughout its life span?
starling
operculum
stiff slap that covers the gills. pumps with the mouth whenever they need
sticky pollen receiver
stigma
cotyledon (sead-leaf)
stores nutrients and supplies them to a developing embryonic plant.
how are small populations more likely to die than others in hab fragmentation
storms, fires can completely kill small ones; and imbreding depression with few mates available
What type of epithelium would you expect to find covering a surface subject to physical forces?
stratified epithelium
wildlife corridors
strips of undeveloped habitat that connect are preserved like a walkway under or over a highway so animals can move sides without being road kill
must tolerte extreme abiotic factors, high reproductive rate, low survivorship, short life span, ,rapid growth, high rmax
succession early
FIRM bone and cartilage are connective tissues that provide structural support for the vertebrate as well as protective enclosures for the brain and other components of the nervous system
support connective tissue
against a concentration gradient, one of them is hitchhiking along one's proper gradient. end up on the same side.
symport
parenchyma function
synthesis and storage of sugars and other compounds
contraction (s or d)
systole
C4
take CO2 and fix it, store it in bundle-sheath cells, when the calvin cycle operates. so it never really fully opens its stomata
pulm circuit function
take dirty blood from body to lungs
closed/contained aquifer
take thousands of years to recharge, covered in nonporous rock
why do people not support barcoding to replace taxonomy
the sequences of one gene may not accurately represent the genetic variation at a species level- and can lead to ambiguous or incorrect results; so it is used in combination depending on the circumstances
1 step, general alt generations
the sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis
2 key notes about concurrency
the start of the systems will have a large gap, and end the same number (start 0 and 100, end 50) then diffusion will stop in both blood and water.
Radioactive decay
the steady state at which unstable "parent" atoms are converted into stable "daughter " atoms assigns absolute ages. it functions s a natural clock.
decreases transpirational pull
thicker film or water on surface of mesophyll cells, higher relative humidity in air around leaf, lower rate of water evaporation from surface of mesophyll cells, less curvature of water surface on mesophyll cell walls
parenchyma cells
thin primary cell walls and most common and versatile; simple tissue; mostly what we eat; storage granules and photosynthesis in leaves; totipotent
disadvantage of skin diffusion
thin skin prone to water loss and too dependent on wet or humid environments
food chain
this eats this which eats this
Where in the body would you be most likely to find secretory cells shaped like dice?
thyroid and salivary glands
groups of cells that function as a unit
tissue
signals traveling from cell to cell
tissue level
Sexual dimorphism
trait that differs by gender
Synamorphy IMG
trait unique to a monophyletic group
sessile or sedentary capture
transects and quadrants
pollintion
transfer from anther to stigma
pollen in angiosperm
transferred from anthers to stigma
movement of sugars by bulk flow in multiple directions throughout a plant- from sources to sinks specifically
translocation
aquaporin and water channels
transmembrane
Cohesion in leaves
transmits pull
cohesion in roots
transmits pull
cohesion in stems
transmits pull
t or f once carbon enters a plant it can.... become part of the plant cell walls, protein and fat
true
enclosed body cavity; coelom lined completely with with mesoderm
true coelomate
t or f once carbon enters a plant it can.... exit the plant as CO2
true, plants have cellular respiration
True or false? Organisms must maintain homeostasis because optimal enzyme activity is achieved within a very narrow range of conditions.
true. Enzyme activity depends on conditions within a cell, such as temperature and pH, which must be kept within a certain narrow range.
underground swollen rhizomes that function as carb-storage organs (potato eyes)
tubers
where is productivity highest and lowest on land?
tundras and deserts are the lowest and tropics are the highest
heterosperms
two different types of spores, into individually gendered mature gametophytes
4 step, general alt generations
two gametes unite and fertilize to form a diploid zygote
competitive exclusion principal
two species cant coexist in the same ecological niche in the same area bcs one will out-compete the other
coeveolution
two species influence each other's adaptions over time
out of phloem and into sinks
unloading
species-area relationship
used to estimate rates of extinction by tracing backwards on the curve to determine species richness if its area were to decline due to habitat destruction or climate change
DNA bar-coding
uses well-characterized gene sequences to distinguish species. the theory is that the variation between one gene in higher in different species than within species =, and compare tissue samples to the reference library of known sequences
procambium
vascular tissue
thick-walled chamber
ventricle
Darwin's postulates condensed
(1) heritable variation leads to (2) differential reproductive success
clements and gleason
(clement) will reconstruct itself in the same spot repeaabley, (gleason) community are neither stable nor predictable and its random if species recover in the same place (but this belittles biotic factors)
Natural Selection
- a result of differential success in reproduction -cannot cause a harmful allele to become more common -consistently causes a population to become better adapted to its environment
Biogeochemical cycles The carbon cycle is one of many biogeochemical cycles on Earth. Can you identify the main features of a biogeochemical cycle and show how the carbon cycle exhibits these features? Drag the terms on the left to the appropriate blanks on the right to complete the sentences. Not all terms will be used.
1. In a biogeochemical cycle, a chemical element spends time in different places, called reservoirs. 2. As a chemical element moves through a biogeochemical cycle, it moves between "bio" and "geo." The "bio" in biogeochemical refers to biotic reservoirs, or living organisms. 3. The "geo" in biogeochemical refers to Earth--specifically, to the abiotic reservoirs where a chemical element can be found. 4. In the terrestrial carbon cycle, the abiotic reservoir from which living organisms directly obtain their carbon is the atmosphere. 5. Carbon moves from an abiotic reservoir to living organisms during the process of photosynthesis. 6. Carbon moves from living organisms to an abiotic reservoir during the process of cellular respiration.
Many aspects of the angiosperm life cycle make flowering plants particularly well-suited to life on land. In fact, angiosperms are the most diverse and widespread of all plants. Which six of the following statements reflect angiosperm adaptations to life on land?
1. In many angiosperms, the male gametophyte contained in a pollen grain can be transported many miles away by wind or animal pollinators. 2. Fruits aid in the dispersal of seeds by wind or by animals that carry or eat the fruits. 3.Floral parts of the sporophyte protect the reduced female gametophyte from drying out and from UV radiation. 4. Seeds enable plant embryos to be dispersed long distances from the parent plant via wind or animals. 5. Seeds protect and nourish plant embryos, and fruits protect the seeds. 6. Flowers attract animal pollinators carrying pollen from other plants of the same species
Hardy Wienburg Requirements:
1. Infinite population 2. Nonrandom mating/No selection 3. No gene Flow 4. No genetic drift 5. No Mutation
Life cycle of mosses (5 steps)
1. Mature sporophytes produce haploid spores, dispersed by the wind. 2. Separate spores develop into female and male gametophytes 3. Haploid eggs form in archegonia, and haploid sperm form in antheridia 4. Haploid gametes undergo fertilization, forming a diploid zygote. 5. The diploid zygote develops into a sporophyte.
Why was evolution revolutionary?
1. Overturned static species theory 2. Replaced typological thinking w Population thinking 3. It was scientifically based and testable
Use the diagram to determine what flower structures develop under the conditions described below.
1. Sepals develop where only A genes are active. 2. Petals develop where A and B genes are active. 3. Stamens develop where B and C genes are active. 4. Carpels develop where only C genes are active.
3 responses to low BP
1. increase in SV and 2. heart rate, 3. prioritize blood by constricting veins and arterioles
what 4 ways are nutrients replaced
1. ions when rocks are weathered 2. arrive in streams or blown in 3. carbon is added when producers fix carbon via photosynthesis 4. nitrogen added when bacteria convert N2 to usable Nitrogen in ammonium or nitrate ions
4 main questions of biogeochemical cycles
1. nature & size of reservoirs? 2. how fast do they move inbetween and what process move them? 3. how do humans affect the movement? 4. how do biogeochemical cycles cross?
carbon cycles 4 awnsers
1. the reservoir is the biomass of living organisms, sediments and soils and buried fossil fuels 2.the global photosynthetic rate 3. when fossil fuels are burned, the carbon buried in oil/coal is moved in the air as CO2 4. scientists are trying to research how the nitrogen cycle affects the carbon cycle
4 key attributes of community structure
1. total number of species 2. the sum of interactions among all species 3. the relative abundance of those species; 4. the physical attributes of the community (biotic and abiotic factors)
Darwin's four postulates
1. variation in traits 2. traits are heritable 3. variable fitness 4. fitness is not random theres an explanation (ie this kind hides better, so it lives better)
what percentage of the air is oxygen?
21%
Humans are diploid and have 46 chromosomes. How many chromosomes are found in each human gamete?
23. (46/2 is 23)
how much of total npp is taken by humns? what is that used for?
24%. 53% of this is timber or food, 40% is parking lots or development; 7% is destroyed from human-fires
how many land plants make medicine?
25% of prescriptions include at least one molecule dervied form plants
Gymnosperm diversification
299 to 145 mya. junipers, pines, firs, etc. grow readily in dry habitats, so first time blankets of green plants on continents
How can autopolyploidy result in sterility
2n haploids cant bread with 1n haploids. when they fertilize they combine to make 3n offspring organisms (sterile)
When did life begin?
3.8 millions years
to extract a given amount of oxygen an aquatic animal has to process _ times more water than the amount of air a terrestrial animal breathes and expend much more energy
30
s= 18.9 x A^0.15, if the km2 went from 10,000 to 1,000, for one species of this bird; what percentage of all species would disappear on the island
30% species would vanish. species from 75 to 53.
animals have _ phyla and _ million species.
30-35; 3
carboniferous period
359-299 mya. coal, branches, leaves, tree trunks. (forested swaps bcs of coal), large species of trees and seedless vascular ancestors to ferns and mosses
endosperm
3n nutritive tissue that results from double fertilization
A particular diploid plant species has 48 chromosomes, or two sets. A mutation occurs and gametes with 48 chromosomes are produced. If self-fertilization occurs, the zygote will have _____ set(s) of chromosomes.
4. If self-fertilization occurs, and two gametes (each having 48 chromosomes) unite, the zygote will have 96 chromosomes (or 4 sets).
How old is earth?
4.6 billion years
silurian-devonian explosion
416-359 mya. water-conducting tissues, roots, all adaptions allowed plants to occupy dry terrestrial habitats.
about how much energy of gpp goes to npp?
45%; 55% is for cellular respiration and heat
what percent in a million years is a mass extinction?
60% in 1 my
Where are the Galapagos Islands located?
600 miles west of Ecuador, near the equator
first sponge/animal presence
635 mya
first green/ land plants in fossil record
700-725 mya, 475 mya
7 billion ith an increase of _ million people a year
80
finches selection drought
84% dissapeared during the drought bcs low food supply, 38 dead birds found, none of the missing ones were found on nearby islands . 90/751 lived, and the characteristics of the population changed and deeper beaks lived better because tough fruits survived the drought. evolution occurred within one generation of measurable change in heritable characteristics of a population
What is an example of a stochastic event? See Section 54.2 ( page 1146) . A severe storm Deforestation Changing seasons A population explosion
A severe storm (it means random)
Which term describes an area where sugars are used or stored?
A sink is an area where sugars are used or stored; typically, these are the roots and fruits of a plant.
How did thorns originate in roses? See Section 22.5
A spontaneous mutation resulted in thorns and increased this rose's resistance to herbivory, so it was selected by natural selection to become dominant in the population.
why is the PO2 and PCP2 in exhaled air intermediate between inhaled and alveolar air?
Air from the alveoli mixes with air in the dead space in the bronchi and trachea on its way out of the body. This dead-space air is from the previous inhalation (PO2 = 160 mm Hg; PCO2 = 0.3 mm Hg), so when the alveolar air mixes with it, the partial pressures in the exhaled air reach levels intermediate between those of inhaled and alveolar air.
The reference map does not indicate the source of energy and nutrients for decomposers. What would be an appropriate linker to add to the map to make it more complete?
All trophic levels pass energy and nutrients to decomposers.
Many of the linkers in the map say "pass SOME energy and nutrients to." Where did the rest of the energy go? Select the most appropriate linker to make the map more complete.
All trophic levels release some energy as heat.
Hamilton's rule/ Why is it favored by natural selection
Altruistic behavior is likelier when the fitness benefits are high for the recipient, the recipient is close relatives to the giver, and the fitness costs are low to the altruist/ Closer relatives will have these altruist genes and it continues on for the better of the group
"Meristems are perpetually embryonic"
As long as a meristem exists, it has the potential to divide and produce new cells, tissues, and organs
What might be a consequence of global warming for fishes living in a pond? See Section 42.2 ( page 876) .
As the planets warms, aquatic habitats such as a pond will contain less dissolved oxygen, reducing the ability of fishes to acquire oxygen for their respiratory needs.
Which of the following statements are true of logistic growth? As the population approaches carrying capacity, it grows more slowly. The population grows at a steady rate. When the population reaches carrying capacity, it stops growing. As the population approaches carrying capacity, it grows more rapidly.
As the population approaches carrying capacity, it grows more slowly. When the population reaches carrying capacity, it stops growing.
Rhizomes and corms are parts of some plants that are involved in which form of reproduction? See Section 38.1 ( page 795) .
Asexual reproduction. Rhizomes and corms are ways to start a new individual without sex.
explain how u can measure the biodiversity in the rain forests of borneo at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels
At the genetic level, you could measure the genetic diversity of the orangutan population by comparing DNA sequences obtained from blood or feces samples. Alternately, you could use environmental sequencing to look at the genetic diversity of soil organisms. At the species level, you could monitor the species richness of trees, birds, mammals, and other groups, and identify any changes in species richness. At the ecosystem level, you could measure the ability of the growing forest to retain nutrients in the soil, prevent erosion, trap carbon, increase the prevalence of cloud cover and rain, and other functions.
Why don't deleterious mutations drop fitness?
Beneficial mutations cause upward leaps in fitness because natural selection favors individuals with the mutation, rapidly increasing the frequency of the mutation in the population. Deleterious mutations do not cause steep downward drops in average fitness in a population, because few individuals ever pass on the deleterious mutation due to their lower reproductive success (purifying selection tends to eliminate these alleles).
Describe the disadvantages of the biological species, morphospecies, and phylogenetic species concepts
Biological species concept: It cannot be used to evaluate fossils, species that reproduce asexually, or species that do not occur in the same area and therefore never have the opportunity to mate. Morphospecies concept: It cannot identify species that differ in traits other than morphology and is subjective—it can lead to differences of opinion that cannot be resolved by data. Phylogenetic species concept: Reliable phylogenetic information exists only for a small number of organisms.
Explain how the criteria invoked by the biological species, morphospecies, and phylogenetic species concepts can be used to identify evolutionary independent groups
Biological species concept: Reproductive isolation means that no gene flow is occurring. Morphological species concept: If populations are evolving independently, they may have evolved morphological differences. Phylogenetic species concept: If populations are evolving independently, they should have synapomorphies that identify them as independent branches on the tree of life.
compare and contrast the female gametophyte with a male gametophyte
Both are multicellular individuals that produce gametes by mitosis. The female gametophyte is larger than the male gametophyte and produces an egg; the male gametophyte produces sperm.
A student has drawn a model to represent the effects of an insecticide on flowering plant communities. Interpret his model.
Both communities have 12 species. False Both communities have the same species richness. True Community 2 has higher evenness because the letters are organized in rows. False You can tell that Community 1 has higher species diversity because of the lack of pattern in the letters in the model. False Community 2 has higher species diversity because it has the same species richness as Community 1 but higher evenness. True
bleh. 2
Both curves show exponential growth. True The slope of the lines at 90 days is determined by rN in both cases. True If r2 = 0.02, then r1 > 0.02. True The value of r increases over time in both cases. False Ninety days after the introduction of 10 aphids, there would be more aphids in the population with r1 than in the population with r2. True
Lamarck's Philosophy
Claimed simple organisms originate at the base of (Plato's linear) scale by spontaneous generation, and became more complex species every generation
Which type of selection tends to increase genetic variation?
Disruptive selection eliminates phenotypes near the average and favors the extreme phenotypes, resulting in increased genetic variation in a population.
_ favors extreme phenotypes and thus maintains genetic variation in populations. Disruptive selection sometimes leads to the _ of new species.
Disruptive selection; formation
Double fertilization is a component of the angiosperm life cycle and produces _____. See Section 38.3 ( page 800) .
Double fertilization produces a diploid zygote and a triploid endosperm.
_ between different species can lead to the formation of hybrid zones that over time are more stable
Gene Flow
Workers from a nearby greenhouse accidentally introduce white flower seeds into this population's habitat
Gene Flow, frequency of white allele increases
Surface tension in leaves
Generates pull
A lot of the population dies randomly and the survivor's allele frequencies determine the proceeding generation's
Genetic Bottleneck
A random fluctuation in Gene Frequency
Genetic Drift
Random with respect to fitness, usually reducing
Genetic Drift
Reduces genetic variation via loss or fixation of alleles
Genetic Drift
Tends to decrease genetic Diversity over time, as alleles are randomly lost or fixed in a population
Genetic Drift
_____ cells are the cells that regulate the opening and closing of stomata, thus playing a role in regulating transpiration.
Guard
Symport and H+ATPase
H+ATPase transfers H+ outside, against its gradient with ATP. An H+ from the outside is moved inside (towards its actual gradient) to allow sucrose inside as well, even though its against sucroses' gradient.
Shoot system specialization
HARVESTING LIGHT AND CARBON DIXOIDE
The _ hypothesis can serve as a _ hypothesis in evolutionary studies because it predicts what genotype and allele frequencies are expected if mating is random with respect to the gene in question and if none of the four evolutionary processes is operating on that gene.
Hardy-Weinberg; null
Both root system and shoot system in plants are involved in shared functions as well as distinct functions. Which of the following defines a function common to both roots and shoots? See Section 34.1 ( page 706) .
Harvesting resources from the environment. Shoots harvest CO2; roots harvest water and minerals.
explain why high biodiversity in rain forests leads to high productivity, in terms of efficiency of resource use, when compared to oil palm plantations
If many species are present, and each uses the available resources in a unique way, then a larger proportion of all available resources should be used—leading to higher biomass production.
If the lowest trophic level of an ecosystem--the primary producers--contains 1,200 grams of biomass per square meter, it is reasonable to expect the secondary consumer level to contain about 12 grams of biomass per square meter. Energy contained in feces is available to higher trophic levels. Animals that produce their own body heat and maintain a high body temperature are likely to be less efficient at converting food into biomass than are animals that do not regulate their body temperature. Energy spent on cellular respiration is available to higher trophic levels. Autotrophs typically capture about 90% of the available energy from the sun through photosynthesis. In a trophic pyramid, biomass represents chemical energy. Energy used in the production of offspring is available to higher trophic levels.
If the lowest trophic level of an ecosystem--the primary producers--contains 1,200 grams of biomass per square meter, it is reasonable to expect the secondary consumer level to contain about 12 grams of biomass per square meter.Animals that produce their own body heat and maintain a high body temperature are likely to be less efficient at converting food into biomass than are animals that do not regulate their body temperature.In a trophic pyramid, biomass represents chemical energy. Energy used in the production of offspring is available to higher trophic levels.
why groups called green algae, nonvascular plants, and seedless plants are paraphyletic?
If you find the common ancestor of all the green plants (at the base of the Ulvophyceae), the lineages that are collectively called green algae don't include that common ancestor and all of its descendants—only some of its descendants. The same is true for nonvascular plants (the common ancestor here is at the base of the Hepaticophyta) and seedless vascular plants (the common ancestor here is at the base of the Lycophyta).
Animal tissues develop from embryonic germ layers. Triploblastic animals have three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) and three basic body plans related to body cavities (acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and coelomate). Select the three statements that are true.
In a coelomate, the tissue lining the inner side of the body cavity arises from the same germ layer as the tissue lining the outer side of the body cavity. A diploblast has no mesoderm. A pseudocoelom has the same functions as a true coelom.
Does the female gametophyte leave their parent?
In angiosperms, the female gametophyte stays within the ovary at the base of the flower even after it matures and produces an egg cell. Fertilization and seed development take place in the same location
The conspicuous part of a fern plant is a _____.
In ferns, while the gametophyte generation is independent, the (diploid sporophyte) is much larger.
Which pituitary secretion stimulates sperm production?
In males, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates sperm production.
To minimize water loss during dry conditions, most plants must also restrict their ability to carry out photosynthesis. Transpiration is important in cooling leaves on warm, sunny days. Open stomata provide a low-resistance pathway for CO2 to enter and for water to exit the leaf. In most plants, the highest rate of transpiration occurs when the rate of photosynthesis is also highest.
In most plants, the highest rate of transpiration occurs when the rate of photosynthesis is also highest.
Which statement about inbreeding is correct? See Section 23.2 and article on Florida panthers.
Inbreeding changes allele frequencies in a population.
Solute potential of irrigated water before and after a long hot day of evaporation
Irrigation water contains low concentrations of salts, so the solute potential will be near zero. As water evaporates, salts remain in the soil, lowering the solute potential.
Large animals have _ mass-specific metabolic rates, in keeping with their relatively small surface area for exchanging the oxygen and nutrients required to support metabolism and the wastes and heat produced by metabolism
LOW
_ proposed a theory of evolution- that species are not static but change through time. He proposed that evolution occurs by the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Lamarck
Transfer of genes from one species to another, instead of parent to offspring.
Lateral Gene Transfer
give an example of a structure that enables the muscle tissue to preform a specific function.
Muscle tissue has cells that can contract in a coordinated fashion. The branching of cardiac muscle cells allows electrical signals to spread through them, resulting in their coordinated contraction and relaxation, which allows the heart to pump blood.
Slowest evolutionary process (in non-bacteria and non-archaea) but strong when combined with others
Mutation
Which evolutionary mechanism increases genetic variation in a population? See Section 23.6
Mutation
Genetic Divergence
Mutation, Selection, Genetic Drift
Which of these are symbiotic associations (w root hairs)
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of roots and fungi.
You are doing a mark-recapture experiment to determine the population size of the MendAliens living on an island in my back yard. Initially, you catch and mark 130 MendAliens, which you then release. Next, you capture 90 MendAliens, of which 20 are marked. What is your estimate of the population size of MendAliens living on the island in my back yard?
N = (M1 x C) / M2 Or: (130 x 90) / 20 = 585.
Suppose you trap 255 stickleback fish in a lake and mark them by clipping the first spine of their dorsal fins. One month later you recapture a total of 162 individuals, 78 of them marked. Estimate their total population size.
N = Mn/m = (255 × 162)/78 = 530.
is positive feedback homestasis?
NO
_ is the foundation of ecosystems because it represents the energy, in the form of biomass, available for consumption by other organisms.
NPP
NPP ocean change?
NPP is decreasing in the oceans because the density gradient became too steep, nutrient-rich water is not brought by currents anymore
Certain alleles favored and increase in frequency, while others are disfavored and decrease
Natural Selection
Increases the frequency of certain alleles-the ones that contribute to reproductive success in a particular enviornment
Natural Selection
Often favors certain alleles and leads to a decrease in overall genetic variation in a population
Natural Selection
_ is the only evolutionary process that produces an adaption.
Natural Selection
Can maintain, increase, or reduce generic variation
Natural Selection (Gene Flow kinda acceptable)
Plants with purple flowers attract more insects, which pollinate the plants
Natural Selection, frequency of purple allele increase
why would the data for terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species each add up to more than 100%
Nearly all endangered species are threatened by more than one factor and therefore appear on the graph more than once, leading to species totals greater than 100 percent.
Hemoglobins affinity for _ is high in the aveoli after PCO2 declines because blood pH rises
O2
Cardiac output formula
Output = Heart rate x SV
why is the bohr shift important during exercise?
PCO2 and heat lowers the pH, so when its in excess oxygen is HIGH demand and more likely to unload
why are atmospheric CO2 concentrations low in the northern hemisphere in summer and high in winter?
Photosynthesis increases in summer in the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in removal of CO2 from the atmosphere.
Subspecies
Populations that live in discrete geographical areas and have distinguishing features, nut not distinct enough to be a separate species
According to the pressure-flow hypothesis, what mechanism causes the movement of phloem sap from sources to sink tissues? See Section 35.4 ( page 739) .
Pressure potential differences between source and sink. These differences cause a flow of sugars in the phloem.
Dendritus dead animal rotting log
Primary producer living maple leaves Primary consumer or decomposer maggots cricket fungus Secondary consumer earthworm millipede Both secondary and tertiary consumer alligator lizard robin
Which of the following is an experimental observation that demonstrates that spermatophore production involves a trade-off for male crickets? See Section 39.1 ( page 820) .
Simulating bacterial infection in males led to smaller gelatinous masses, so females would eat the masses more quickly and receive fewer sperm. Male energy reserves do not permit production of both large gelatinous mass and a robust immune response.
explain how natural selecion leads to populations of lizards with different life-history traits in different parts of their range
Since resources are limited in every habitat, lizards that allocate resources in a way that increases their fitness will produce the most offspring, which will in turn pass on heritable life-history traits, such as maturing late and having few offspring in colder areas versus maturing early and having many offspring in warmer areas.
if u attached a birdfeeder to a tree 5 years ago at 6 feet how high and it grows 1 foot a year, where will it be now?
Stems, branches, and roots grow from their tips. Although a tree can get taller with each passing year, the position of any existing region of the trunk will stay at that same height because new growth is initiated in the apical meristem. Thus, the birdfeeder will remain at 6 feet.
Which of the situations below describes vicariance? See Section 24.2
The Grand Canyon forms, separating two populations of squirrels on the North Rim and the South Rim. The key difference here is not that the populations become isolated, but that the isolation is due to the physical splitting of a habitat.
what happens to po2 and pco2 and ph when you hold you breath?
The PO2 decreases as oxygen is used up, the PCO2 increases as CO2 diffuses into the blood from tissues but cannot be exhaled, and the pH drops as the CO2 dissolves in blood to form bicarbonate and H+ ions.
What is meant by phenotypic plasticity in roots and shoots? See Section 34.1 (page 706).
The ability to modify form depending on environmental conditions. Remember that phenotype refers to morphological appearance, while plasticity refers to variation in phenotype in varying environments.
What is a negative feedback in the context of global warming? See Section 53.3 ( page 1130) The absorption of carbon dioxide by plants and the ocean increases Carbon dioxide produces increased clouds, blocking sunlight from reaching the ground Warmer temperatures increase human use of air conditioning Warmer temperatures melt snow in northern latitudes, adding more methane to the atmosphere
The absorption of carbon dioxide by plants and the ocean increases
Which statement about adaptation is correct? See Section 22.5
The adaptive value of a trait varies as the environment changes.
mainland habitats closest to an island were wiped out by suburbanization how would this effect the species richness?
The effect would be to make the island more remote, which would lower the rate of immigration and move the whole immigration curve downward. The rate of extinction would increase, shifting the curve upward. The overall effect of the island becoming more remote would be to decrease the number of species.
fruits of seeds sent by wind
The fruits of seeds that are dispersed by the wind often have external structures that allow them to extend the distance they travel on the wind
explain why niche differentiation (resource partitioning) doesn't involve conscious choice by the individuals involved
The individuals do not choose or try to have traits that reduce competition—they simply have those traits (or not). Resource partitioning just happens, because individuals with traits that allow them to exploit different resources produce more offspring, which also have those traits. (Recall from Chapter 22 that natural selection occurs on individuals, but adaptive responses such as resource partitioning are properties of populations.)
which would have stratified epithelium: inside of mouth or gas exchange surface of the lungs?
The inside surface of the mouth contains stratified epithelium; it is subjected to wear and tear from food. The gas exchange surface of the lungs contains simple epithelium; its thinness (a single cell layer) facilitates the diffusion of gases across it
if you understand species-area curves, you should be able to use the equation describing the line (S=18.9A^0.15) to predict the species richness of an area with 5000 km^2
Using the equation S = (18.9)A0.15, plug in 5000 km2 for A and solve for S such that S = 18.9 × 50000.15 = 68 species.
which vascular tissue (t or ve) ships water better? why?
VE, because their width and their perforations offer less resistance to flow
gill lamellae
VERY high surface area, low volume sheets in gills. FLATTENING.
Which statement shows population thinking? See Section 22.1
Variation among individuals in a species is real and important.
Which of the following is a correct application of one of Darwin's postulates to the Galapagos finch data from Case Study #2? See Section 22.4
Variation in beak size was present in the population of finches prior to the start of the study
_____ provides cells for secondary growth.
Vascular cambium is lateral meristem that provides cells for secondary growth
_ conducts water and has secondary cell walls reinforced with _, which provides structural support, allowing plants to grow upright. Reduces competition for light.
Vascular tissue; lignin
Vegetative development in plants ______. See Section 38.5 ( page 808) .
Vegetative development produces the nonreproductive portions of the plant body: the roots, leaves, and stems.
Largest Feature of the heart (V or A)
Ventricles
The electrical activity of the heart, as recorded in an electrocardiogram (EKG), is most intense during which event of the cardiac cycle? See Section 42.5 ( page 889) .
Ventricular systole
Which is an example of a structural homology? See Section 22.2
Vertebrate forelimbs generally have the same number and a similar arrangement of bones.
Which statement about vestigial traits is correct? See Section 22.2
Vestigial traits are similar to functional traits in closely related species.
how could vessels be more efficient than tracheids?
Water flows more easily through a short, wide pipe than through a long, skinny one because there is less resistance from the walls of the pipe. In addition, the end walls of vessels have perforations that allow water to move freely between vessels.
A cell is placed in a solution that is hypotonic to the cell. Where will water flow?
Water will flow into and out of the cell, but overall net movement will be into the cell.
When does the apical-basal axis first become apparent?
Wen the first cell division produces the apical cell and basal cell
Vestigial trait example
Whales have tiny hip and leg bones that dont help them swim; Ostriches and kiwis have reduced wings that cant fly; Eyeless fish have eye sockets; Primates have long tails but our human coccyx is too small to grab tree limbs for support; mammals can erect hair when cold or exited but ineffective in humans to tell us emotional state or relative warmth.
Giberellin
When it increases and ABA decrease, when it gets hotter, with red light, they make germenation end.
The carbon cycle describes the cycling of carbon between Earth's biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) reservoirs. Identify the major reservoirs and processes in the carbon cycle by labeling the diagram below.
a CO2 in atmosphere b photosynthesis on land c photosynthesis in ocean d cellular respiration e plants f burning fossil fuels g consumers h decomposers
acclimation
a change in a study organism's phenotype in response to laboratory conditions
outcome of evolution by natural selection
a change in allele frequency in the population overtime
acclimatization
a change in an individuals PHENOTYPE that occurs in response to a change in natural environment conditions.
tuberculosis
a disease that infects the lungs that was once as big as cancer, but got less dangerous recently because of nutrition advances and antibiotic development
nectary
a gland that has nectar, usually deposits pollen from one plant to female parts of the next
adaption
a heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual relative to those lacking the trait in a specific environment
co-evolutionary arms race
a repeating cycle of adaptions and counter-adaptions that interact overtime and affect each other's fitness
environmental restraints
abiotic and biotic features control the favor-ability of traits (finch beak study droughts and floods)
density-independent factors
alter birthrates and death rates irrespective of the indivisuals, usally abiotioc like drought volcanoes etc
Constitutive defenses are _____. See Section 52.1 ( page 1093)
always present
annual
angiosperms that live for one growing season
Gene flow can introduce alleles from one population to _ when individuals move among populations.
another
stamen is made of these two organs
anther and filament
sperm producing gametangium
antheridium
against a concentration gradient, one of them is hitchhiking against one's proper gradient. end up on different sides.
antiport
Mutant tetraploid plants _____
are unable to interbreed with a diploid plant
watersheds
areas drained by a single stream
take clean blood from heart
arteries
tough, thick vessels.
arteries / arterioles
active process
artificial breeding, which chooses traits to keep or get rid of
genetic restoration
artificial gene flow like the flordia panther thing
Jenkins and Buikema tested the Clements-Gleason dichotomy by _____. See Section 52.2 ( page 1104) .
artificially creating sterile ponds and looking at how community structures developed
Most carbon dioxide is carried from the body tissues to the lungs _____.
as bicarbonate ions (HCO3 -)
lichens
associations between green algae and fungi, protect algae from drying in exchange for sugars.
biodiversity hotspot criteria (most in need in conservation)
at least 1500 endemic vascular plants and lost 70% of their traditional/primary vegetation
why are bugs so much smaller now than in dinosaur times?
at that specific point in time the oxygen levels (p2-p1) were super high so they could support adequate ventilation.
Cartilage is found _____.
at the ends of bones such as the femur
chamber that receives blood
atrium
venule end of capillary
blood pressure low; fluid enters capillary
atherosclerosis
blood vessels are hard and less elastic
_____ is the connective tissue specialized for transport.
blood. Blood is specialized for the transport of substances such as nutrients, wastes, and gases.
boreal forest or tropical wet forest has more detritus and organic matter?why?
boeal forests limit the metabolic rate of decomposers, so decomposition and cycling is slow; and rapid in tropical forests
is oxygen higher in bogs and stagnant water habitats, or a lively ocean with the same amount of plants?
bogs have decomposers that quickly use up any excess oxygen in cellular respiration, so they have less oxygen
where do the blood cells come from
bone marrow
if conditions are appropriate, an axillary bud may grow into a _, a lateral extension of the shoot system
branch
electrical signals traveling down length of neuron
cellular level
(5s) the cell's use of O2 and the production of CO2 in tissues, where the cellular respiration has led to low O2 levels and high CO2 levels, gas exchange occurs between blood and cells.
cellular respiration
what is gpp used for in producers?
cellular respiration or growth and reproduction
plants in papermaking
cellulose stronger under tension, although 25% less dense
Mutation occurs by _, not because an organism wants or needs a new allele.
chance
coevoluvtion
changes in angiosperms correspond with changes in pollinateers, and are highly dependent on each other.
In what form does energy pass through the trophic levels shown on the map?
chemical potential energy
whats bad about ectothermy???
chemical reaction rates are temperature dependent so body functions slows when temperature is not ideal
similarities algae and land plants
chloroplasts have chlorophyll a, b and accessory bet-caratone similar thylakoid arrangement Cell walls, sperm, and peroxisomes similar in structure and composition Their chloroplasts synthesize starch as a storage product
Which of the activities listed below could help limit global warming by slowing the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels? Select all that apply. choosing a fuel-efficient car, or bicycling to school or work limiting soil erosion so organic matter takes longer to decompose replacing fossil fuels with nuclear energy cutting down forests to build houses burning vegetation to clear land for agriculture using more electrical appliances and cars
choosing a fuel-efficient car, or bicycling to school or work limiting soil erosion so organic matter takes longer to decompose replacing fossil fuels with nuclear energy
Change in number or composition of chromosomes
chromosomal mutation
relative similarity in whole genes or genomes of divers organisms
comparative genomics
looks at larval or adult characteristics to see whats common and whats unique
comparitive morphology
both use the same resources, making lower fitness for both
competition
uniform arrangement
competition, water, space, or other resources
asexual disadvantage
complete annihilation because few mutation, entire populations could be unfit.
humus
completely decayed detrius
soil organic matter
complex mixture of partially and completely decomposed detritus
watertight barrier that coats the above ground parts of today's land plants to help resist drying
cuticle
difference between sclerenchyma and collenchyma cells?
cytoplasm. sclerenchyma are dead inside, none at maturity.
What factor most affects nutrient cycling? See Section 53.2 ( page 1124) . Decomposition The amount of rainfall The acidity of secretions produced by plant roots Nutrient production
decomposition
What name is given to the process by which detritivores return carbon to the atmosphere?
decomposition
As an organism's size increases, its mass-specific metabolic rate must _.
decrease
transpiration rate when a rain shower starts
decrease when it rains (since very little evaporation would occur)
transpiration rate when the stomata close
decrease when stomata close
when muscles contract, bug's trachea volume _, and pressure inside the system _, so gas moves _.
decreases, increases, out
Some plants growing in arid climates have small leaves and thick waxy cuticles on the upper epidermis. This is an adaptation for _____. See Section 35.3 ( page 738) .
decreasing water loss from leaves. Plants in arid climates may also have stomata only on their lower leaf epidermis. The stomata may be in pits, protected from water loss by hairlike epidermal extensions called trichomes.
r is _ (increasing or decreasing) in humans?
decreasing, but still above 1 (so the population is increasing)
polar bodies
degenerate shortly after formation because of cytoplasm in female diviison
artificial selection
deliberate manipulation by humans only allowing individuals with desirable traits to reproduce
facilitate transmission of signals from adjacent cells to the neural cell body
dendrites
highly branched short processes on neurons
dendrites
A _____ muscle is attached to bones.
dendrites, a cell body, and axons
in land plants, fertilization on plants/zygote adult
develop on living parent, do not make their own food bcs parent doess
early growing season sink
developing leaves
relaxation (s or d)
diastole
branching veins
dicot
circular vascular arrangement in stem
dicot
petals in multiples of 4 or 5
dicot
two cotyledon per embryo
dicot
what would external development do to landies?
die of desiccation
(P2-P1)
difference in partial pressure of gas on either side of barrier to diffusion
dioecious
different male and female plants
(5s) where O2 moves from the air or water into the blood and CO2 moves from the blood into the air or water
diffusion at the respiratory surface
(5s) where O2 moves from the blood into the tissues and CO2 moves from the tissues into the blood
diffusion at the tissues
k
diffusion constant depending on solubility of gas ad temperature
largest tsunami in 3.5 bya, hot gas and soot deposits spread worldwide, acid raine, sun blocked by ash for long periods, global cooling
dinosaur extinctions/ end-cretaceous / K-Pg
two types of tissue
diploblasts
Zygotes are _ (diploid or haploid)?
diploid
parthenogenisis
diploid cells that can mature into adults without being fertilized
blue blood
dirty/carbonated
Geographical isolation by indivusals dispering from their population and colonizing a new habitat
dispersal
Geographical isolation occurs through _, when small groups of individuals colonize a new habitat
dispersal
feathers and wings
display or insulation later used to glide and fly
favors extreme phenotypes at ends of phenotypical range
disruptive selection
positive pressure ventilation
draws air in through nose and contracts throat, forcing air into oral cavity, then lungs.
many narrow rings signal
drought years or reduced growth
what would internal development do to fishies?
dry to death
desicciation
drying. prevents germination, protects from freezing.
random arrangement
each individual is independent of each other (example: seed dispersal)
when spring or rain happens, what wood is produced?
early wood. Large, thin.
lineage of land plants/why?
ebryophyta/means they retain the fertilized egg/close to animal pregnancy
an original colonizing population had no competitors, and diversified to lead to efficient use of available resources by a group of descendant species.
ecological opportunity
marked by the availability of more resources or new types of resources
ecological opportunity
Natural election that isn't sexual
ecological selection
all the organisms in a particular area, along with physical components of the environment such as the atmosphere, precipitation, sunlight, soil, nutrients.
ecosystem
3 levels of biodiversity
ecosystem diversity genetic diversity species diversity
enhancing the life-supporting attributes of the atmosphere, surface water, soil, and other physical components of an ecosystem
ecosystem services
covers animal
ectoderm
gives rise to skin and nervous system
ectoderm
live outside hosts with limbs and mouths to grasp the host and suck nutrients
ectoparasite
relies on heat from environment
ectotherm
When two mature sperm release, one unites with the _ to make the _; the other combines with the female _ to make a triploid.
egg/female sporophyte; zygote; polar nuclei/ female gametophyte
no molecule can enter the body without crossing this
epithelium
is npp higher towards the poles or equator? why?
equator; because the sunlight and temperature availability decrease with latitude
how do you measure fitness?
estimate the fitness of individuals by comparing the number of surviving offspring each individual produces
PVA population viability analysis
estimates likelihood of a population to avoid extinction for a given time period; used to make managment plans
internal pressure increases so lung volume decreases
exhalation
muscles relax
exhalation
passive breathing process
exhalation
pressure is less negative than the other phase. released by the diaphragm.
exhalation
exercise breathing changes
exhalation is an active process. you can inhale/exchange more volume of gas BUT 150mL are still not exchanged
Events that initiate sympatric speciation
external events such as disruptive selection (niches and mate preference), internal events (chromosomal mutations)
fertilization in _ in fishies and _ in landies
external; internal
presence of early species makes conditions better for arrival of later species
facilitation
phenotypic plasticity in roots
form is changeable depending on the environment, regardless of genetics. important during environmental changes and constant growth.
Which of the following does not occur during embryogenisis?
formation of the leaf lateral and proximal-distal axes
factors that can affect each diversity
genetic diversity- selection, drift, gene flow species diversity- speciatiation and extinction ecosytem diversity- changes in climate can make new ecosystems or ecosystem function
Speciation is the result of _followed by _
genetic isolation; genetic divergence
brains convergent or homology
genetic toolkit made early but co-opted multiple times in different lineages/ convergent.
phenotypic plasticity in shoot system
genetically identical plants (same cut) grown at different elevations and look different depending on elevation and environment
Nonrandom mating changes only _ frequencies not _ frequencies, so is not an evolutionary process itself
genotype; allele
biological effects of climate change
geographic range shifts, pheneology shits, evolutionary adaption, extinction, acidification (oceans get more acidic with CO2 absorption)
Steps of allopatric speciation
geographical isolation, divergence, genetic isolation
aquatic organ that allows for he exchange of gasses and dissolved substances between animal's blood and surrounding water.
gills
unloading phloem
gives sucrose to sink; higher water potential than xylem; turgor pressure drops;
an organ that secretes specific molecules or solutions such as hormones or digestive enzymes
gland
A pair of coyotes colonized a large island where rodents (their prey) were abundant. At first the number of coyotes increased. But as the coyote population increased, competition for prey also increased and the coyote population grew more slowly. In some years, weather conditions killed many of the rodents, causing some coyotes to starve. In other years, weather conditions were favorable for the rodent poulation, allowing the coyotes to thrive, reproduce, and raise many pups. Which of the three graphs shown in Part G best represents the growth of this coyote population?
graph b
Which of these organisms has a survivorship curve similar to that of oysters?
grasses
the green algae include some but not all of the descendants of a single common ancestor
green algae are paraphyletic
fossil record order of apperance
green algae, nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants, seed plants
anchor roots (adventitious)
grow from shoot and anchor stem to other plant's walls.
high survivorship tend to _ slowly; and invest resources to survival shit
grow/reproduce
pollen tube development
grows down the stigma and length of as the pollen grain activates
The appearance of the cuticle and stomata correlated with what even in the evolution of green plants?
growth on land
turgid/taut stomata
guard cells absorb water; open pore
Seed plants include angiosperms and _ that dominate the world's floras. Animals are often used to disperse seeds and, in _, transport pollen in-between flowers
gymnosperms; angiosperms
populations are isolated because they breed in different habitats
habitat
Neutral Alleles
have no affect on fitness (silent mutation)
niche disruption and speciation in flies
hawthorn maggot flies and apple flies cant interbreed and avoid the opposite fruit's scent. hybrid flies cant find fruit or mates. they are not yet a separate species in any classification system they are currently diverging
cephalization
head or anterior region where feeding sensing and processing info is concentrated.
anterior-posterior axis formation
head to tail
stimulus is sound
hearing
backflow common name
heart murmur
myocardial infraction
heart tissue dies of apoxia
dark xylem region that provides structural support
heartwood
what would water-breathers have to do if they didn't have a carrier molecule to help bind oxygen in their blood?
heir blood flow to tissues would need to increase dramatically to meet oxygen demand
plankton protists
help algae with protection for food
totipotency importance in parenchyma
helps heal wounds via asexual stolon/rhizome production. they divide, grow and differentiate to form new roots and shoots.
why do people support barcoding
helps nonspecialists identify species and enables species to be identified when the entire organism is not available such as just gut samples
ecosystem restoration
helps tribes, trees, animals, can reduce temperature and increase rainfall. biomass recovery is is slow and being linked to increasing richness
Fe2+ bound to hemoglobin that binds oxygen (4 per hemoglobin)
heme
The Type III survivorship curve has _____. See Section 51.2 ( page 1073) .
high initial death rates but later high survivorship (e.g., plants)
Triggered efficiency of aerobic respiration, which is required to establish large bodies and active movement
high oxygen levels
loading phloum
high sucrose concentration; receives from source; lower water potential than xylem; high turgor pressure
positive feedback in global warming
high temperatures cause fires, which release CO2. tundra decomposes faster when its hot, so CO2 releasing faster than it should. more CO2 triggers more CH4 and N2O to release in soil microbes. Melting ice makes more open water, which absorbs more sun than ice, making it hotter there.
Water moves from areas of _ solute potential to _ solute potential.
high; low
heat flows from regions of _ temperature to _ temperature.
high; low
solution with _ concentrations of solutes have _ solute potentials
high; low
Small animals have a _ BMR than large animals
higher
stability of the chemical and physical conditions in an organism
homeostasis
humans and most mammals
homeotherms
keep their body temperature constant
homeotherms
is bilateral symmetry homologous or convergent to bilaterians (bilateral + tri) ?
homologous. it uses the same genes to express it
nonvascular plants and most seedless vascular are (homo/hetero)
homosporus
sporangium make spores, which make a bisexual gametophyte, which differentiates into sperm and eggs
homosprous
Which species is threatening the natural wildlife on the Galapagos Islands?
humans
when will it be impossible to preserve high species diversity and high-functioning ecosystems?
humans are more than 10 billion consumption of fossil fuels dont decline
hybrid offspring mature but are sterile as adults
hybrid sterility
addition of new individuals from other populations
immigration
global warming
increase of the average temperature of the planet
One effect of global warming is ______. See Section 53.3 ( page 1130) .
increased species extinction rates because of the need to shift ranges
tracheids
increased structural support (secondary cell wall of lignin), ends and sides have pits where secondary cell wall are absent.
As a population approaches carrying capacity, environmental resistance (increase/ decrease/ same)
increases
when animals grow, their volume _ more rapidly than their surface area
increases
whaat does removing plants do, chemically?
increases CO2 concentration so higher temperatures,
benefits of biodiversity
increases productivity and stability
macarthur-wilson model
island biogeography
deltaN / deltat = births - deaths
isolated population
there was only one successful transition from freshwater environments to land
land plants are monophyletic
_ animals have smaller surface area/volume ratios than _ animals
large ; small
"edge" effect from hab frag
large amounts of edges that are exposed to more sunlight and wind damages plants leads to less biomass fixed carbon but not in the interior plots
take longer to mature
large animals
ideal fick's law conditions
large area for gas exchange (3 human's lungs could fill a baseball court stretched out) small distance (thin respiratory surface), high difference in P2 and P1,
brain
large mass of neurons in head responsible for processing info to and from the body
four attributes that will persist
large population sizes, occupy large geographical ranges, cloe to neigboring populations (more likely to be colonized), high genetic diversity
taproot
large vertical main root in a room system
bottom or basal cell
large, gives rise to the suspensor
highest speies richness (large small) (nearshore or remote)
large, mainland
which animal produces better biomass large or small, why?
large, small s:va ratio and loose less heat
doesnt affect transpirational pool
larger air space in leaf interior
increases transpirational pull
larger diameter of stomatal pores
second-male advantage
last nut blasts original nut out of the way, so is most likely to impregnate
grow from a ring of cells around vascular tissue and erupt through the surrounding ground tissue
lateral roots
pericycle
layer of cells between endodemis and vascular tissye
aquifers
layers of porus rock, sand, or gravel saturated with water
From the pulmonary veins, blood flows to the _____.
left atrium
Sympatric species are _ likely to mate
less
seawater holds _ dissolved gas than freshwater
less
selfing disadvantage
less genitally diverse/inbreeding depression
why do plants in hot places have needled blades?
less surface area to reduce transpration
how much of earth is in its wild state? where is it the highest?
less than 25%; the poles where diversity is unfortunately lowest
how can vessel elements withstand such strong mPA and not collapse?
lignin (like cartilage) secondary cell wall reinforcement
advantage of aveoli
like 40 times more surface area for respiration
seive-tube elements
long skinny cell with few organelles (no nucucleus) and end w peforations called seive plates to transport elements
climate
long-term average pattern of regional or global whether
larva
look radically different from adults, live in different habitats and eat different food
SOFT contains an array of fibrous protein in a soft matrix it serves as a packing material holding organs and tissues together and as a padding under the skin. fibroblasts make ECM. holds tissue together loosely.
loose connective tissue
High surface area of small animals mean they _ (gain or lose) heat extremely rapidly
lose
if an individual is warmer than its surroundings it will _ heat.
lose
why do males have larger teste size variation in thot-female species??
lottery logic- bigger testes means more sperm means more chance of fertilization
overlap between niches? where niches dont touch?
low fitness. high fitness.
veins blood pressure?
low to none
background extinction
low, average rate of extinction observed when a mass extinction is not occurring
plants in furniture
lumber, stiffer and stronger building material than concrete, cast iron, aluminum alloys, or steel relative to its density
temporal avoidance of selfing
male and females mature at different times
What is a pollen grain?
male gametophyte
who said that population needs to be checked and food will run out (inspired darwin)
malthus
sustainability
managed use of resources at a rate only as high as the rate at which they are replaced
quantification of ecosystem services?
many cant preserve much and are expensive to keep but its more favorable to keep them than replace them so its important to keep them and f*ck the economists wanting to quantify it
Calyx
many sepals
moving animals capture
mark-recapture
An elephant has more _ than a mouse, but a gram of elephant tissue consumes much less energy than a gram of mouse tissue does.
mass
species are fit for environment but die out because of short, harsh conditions
mass extinctions
In mosses gametes are produced by _____; in ferns gametes are produced by _____.
mitosis ... mitosis
petals in multiples of 3
monocot
scattered vascular tissue
monocot
Allopatric species are _ likely to mate
more
capillary action
movement of water up a narrow tube/ pulls water up to minimize air-water interface
soil erosion how does it accelerate nutrient export?
moves nutrients that bound to soil or dissolved in water, creates runoff
do more complex animals have larger genomes?
no, humans and anemone have the same amount of genes
are their more nutrients where there is vegetation or none?
none, but it was never constant because plant roots couldnt stop it for washing away again
noncooperative binding curve
not a big difference in resting or exercising O2, not much is taken up
What is wrong with "evolution perfects organisms"
not all traits are adaptive (some are vestigal). some traits cannot be optimized due to fitness trade-offs. some traits are limited by genetic historical or environmental restraints.
Is the following statement supported or not supported by the data shown in the graph? The mortality rate of Albertosaurus dinosaurs aged between 25% and 50% of their maximum life span was far greater than the mortality rate of dinosaurs that reached 75% of their maximum life span.
not supported (bcs it shows survival, not mortality)
why do they do mutualism??
not to be "nice" but they are maximizing fitness minimizing the cost
is oxygen soluble in water
not very well
James Hutton
noticed the earth couldn't be 6000 years old because how long it takes sedimentary rocks to form
seeds in angiosperm
nourished and protected with nutrient stores and tough coats
biomass is the same as
npp
energy invested in producers in building new tissue or offspring
npp
countercurrent heat exchangers have vessels in close contact that carry warm and cool fluids in _ directions
opposite
Composed of more than two tissues that preform togther for specific tasks
organs
deltaN / deltat = number of individuals * r
per capita rate of increase
What is shown on the x-axis?
percentage of the maximum life span of a species
monoecious
perfect species
Which term describes the portion of a peach that can be eaten by humans?
pericarp
forms when organisms decompose slowlym gradually infilitrate the interor of cells and harden into stone
permineralized fossil
serve as a visual advertisement for animals, usually correlating with the color spectrum their pollinator can see
petals
Plants synthesize toxic compounds to repel insects, deer, or other herbivores. These compounds have also become important for the development of new _____. See Section 28.1 ( page 563) .
pharmaceuticals
sieve-tube elements
phloem
two-directional vascular tissue
phloem
inducible defenses
physical chemical or behavioral defense traits that are induced in the prey in response to the presence of a consumer
high blood pH
picks up lots of oxygen
You have learned that the fusion of egg and sperm produces a zygote. But how does the sperm reach the egg, and how does the zygote develop into a seed, which eventually germinates and grows into a mature sporophyte? In this activity, you will demonstrate your understanding of double fertilization and seed development in angiosperms. Drag the statements to their appropriate locations on the flowchart of pollination, fertilization, and seed development.
pollen grain lands on stigma. a. pollen tube grows down the style b. generative cell divides, forming two sperm c. two sperm are discharged to them female gametophyte d. sperm fuse with the egg and two polar nuclei e. zygote forms and divides into a terminal cell and a basal cell f. cells of embryo differentiate into three tissue types. seed dries out and becomes dormant
The male gametophytes of flowering plants are also referred to as _____.
pollen grains
the transfer of pollen from one plant's stamen to another plant's carpel
pollination
Which of these terms applies to an organism with extra sets of chromosomes?
polyploid
hybrid offspring of mating between members either do not survive or cant reproduce
postzygotic isolation
rainy or foggy air
potential may be equal to the water potential of leaves
adhesion in roots
present but no contribution
seed banks
preserve diverse strains of crop plants in long-term storage facilities and wild relatives of domesticated species; soon will be with non-crops
wildlife corridors
preserve large tracts of lands arent possible so they construct small tracts split by highways or rivers that could divide dispersal
Cell wall and other factors determine the
pressure potential
root pressure
pressure potential that develops in roots to drive water against gravity
events at source tissues and sink tissues create a pressure potential gradient in phloem, which moves the water in phloem sap down the gradient, carried by bulk flow
pressure-flow hypothesis
cuticle
prevent water evaporation, leaving the interior of plants are extremely moist (impervious to co2, as well)
how did plants adapt to dry conditions with intense sunlight?
preventing water loss, providing protection from UV rays, and movin water from tissues with direct access to those without.
If _ exists, populations that come back into contact will probably continue to diverse
prezygotic isolation
prevents individuals of different species from mating successfully
prezygotic isolation
when population density gets very high, the populations per capita birth rate will decrease and per capita death rate increases, _ will decline
r
which is better r or R0?
r because its independent of generational time
niche
range of resources that the species is able to use and conditions it can tolerate
why did phylum-level body plans change rapidly during the cambian, rather than gradually?
rapid adaption to high aerobic oxygen, quick adaption to predators evolving to exert pressure of prey to evolve, animals created new niches that could support more diversity and more genes were created
secondary "succession"
rapid and dominated by short-lived small species at first (like weeds), then by large long-lived species
adaptive radiation
rapid diversification in a lineage, wide adaptive forms (bcs of fruits, flowers and water-containing vessels)
mass extinction
rapid extinction of a large number of diverse organisms around the world.
designing effective protected areas
rare but increasing at a steady rate in prime habitat areas no fishing allowed
Abundance bias in fossilization
rare species probably wont have a fossil, depending on their location etc.
provisioning services
raw material like food, labor, wood for building and fuel, fibers, medicines
portion that a species actually occupies, giving limiting factors such as competition with another species.
realized niche
temporal bias on fossilization
recent fossils more common than ancient, which are vulnerable to crushing, heating, melting and
Vestigial Trait
reduced or incompletely developed structure that has no function, reduced function, but is similar to function organs in related species
what will climate change do to affect water cycle?
reduced soil moisture, which reduces freshwater reservoirs, melting ice caps affects ocean currents and clouds
why is hab fragmentation a problem?
reduces habitats to a size too small to support species especially top predators (tropic cascades ensue) that needs massive space to mate successfully
farming, logging how does it accelerate nutrient export?
remove biomass in the form of plants
adults
reproductive stage
flower
reproductive structure-containing part of an angiosperm
cooperative binding curve
results in s-curve and 80-100 in hemoglobin to 75-60 while exercising
germination of pollen grains. does it happen in self-incompatible species?
resumption of growth and development and absorbtion of water blocked if by the same plant
Which of these species typically has a mortality rate that remains fairly constant over an individual's life span?
robins
plants fun facts
roots can be 80% of total mass, roots of trees are wider than their above ground canopy,
rays
rows of parenchyma cells that radiate laterally across the xylem and phloem. form a living conduit through which water and nutrients are transported laterally across the trunk.
homology
same source of evolution, in related species (lungs in dolphins and humans)
According to the article, the EDGE of Existence program run by the Zoological Society of London argues that we should save species that are the most important to their ecosystem not prioritize which species we try to save protect certain habitats that have high levels of biodiversity save species that are the most genetically unusual threatened species save species that are the most important to humans
save species that are the most genetically unusual threatened species
dendochronology
science of dating and studying tree growth rings
Ground tissue contains _ cells; fibers and schlereid cells, that strengthen regions of the body that have stopped growing.
sclerenchyma cells
How do plants moderate climate?
shading the area beneath them, increase relative humidity by buffering the impact of winds that dry out landscapes
sister group
share a common ancestor but are not from in the same fork, one is in the outgroup
synapomorphy
shared derived characteristics. trait found in multiple current taxa that are not in ancient species
first macroscopic fossils
shells, feeding appendages, limbs, heads/ sponges, jelly fish.
management plants for invasive species
ships and cargoes are inspected for species
Sclereids
short protective protective tissue that makes tough coats of seeds and thick nut shells
In dry, windblown habitats, individuals with _ thrive because they require less water and dont blow over
short roots
polymorphic species can be wrong because
some species look different but are the same species (black/spotted jaguars), they are subjective and different researchers can disagree, cant identify cryptic species (like the birds that sing different songs and cant mate)
genetic restraints
sometimes pleitropic traits are correlated with the increase or decrease in the presence of another trait (deep beaks usually wide; short beaks usually narrow; deep and narrow could be a great combo but cant be produced because genetic restraints)
biodiversity highest in species richness
south america and andes mountains
cambium
special meristem that runs a single cylinder layer along the root, branches or trunk and divide to increase width instead of length
vascular tissue
specialized groups of cells that conduct water and nutrients from one part of the plant body to another
A _ is defined as an evolutionary independent population or group of populations.
species
biodiversity trends
species richness higher with latitude; high in tropics low in poles higher in land than in the sea 9/10 species of non-microbial species are terrestrial areas with lotsa geographical variation have more than flat/featureless
Descent with modification
species that lived in the past are ancestors of the species existing today, and that species change through time
external fertilization
spitting eggs and sperms into the water
suspension-feeding, food and habitat for others, mostly sessile, asexual or sexual depending on mood
sponge
all animals other than _ have specialized nerve an muscles cells the enable complex movement.
sponges
lenticels
spongy openings in the bark that allow gaseous exchange
spicules
stiff spikes of silicia or CaCO3 that along with collagen provide structural support to the ECM, defining shape size and composition of sponges.
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen grain to the _____ of a flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species.
stigma
A carpel is composed of _____.
stigma, style, and ovary
carpel is made of these three organs:
stigma, style, ovary
modified above-ground stems that grow horizontally along soil, making adventitious roots and leaves at each node, function as asexual reproduction bcs new plants form at these nodes
stolons
tranpiration
stomata are open and the air outside the leaves are drier than the air inside the leaves
The evolution of _, breaks in the cuticle consisting of pores controlled by _. allowed plants to maximize gas exchange and minimize water loss.
stomata; guard cells
early growing season source
storage cells in roots and stems
demography
study of factors tat determine the size and structure of populations through time
population ecology
study of how and why the number of individuals in a population changes over time and space
rcovery
succesion
selfing advantages
successful pollination guaranteed. the plant depends on itself and makes more seeds
primary and secondary phloem function
sugar transport
global climate change
sum of all the changes inn temperature and precipitation patterns that result from global warning- storms, droughts, etc.
ecosystem function
sum of biological and chemical processes that are characteristic of a given ecosystem (production, cycling, decomposition, storage) emerge from the sum of feeding, growing, moving, respiring, exerting, decomposing in interacting organisms
The surface area available for exchange of materials would fail to keep up with the metabolic demands generated by the organism's enzymes IF
surface area didn't increase while metabolic rate decreases
comparative genomic studies show
surprisingly complex and tells the things animals require: cell specilization, cell cycling and growth regulation, adhesion and ECM, kinship, gene regulation, programmed cell death
what happens when the lymph cant be drained
swelling and pain
cytosol and plasmodesmata
symplastic
systematic circuit function
takes clean blood from lungs to body
In lush habits where competition for light is intense, woody individuals that _ are favored by natural selection
tall
storage root
taproots etc can store carbs and other nutrients for later use
stimulus is molecules
taste and smell
what will climate change do to affect AVERAGE temperature?
temperature extremes will increase (severe droughts and freezes)
what happens when humans remove vegetation, tempature wise?
temperature swings, drier soil
abiotic factors
temperature, rainfall, mountains, oceans, continental drift
populations are isolated because they breed at different times
temporal
prezygotic isolation ex
temporal, habitat, behavioral, gametic barrier, mechanical
_ animals has to produce a much smaller volume of air to extract the same amount of O2, and the amount of work to do so is _ than in _ animals.
terrestrial; less; aquatic
hemoglobin structure
tetromere
The article mentions that "Historically, there had been gene flow between Texas cougars and Florida panthers". This means that:
the Texas cougar and the Florida panther have interbred with each other in the past.
fitness
the ability of an individual to produce fertile and surviving offspring relative to other in the population
In biology, fitness is defined as _____. See Section 22.3
the ability of an individual to produce surviving offspring
The first cell division of the Arabidopsis zygote is asymmetric and helps establish ______. See Section 38.5 ( page 808) .
the apical-basal axis
global nitrogen cycle
the atmosphere has 78% of nitrogen the soil has fixed versions of it, given back to the atmosphere through excreting bacteria
What is a sieve-tube element?
the sugar conducting cell found in phloem
transpiration creates tension (straw sucks) from roots to leaves, what "charges" this?
the sun/ solar powered
where do fertilized eggs go?
the uterus
5 step, general alt generations
the zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular, diploid, sporophyte
why can population increase with decreasing fecundity?
they have so many young women that the overall number of births will remain high even though the average number of children per female is much lower than the generation before
why are cells in the meristem replenishing the root cap?
they regularly loose cells
why do a/sexual organisms only sexxxually reproduce when everything is terrible or rapidly changing?
they want children that are genetically diverse and have a possibility of surviving better than them (or clones)
groups of similar cells organized into tightly integrated structural and functional traits
tissue
Which of the following sets of animals are likely to be found on the Galapagos Islands?
tortoises, finches, blue-footed boobies
genetic diversity
total genetic information within all individuals of a population or species or group of species measured by the number and relative frequencies of all genes and their alleles present in a group
contact and pressure stimulus
touch
ex of hybridization leading to extension
townsend men keep scaring off hermit men and sending them further south, and mate with hermit women. hybrids are increasing in zones while hermits are decreasing.
do plants make repellent?
toxic compound produced by plants are deterrents for insects, deer, or other types of herbivores
sedementations and mineralization preserve indirect evidence of organism (foot prints, tracks, burrows, feces)
trace fossil
open circulatory system in bugs why low oxygen despite using lots of oxygen?
tracheal respiratory system gives direct oxygen, making up up for low oxygen blood
animal may devote energy to reproduction at the expense of a strong immune function, vice verse, or both
trade-offs
are appendages homologous?
traditionally no, but now its assumed to a genetic degree and that limbs evolved separately
Transitional feature
trait in a fossil species intermediate between ancestral and derived species
The function of sieve-tube elements is to _____. See Section 34.2 ( page 714) .
transport sugars throughout the plant. Sugars are transported along a concentration gradient to many areas of the plant.
what problems had to be solved to get larger upright?
transporting water from tissues that are in contact with wet soil to tissues that are in contact with dry air, against the force of gravity and becoming rigid enough to avoid falling over in gravity and wind (solved by vascular tissue)
choanocytes
trap organic debris and digests on a cellular level unlike animals
to move _ the plant; water moves _ the water-potential gradient.
up;down
secondary active transport
usage of cotransport
morphological, phylogenetic, and biological
used by scientists in classification
root cells may have a _ surrounded in a _ that secondarily active transports sucrose with protons with an _
vacuole; tonoplast; antiporter
The _ tissue system transports materials throughout the plant.
vascular
fossil record reveals land plants evolved about 475 million years ago and then diversified into plant lineages with _ systems, seeds, and flowers.
vascular
located between secondary xylem and secondary phloem
vascular cambium
Bark consists of
vascular cambium/ secondary phloem
conducting tissues reinforced with lignin. need water to move sperm to egg. sporophyte is dominant, gametophyte physcially independent of sporophyte. eggs retained on gametophyte. sporophytes develop on the gameophyte, nourished by gametophyte when small
vascular seedless plants
produces nonreproductive portions of the plant body (roots, leaves, stems)
vegetative development
bring dirty blood to heart
veins
thin vessels
veins / venules
(5s) the movement of air or water through specialized exchange organs like lungs or gills
ventilation
(5s) accomplished by respiratory system
ventilation and diffusion
chamber gives blood from heart
ventricle
most advanced hearts
ventricles partitioned, 4 chambers, 2 circuits
why is bird breath so efficient?
very little dead space, gas exchange is constant and continuous like fish, and blood is crosscurrent, which is better than mammal spiderwebs but less efficient than fish countercurrency.
salty soil
very low solute potential, much lower than water potential in the plant roots
relaxed arteries
vessel diameter increases, flow resistance is reduced so flow increases in tissues it sends to.
contracted arteries
vessel diameter smaller, slow flow to blood and more blood resistance
short fat vascular tissue with pits and perforations
vessel elements
vessel element w/o any cell wall
vessels
adhesion
water attached to glass pulled against gravity
dry soil
water doesn't flow freely inbetween the particles, so the tension lowers the water potential of the soil water.
why do fish loose heat quickly?
water is not good heat conductor, so they need thick water-proof fur and blubber insulation or blood vessels arrangement that minimizes heat loss
warm air
water molecules move farther apart, exert lower pressure
_ measure of the tendency of water to move down its potential energy gradient and is expressed as megapascals (MPa)
water potential
regulating services
water purification, flood control, waste decomposition
cohesion
water sticks strongly to eachother and pulled easily by adhesion
primary and secondary xylem function
water transport and structural support
Steps of cohesion-tension
water vapor diffuses out of the leaf, and water evaporates inside the leaf too. water is pulled out of the xylem from that, and pulled up the water which is all connected to each other in the xylem Water is pulled out of the root cortex from that, which pulls water from the soil to the root.
seeded plant need no _ to occur, making them better fit to _ habitats
water; dry
casparian strip
wax impregnating endodermis cells, waterproof an forces apoplast to leave the walls with a barrier doesnt affect water and ions from the symplastic route
cuticle function
waxy layer secreted by epidermal cells to preventing pathogens from entering the plant, and hydrophobic (reducing evaporation water loss)
a plant that is adapted for growth in disturbed soils
weed
pioneering species
weeds
species diversity
weighted measure that incorporates the species' relative abundance
wide or nonexistence tree rings indicate
wet years/bountiful wears
secondary succession happens when
when a disturbance removes some or all of the organisms but leaves soil intact (including seeds and microorganisms within.) ex. fire
primary succession happens when
when a disturbance removes the soil and its organisms as well as organisms that live above the soil surface. (volcanoes, floods, landslides)
active diffusion in phloem un/loading
when against natural gradient using ATP and membrane proteins into an unfavorable direction.
bottom-up hypothesis
when their populations reach high density, hares use up all their food and starve; in response lynx also starve
what causes soil and nutrients to be lost?
when vegetation is removed through grazing, farming, logging, suburbanization (erosion by wind and water w no protection from vegetation)
habitat bias of fossilization
where sediments are actively deposited (beaches, swamps), and ocean or burrowing organisms is where fossils are more likely to form. dry land kinda sucks.
gymnosperm pollination
wind from male cone to female cone
which makes more pollen, wind or animal-bore? why?
wind. they can invest in pollens instead of animal attraction, and increase the rare chance they'd hit a stigma.
The term gymnosperm refers to plants _____. See Section 28.2 ( page 565) .
with "naked seeds," these seeds are not surrounded by protective tissue.
Bohr shift
with lower pH the hemoglobin is more likely to release oxygen in tissues with Low pH
finches selection flooding
with that much water only small seeds produced, so small beaks were favorable
as the vascular cambium grows, all of the secondary xylem is retained and accumulates as
wood
secondary xylem makes up structural material called
wood
plant-based fuels
wood, fossil-fuel, ethanol (corn), biodisel (soybean oil or animal fat)
one directional water tissue
xylem
trachieds and vessel elements
xylem
guttation
xylem sap that collects because the stomata were closed and didnt evaporate so it kept leakin overnight
arteries blood pressure?
yes
in san fran if the weather is foggy and cool on the coast but sunny and warm inland, is their climate the same?
yes
are rivers, waterfalls, and waves more or less oxygenated than other water?
yes because they are in contact with more air bubbles
does the outermost layers of xylem transport water?
yes. only new ones do.
derived species
younger
region responsible for the growth of roots through the soil, by taking up water. expansion provides the force that pushes the root cap and apical meristem through the soil.
zone of cellular elongation
most important root segment in terms of water and nutrient absorption. in here, epidermal cells produce root hairs, to increase the surface area of the dermal tissue.
zone of cellular maturation
root zone that allows lateral root growth
zone of cellular maturation
land plants evolved from a green alga that lived in freshwater habitats
zygematophceae is the closest living relative to land plants
spermatids
4 haploid cells from one spermocyte
feedback sperm
An increase in androgens inhibits the secretion of releasing hormones by the hypothalamus and LH secretion by the pituitary gland. A decrease in androgens stimulates the secretion of releasing hormones by the hypothalamus and LH secretion by the pituitary gland.
when is asexual reproduction favored?
Asexual reproduction would be expected in environments where conditions change little over time.
Which of the following statements about oogenesis in humans is true?
Beginning at puberty, a primary oocyte completes its first meiotic division to form a secondary oocyte and a polar body approximately every month. This secondary oocyte is released into the oviduct during ovulation and then begins meiosis II, which is not complete unless the oocyte is fertilized by a sperm cell.
If there is no fertilization, degeneration of the corpus luteum results in a drop in _____, which results in the sloughing off of the uterus's endometrium.
Estrogen and progesterone. They are responsible for maintaining the endometrium in the event that the egg has been fertilized.
True or false? The pressure inside the human chest cavity is always positive, so the lungs stay relatively inflated even upon exhalation.
False. The lungs stay relatively inflated even upon exhalation because the pressure inside the chest cavity is always negative.
Which of the following is NOT a mechanism by which fertilized eggs prevent polyspermy? See Section 47.3 ( page 989) . Protease digestion of sperm receptor proteins Formation of a fertilization envelope Membrane depolarization Formation of a vaginal plug
Formation of a vaginal plug. This is a mechanism by which males compete to fertilize a female, but it does not prevent polyspermy.
why are gonads paired in mammals?
Having two gonads is an "insurance policy" against loss or damage. To test this hypothesis, surgically remove one gonad from a large number of male and female rats. As a control, do a similar operation on a large number of similar male and female rats, but do not remove either gonad. Once the animals have recovered, place them in a barn or other "natural" setting and let them breed. Compare reproductive success of control rats with that of rats with unpaired gonads.
how is adding a molecule that binds to bindin-like proteins on human sperm head a contraceptive
If the added molecule blocked the bindin-like protein on the human sperm head, that protein would not be able to bind to its receptor on the egg. Fertilization would not take place.
Which pituitary secretion stimulates the testes to secrete androgens?
In males, luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the testes to secrete androgens.
What is an advantage of viviparity? See Section 47.3 ( page 989) .
Increased likelihood of surviving to birth. Raising young internally promotes survival.
Which feature is common to gills, lungs, and tracheae? See Section 42.3 ( page 878) .
Large surface area
In which structure does fertilization typically occur in mammals? See Section 47.2 ( page 987) .
Oviduct or fallopian tube. Sperm travels from the vagina to the oviduct where it fertilizes mature eggsovum.
advantages and disadvantages of ovovivipatry and ovipatry
Oviparity usually requires less energy input from the mother after egg laying, and mothers do not have to carry eggs around as long—meaning that they can lay more eggs and be more mobile. However, before egg laying, mothers have to provision the egg with all the nutrition the embryo will require, and eggs may not be well protected after they are laid. Viviparity usually increases the likelihood that the developing offspring will survive until birth, but the space available in the mother's reproductive tract limits the number of young that can be produced. If viviparous young can be nourished longer than oviparous young, they may be larger and more capable of fending for themselves.
True or false? Humans form gametes by a process called gametogenesis.
True
Sperm exit a male's body via the _____.
Urethra
Which of the following is a disadvantage of external gills? See Section 42.3 ( page 878) .
Vulnerable to predation
meiosis of oocytes
arrested for long periods of time.
secondary oocyte
arrested until fertilized
mitotic reproduction free of fusion
asexual
offspring forms within or on a parent becomes a mini parent and grows alone
budding
steps of fertiliazation?
chemicals attract sperm to eggs, bind to jelly layer of egg, acrosomes drill then through flaggellar hypermovement drill more, penetrate the envelope and jelly, the nucleus drops in to find the egg nucleus to fuse with and plugs its entrance with the flagella.
where semen and accessory fluids mix to make semen before entering the urethra
ejaculatory duct
yolk
fatty and protein-y cytoplasm
_ aphids and daphina produce _ _ in safe seasons, which can develop into _ before unsafe seasons to reproduce sexually which eggs mature in safe places as _ which produce _
female; female clones; males; females; more clones
why is polyspermy bad in animals?
it would be useless fertilization, the zygote would be triploid and die
cover urethra and vag
labia
A rapid increase in the _____ level stimulates ovulation.
luteinizing hormone
The secretion of androgens is regulated by a _____ feedback mechanism involving the _____ and _____.
negative ... hypothalamus ... pituitary gland
how many eggs from one primary ooctye? why?
one. uneven division.
formation of ova
oogenesis
sperm directly from spermatgonia that undergo meiosis I
primary spermatocytes
primary oocyte
produces only one haploid egg
holds testes
scrotum
ovulation
secondary oocyte is expelled to the fallopian tube, where fertilization would happen
two sperm that undergo meosis II and produce 4.
secondary speratocytes
in a species with a choice between sexual and asexual reproduction, which will they choose in stressful conditions?
sexual
meiosis and haploid fusion to diploid
sexual
cryptic female choice
spit out ugly sperm and save the best man for last
gonads of mammals
testes and ovaries
why does semen harden?
to form a plug, but it can be shook by a later mat easily .
where does embryonic development take place
uterus
muscular tube that transports sperm from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
vas deferens
mammals eggs vitelline
zona pellucida
