MCAT 2021

Layers of the Skin (superficial to deep)

"Come, Let's Get Sun Burned" corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basalis

Formal Charge

# of valence electrons - [# dots + # lines]

What types of atoms are mostly likely "involved in coordination" of other types of atoms?

(-) charged atoms are involved with (+) charged atoms and vise versa. Thus a lewis acid will be involved with a lewis base

Intimacy refers to the feeling of being in a close personal association and belonging together

*

Adaptive T-Lymphocytic Cell Types: Helper T Memory T Suppressor T Cytotoxic Killer T

**Adaptive=Specific immunity and slow to make*** Helper T-cells: tells others there's something fishy Memory T-cells: recognize a specific antigen (similar to memory B-cells) Suppressor T-cells: negative feedback and regulatory role in immune system Cytotoxic Killer T-cells: releases perforin and cytotoxins Perforin first makes a pore/hole in membrane of the infected cell. Cytotoxins go inside antigencell pore, destroying it and any viruses inside. o Can kill many cells without being destroyed themselves

ebulliator

- Introduce small air bubbles in the system; same function provided by a boiling chip at atmospheric pressure. - The air bubbles break the surface tension of the liquid being heated and prevent superheating and bumping.

Kirchhoff's Junction Rule

- total current flowing into the junction equals total current flowing out of the junction I into junction = I leaving junction junction = where 3 lines meet

Oxidation of Phenols

-OH -> =O

Infrared region Peaks

-PEAKS: O-H broad around 3300cm-1, N-H sharp 3300cm-1, C=O sharp 1750cm-1, C-C=around 1700cm-1 o Absorption in visible region gives complementary color (e.g., carotene)

∆G'°=______? rate= k=

-RTln(Keq) k[A]¹[B]² Ae^-Ea/RT

Key Mastered Concepts in Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

-Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal operational -Starts ages 0,2,7,12 -2 for each stage: SAM Lets Liv Classify Herpes Science -Sensorimotor: understands world through Senses and Actions -Preoperational: understands world through Mental images and Language -Concrete Operational: understands world through Logical thinking and Categories -Formal Operational: understands world through Hypothetical thinking and Scientific reasoning

How are glycine and proline used in secondary structure?

-both frequently found in beta turns -proline is because its cyclic structure is ideally suited for the beta turn -glycine is because, with the smallest side chain of all the amino acids, it is the most sterically flexible. secondary structure

London dispersion forces

-constant motion of electrons and the creation of instantaneous dipoles

What's special about Proline?

-kinks alpha helices (which is why it's rarely found here) -turns in Beta pleated sheets

Racemic Mixtures

-with equal concentrations of two enantiomers -will not be optically active because the two enantiomers' rotations cancel each other out -shows lack of stereospecificity

When calculating oxidation number, diatomic molecules are __ and you must only regard electrons of individuals atoms in a molecule, not moles.

0 O₂=0 2HCl= H=1⁺; Cl=1⁻

What is ground state

0 charge!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

What do steroids look like?

1) 4 ring structures 2) Slightly amphipathic e.g. cholesterol (pic.) and vit. D

5 stages of demographic transition model?

1)high birth rate, high death rate 2)population increase as death rate decreases 3)death rates AND birth rates fall 4) equalization between birth and death rate at a low level 5) population stabilizes worldwide

What step in glycolysis doesn't require oxygen?

1,3 Biphosphoglycerate ⇌ Phoshoenolpyruvate

How does urine travel after collecting duct?

1. Urine empties into renal pelvis 2. Renal pelvis emptied by ureter 3. Ureter carries urine to bladder 4. Relaxed urinary sphincter of bladder empties into urethra Urine -> renal pelvis -> ureter ->bladder -> urethra URUBU

According to the Wechsler Scales of Intelligence, mean intelligence quotient (IQ) is

100 with a standard deviation of 15

Ketone Bond Angle and Number of bonds? Linear? Trigonal? Tetrahedral? Trigonal Planar? Octahedral?

120 Linear: 180, 2 bonds Trigonal Planar: 120, 3 bonds Tetrahedral: 109.5, 4 bonds Trigonal Planar: 90, 120, 180, 5 bonds Octahedral: 90, 180, 6 bonds

Palmitic acid is a ______ and happens to be the primary product of ______ in the body

16 carbon fatty acid chain; fatty acid synthesis

pH of stomach

2

Hemoglobin has ___alpha and ___beta chains while myoglobin has 4 _______

2, 2 alpha helices

cerebral arteries the _____ pairs of large arteries within the skull that supply blood to the cerebral cortex

3

Tm is the temperature at which ____% of molecules are ______

50; denatured

Hill's coefficient

A quantitative measure of cooperative binding effects in enzymes n = 1 = NO cooperativity n < 1 = NEGATIVE cooperativity n > 1 = POSITIVE cooperativity

Tautomerism

A reaction which involves simple proton transfer in an intramolecular fashion is called a tautomerism. migration of H from an alpha carbon to an oxygen atom or C=O→C-OH This occurs due to resonance!! so they are going back and forth like this

partial report method

A research procedure where subjects are asked to report only a portion of the information presented

Plasma Membrane

A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells

Components of Chromotography Mobile Phase/Carrier Stationary Phase Eluent Eluate Elution Analyte

A. Mobile Phase/Carrier: solvent moving through the column. B. Stationary Phase/Adsorbent: substance that stays fixed inside the column C. Eluent: fluid entering the column D. Eluate: fluid exiting the column (that is collected in flasks) E. Elution: the process of washing out a compound through a column using a suitable solvent. F. Analyte: mixture whose individual components have to be separated and analyzed.

What can ketogenic amino acids be converted into? How about glucogenic?

Acetyl-CoA Glycolysis intermediates

pI of acidic amino acids? of basic?

Acidic - avg of pKa of R group and -COOH group (below 6) Basic - avg of pKa of R group and -NH2 group (above 6)

Inferiority Complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences

Use of: Affinity Chromatography Anion Exchange Chromatography Cation Exchange Chromatography Size-Exclusion Chromatography

Affinity: purify a molecule of interest Anion: separate components by negative charge (type of ion-exchange chromatography) Cation: separate components by positive charge (type of ion-exchange chromatography) Size-Exclusion: separates based on size

Functional Groups and Suffix

Alkane=[-ane] Alkene=[-ene] Alcohol=[-ol] or [hydroxyl-] Ether=[alkoxy] Ester=[-ate] Ketone=[-one] Carboxylic Acid=[-oic acid]

Valine, Leucine & Isoleucine What do they have in common?

All of these 3 amino acids are called branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). They perform the important functions of increasing proteins and serving as an energy source during exercise. BCAAs are amino acids present largely in myoproteins.

What is the significance of the fovea?

Almost all cones are centered here

Mitogens

An extracellular signal molecule that stimulates cell proliferation.

Nocebo

An inactive substance or form of therapy that creates harmful effects in a patient like placebo, but causes bad effects

Doppler effect

An observed change in the frequency of a wave when the source or observer is moving

In isoelectric focussing, what are the properties of the anode and cathode?

Anode gets an A+ Anode has Acidic (H+ rich) gel and a (+) charge in isoelectric focussing which is for nonspontaneous r xns) Cathode is basic (OH+ rich) gel and gets a (-) charge in isoelectric focusing Chatty Cathode gets a C- When you "chat" you open your mouth to OH and C- for Cathode is (-)

Why does ice float?

As water freezes, it expands and its density decreases. liquid has MORE weak interactions and flexibility. Ice has more STRONG intermolecular forces thus less forces in general making it less dense

Asparagine

Asn, N, Polar C=O are 3 away from each other

Where are splice acceptor sites?

At the end of EVERY intron!

These will show phenotype if: Autosomal Dominant = Autosomal Recessive = X-linked = Y linked =

Autosomal Dominant = Xx need only one mutated gene to be affected by this type of disorder and DISORDER WILL SHOW UP A LOT Autosomal Recessive = xx X-linked = males affected ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY the gene alteration can be transmitted from female carriers to sons AFFECTED SONS CANNOT TRANSMIT CONDITION TO THEIR SONS Y linked = only in males

How many chromosomes do autosomal cells, sex cells, diploid cells, haploid cells, daughter cells, gametes, and zygotes have?

Autosomal: 46 chromosomes Sex Cells: 23 chromosomes (23rd=sex chromosome) Diploid Cells: 46 chromosomes Haploid Cells: 23 chromosomes Daughter Cells: 23 chromosomes Gametes: 23 chromosomes Zygotes: 46 chromosomes

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) B2 (riboflavin) B6 (pyridoxine) B12(cobalamin) C(ascorbic acid)

B1: helps body release energy from just carbs B2: helps body release energy from protein, fat and carbs B6: helps build tissues and aids to release energy from protein B12: helps cell development, functioning of nervous system and metabolism of fat and protein C: essential for structure of bones, muscles, blood vessels

retinal disparity and convergence

BINOCULAR (there's 2 termins) depth cues!! retinal disparity = depth convergence = depth + angle

Research ethics were established in what report

Belmont Report

Role-Playing

But over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you.

Pyrimidines

C-U-T the Pye! Cystosine Uracil Thymine Pie = one circle aka only one ring structure/nitrogenous base :)

Molecular formula of Benzene Phenol Benzoquinone Hydroquinone Benzoic Acid

C6H6 C6H5OH C6H4O2 C6H4(OH)2 C7H6O2

LiAlH4 and NaBH4 are _____ reagents that do what?

C=O -> -OH and 1 H which looks like C-H

How is cyanohydrin produced?

CN- nucleophile attacks carbonyl C (electrophile ) of reactant to produce cyanohydrin Cyanohydrin's CN gets converted to carboxylic acid when exposed to H+ and H2O Ketone + HCN -> Ketone+CN (Cyanohydrin) Cyanohydrin + [H2O&H+] = Cyanohydrin's NH group turns into COOH

How do you calculate ions in a solution when given molarity? How about when the species has a molar ratio of 3:1 to the compound?

Calculate molarity of original With molarity, multiply by molar ratio of species:compound For ions, multiply by avogadro's number

calponin and caldesmon

Caldesmon is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CALD1 gene. Caldesmon is a calmodulin binding protein. Like calponin, caldesmon tonically inhibits the ATPase activity of myosin in smooth muscle. Thin filament regulatory protein.

According to Piaget what characterizes the concrete operational stage?

Children can understand conservation, consider the perspectives of others, and engage in logical thought with concrete objects. However cannot think abstractly, hence "concrete" stage

What's special about histidine

Close to physiological pH, therefore it exists in both protonated and deprotonated forms making it useful to have in the ACTIVE site of a protein to STABILIZE or DESTABILIZE a substrate.

Type of study that record exposures throughout time and then assess the rate of dependent variable ex: # of cases of the common cold throughout the winter common in medicine, psychology and sociology, where they allow researchers to study changes over time.

Cohort Studies

Subsequent (english vocab word)

Coming after or later

Cholesterol is a precursor for vitamin __

D

In Glycolysis, what molecules reactions are reversible?

DHAP ⇌ Glyceraldehyde 3P Glyceraldehyde 3P ⇌ 1, 3-Biphosphoglycerate

Function of EEG MRI fMRI CT PET

EEG: electrical impulses from brain/brain waves MRI: looks at protons to produce proton density images fMRI: registers blood flow to functioning areas in brain, helps track blood O₂ levels CT: cross-sectional x-ray images (slices) of the bones, blood vessels and soft tissues inside your body. PET: analyzes sugar/glucose uptake in brain

Where are proteins folded?

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Role confusion

Erikson's term for a failure in identity formation, marked by the lack of any sense of a future adult path

***important The magnitude of FORCE of a test charge can be calculated using

F = qE E= electric field q= test charge's charge

Biological Factors that Affect Cognition

Frontal lobe processes: organization and planning. The hippocampus processes: forms new memories. The amygdala processes(and limbic system): to arouse the necessary emotions, causing alertness and motivation necessary to complete tasks.

Medicaid Medicare

Great Society programs that guaranteed healthcare for specific groups, medicare for 65 and older, and medicaid for poor

To calculate pH, use ________ equation

Henderson-Hasselback pH = pKa + log (conj. base/acid) or pH = -log(pKa)

_________ is a cyclic compound that contains a heteroatom (any atom other than carbon) in the ring Two examples: _____ and ______ Compounds that aren't ______ are called polycyclic

Heterocycle is a cyclic compound that contains a heteroatom (any atom other than carbon) in the ring Ex: all nucleic acids, and Histamine bc it has an imidazole(aromatic) group

Hexokinase vs. glucokinase: Location?

Hexokinase: found everywhere!!! HIGH AFFINITY. inhibited by glucose 6p Glucokinase: found only in liver and Beta-cells of pancreas!!!! LOW AFFINITY

What is chemiosmosis?

Hydrogen going through ATP synthase is considered

Saponification

Hydrolysis of an ester in the presence of a base

Upright images vs inverted images? Virtual or real?

IR = inverted images are always real UV = upright images are always virtual

Antibody structure and function

Immunoglobulins Large Y-shaped protein Consist of 4 polypeptide chains Contain 2 identical fragments (Fab) with ends that bind to a specific antigen Fc binds to various cells and molecules of the immune system

DNA Translation Chain Initiation, Elongation, Termination

Initiation: Form initiation complex: mRNA, initiator tRNA (fmet), ribosome (initiation factors, GTP) Read Shine-Delgarno/Kozak sequence aka promotor then read AUG Elongation: N->C terminus direction, mRA codons read from 5' -> 3' amino acids moves A site-> P site-> E site tRNA amino acyl transfer protein is the bus that moves the amino acid. tRNAs help while in each pocket. Termination: reads stop codon, proteins release factors, peptide chain falls off

Innate Immune System Phagocytes Macrophages Neutrophils Monocytes Pus

Innate=NON-specific Phagocytes: first responders, eat dangerous substances Macrophages: first responders, can engulf ~100 bacteria at once Neutrophils: arrive after macrophages, stored in bone marrow until needed. DIE AFTER ENGULF Can engulf ~20 bacteria at once ▪ Monocytes: circulate in blood until needed. Leak out through capillaries. Once in infected tissue, they turn into macrophages o Pus: fluid made of dead macrophages and neutrophils (which die after engulfing bacteria)

Prostaglandins

Intensify histamine and kinin effect Downstream effects (through cAMP) include powerful effects on smooth muscle function, influence over the sleep-wake cycle, and the elevation of body temperature associated with fever and pain

Why does the body result in gluconeogenesis?

It first performs Glycogenolysis in times of high glucagon and epinephrine but when glycogen reserves empty, it turns to gluconeogenesis

Ksp (solubility PRODUCT constant)

Just products

Lewis Base Lewis Acid Bronsted Lowry Base Bronsted Lowry Acid

LB: e- donor LA: e- acceptor *think LEwis Acid* BLB: H+ acceptor BLA: H+ donor *think BAD aka Bronsted Acid Donates*

carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support will flatline

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of responding.

Force Field Theory

Lewin's theory that described one's current state of mind as a field, and forces as the sum of the influences acting on a person at a given time.

Meiosis and difference between meiosis I and meiosis II?

Meiosis I: one diploid parent cell → 2 haploid daughter cells ∙homologous pairs separate into chromosomes **crossing over and recombination occurs here Meiosis II: 2 haploid parent cells →4 haploid daughter cells ∙chromosomes separate into sister chromatids

________ pinch the cytoplasm during cytokinesis

Microfilaments

Role of Microfilaments, Microtubules and Intermediate Filaments What happens if you mess up microtubules making up the spindle apparatus?

Microfilaments: makes up actin filaments, globular subunits o Roles, pinches cytoplasm during cytokinesis, makes up muscle • Microtubules: supports shape of the cell, serves as platform for vesicle (dynein and kinesin), makes up spindle apparatus Intermediate filaments(Keratin): Primarily used for structural rigidity you mess up the assortment of chromosomes so trisomies(meiosis), unequal number of chromosomes being given to daughter cells(mitosis)

Cofactors

Minerals that assist in the normal functioning of enzymes

Missense vs Nonsense vs Silent mutations

Missense: makes different amino acid Nonsense: makes a stop codon Silent: makes the same codon

Adduction

Movement toward the midline of the body

Mutualistic vs Commensalisitic

Mutualistic: both benefit Commensalistic: One benefits, other gets no effect

Myopia and Hyperopia? Converging or Diverging?

My New Dog is Hyper For Candy Myopia = Nearsighted and Diverging Lenses Hyperopia = Farsighted and Converging Lenses

N terminus vs C terminus? What do they stand for?

N terminus = amino side (left) of protein/molecular and is (+) C teminus = carboxyl side (right) and is (-)

NADPH vs NADH [reducing or oxidizing agent]

NADPH is a reducing agent NADH is an oxidizing agent

All of these solvents are polar or nonpolar? Less or More Dense than Water Diethyl Ether (ether): Ethyl Acetate (EtOAc): Chloroform (CHCl3): Dichloromethane:

Nonpolar Diethyl Ether and Ethyl Acetate:less dense than water so is top layer of sep. funnel Chloroform and dichloromethane: more dense so is bottom layer of sep. funnel usually, nonpolar layer (organic) is top layer and aqueous is bottom layer.

What do I mean when I say DNA is semi conservative?

One strand is from the old and one strand is for the new! The DNA from that particular "old" is kept.

Osmotic Pressure vs Hydrostatic Pressure

Osmotic pressure encourages flow of blood from tissues into capillaries. Hydrostatic pressure (created by slow movement of blood) counteracts osmotic pressure and encourages flow from capillaries into tissue

▪ Glucagon = increases blood sugar (break down glycogen, stimulate gluconeogenesis) ▪ Insulin = lower blood sugar (stimulates glucose uptake by cells) Who releases these hormones?

Pancreas and the hormone are hydrophilic and peptides

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES Parallel = constant voltage Series = constant current PV Current Series Equations for resistance?

Parallel : V=IR, if V is constant then to find V/I = R. Thus the inverse of R = V which is why this equation makes sense bc V and R are the inversely proportional to each other.

Schwann has a _______

Penis: PNS Schwann cells are for the PNS

Adaptive B Lymphocytic Cell Types Plasma Memory B

Plasma cells: make free antibodies Memory B-cells: immune cells that recognize the specific antigen, remain in blood

_____regulate the synthesis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which is a ubiquitous intracellular messenger

Prostaglandins

Enolate

R-C-OR

Telomeres How are telomeres replicated?

Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. Using a special enzyme called telomerase

right hemisphere

Responsible for intuition, creativity, reading and processing the emotions of others, music comprehension and spatial processing

left hemisphere

Responsible for language, logic, math and comprehension (usually dominant)

The double-bond character of the peptide bond

Result of resonance. -restricted rotation around bond connecting carbonyl carbon to the nitrogen atom --> imparts rigidity to peptide bond -atoms of the peptide bond have planar geometry

social epidemiology

Study of how social organization contributes to the prevalence and patterns of disease

Systolic vs Diastolic Pressure What happens aka what's the heart doing?

Systolic and diastolic pressure o Systole: when the ventricles contract o Diastole: when entire heart relaxes and then atria contract

Which period on periodic table deviates from octet rule?

THIRD period AND BELOW

Equilibrium constants can only be affected by what property?

Temperature

LEDGF

Tethers HIV to host chromatin

Base Rate Fallacy

The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect or base rate bias, is a formal fallacy. The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information.

Archimedes' Principle is?

The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced water.

What does it mean when something shines/looks yellow? How do we measure how "yellow" something is under spectroscopy?

The object absorbs ALLLLLL colors EXCEPT yellow. Yellow is thus reflected. It HATES the color yellow and wants to get rid of it. To measure how "yellow" something is, we measure how much of the "anti-yellow" color has been absorbed. Anti-yellow =MOST opposite from yellow, which is purple.

P value

The probability of results of the experiment being attributed to chance.

Socialization

The process by which people learn norms and values of their culture.

Instinctual Drift

The tendency for an animal to drift back from a learned operant response to an innate, instinctual response to an object.

Semi-Periphery

These countries offer their citizens relatively diverse economic opportunities but also have extreme gaps between rich and poor.

What are CD4 cells and CD8 cells? What do they respond to and do?

They are T-Cell in the major histocompatibility complex CD4 cells respond to MHC-II (4 * 2 =8) and goes on to activate the rest of the immune system CD8 cells respond to MHC-I and kills the infected cell then and there

What does the 5' cap and poly-A tail do?

They protect the mRNA strand from enzymatic degradation and help the strand attach to the ribosome. 5' cap: protects from exonuclease degradation Poly-A tail: proteins 3' end of mRNA from exonuclease degradation

Amino acids that are both glucogenic and ketogenic?

To be BOTH glucogenic and ketogenic, you gotta be FITTT (F) Phenylalanine, (I) Isoleucine T Tyrosine T Tryptophan T Threonine

Flavinoids

UV absorbing compounds that prevent DNA damage

What is the function of salt bridges? When would you use a salt bridge?

Used to prevent charge buildup in GALVANIC cells (spontaneous) they help to release anions and cations into their designated half cells to counteract the buildup of charge created by the spontaneous reaction

Kirchhoff's Loop Rule

V source = V drop Sum of voltage sources = Sum of voltage drops

How does glyceraldehyde 3P turn into 1,3-BPG?

Via oxidation. Inorganic P group and NAD⁺ required* Glyceraldehyde 3P and inorganic P group EACH GET ONE H⁺ STOLEN BY Glyceraldehyde 3P Dehydrogenase. Dehydrogenase gives 2H⁺ to NAD⁺, creating NADH + H⁺ Oxidized Glyc. 3P = 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate

kcat formula

Vmax/[E] [E] = concentration of enzyme

What is work equal to? Equation?

W = force ∙ distance W=K W=K=1/2mv² or W = Fdcos*theta costheta = angle b/t force and distance

Resonance Effect

Withdrawal or donation of electrons through a pi bond due to the overlap of a p orbital on the substituent with a p orbital on the aromatic ring

E vs Z diastereomers

Z= top 2 priority groups are on Zame Zide

Keq =

[products]/[reactants]

according to vygotsky, who is required for a child to learn a skill?

a 'more knowledgable other' like an adult

Eicosanoids

a class of lipids that act as local hormones, like prostoglandin

common ion effect

a decrease in the solubility of an ionic compound caused by the addition of a common ion -this is just Le Chatelier's Principle

Saturated Solution

a mixture that contains as much dissolved solute as is possible at a given temperature -reached equilibrium

Semantic Memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of THE WORLD SEMANTIC WORLD

Positron

a particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge

Tetramer

a protein with a QUATERNARY structure of four subunits.

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

a region of the brain associated with the perceived unpleasantness of a pain sensation

That's not all technique

a sales technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision

cross-sectional study

a snapshot of a PARTICULAR group of people at a GIVEN POINT in time. For example, a cross-sectional study might be used to determine if exposure to specific risk factors might correlate with particular outcomes.

Marginal Poverty

a state of poverty that occurs when a person lacks stable employment

Independent Stressor

a stressor that happens regardless of your personal behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. get hit by drunk driver

Nucleus accumbens

a subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction

Amphoteric/Amphiprotic Amphipathic/Amphiphilic

a substance that can act as both an acid and a base hydrophilic and hydrophobic

word association testing

a test in which the tester gives the patient words and the patient responds with the first thing that comes to mind; used by psychoanalysts like Jung to infer subconscious thoughts or personality traits

Glycerol

a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

Torque

a turning or twisting force

Fluid Intelligence

ability to think on one's feet and solve problems

GTP bound G protein leads to?

activation of adenylyl cyclase

aligning actions

aligning/justifying your actions by making excuses

properties of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and halogens?

alkaline: very reactive alkaline earth: not as reactive, harder, stronger, higher melting points halogens: Poisonous, coloured gases, diatomic molecules

What's the "ground state" of an atom mean?

all electrons are in the lowest possible energy levels all about energy levels!!

oxidation happens at the _______ reduction happens at the ________

anode to cathode

The _____ is continuous with the colon

appendix

Capillaries form a network between the ____ and _____

arterioles and venules.

Venturi Effect is?

as cross sectional area decreases, velocity increases and pressure decreases (as stated in Bernoulli's shit)

The sodium pump is most active in the ______?

ascending loop of henle

racialization

ascribing a racial identity onto someone.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

assessment that measures the amount of stress in a person's life over a one-year period resulting from major life events

Meritocracy

assumes that opportunity is based on a combination of talent and effort

What is "amu" (Chemistry)

atomic mass units aka mass Ex: Water has a mass of 18 amu

Permanent Reflexes demonstrated by healthy newborns and do nott go awway with age areeee: (4)

breathing: innate control of breathing eyeblink: blinking when there's a bright light Pupillary reflex: dilation and constricting of pupils Swallowing: we know how to control tongue and throat muscles to move

Social Capital Cultural Capital

capital based benefits due to social network individual skills, knowledge and experience is considered valueable to society

Even before the eukaryotic mRNA is completely transcribed, its 5' end is _________________-

capped in a process using GTP

The chances of an amino acid substitution being a good substitute depends on what factors?

compared to the WT amino acid, the substitute's effectiveness depends on its size is MOST important then charge and LASTLYYYYY polarity

The structure of ______ and _______ inhibitors resemble substrates

competitive and uncompetitive

Pull down assay

confirming the existence of a protein-protein interaction

Conjugation, Transduction and Transformation?

conjugation = cell to cell transduction = virus to cell transformation = zombies (dead cells) transform cells

ventral prefrontal cortex

connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion

The most commonly found promotor nucleotide sequence recognized by a given species of RNA polymerase is called the ________

consensus sequence

Acceleration due to gravity is constant because the force and mass of the object is ______

constant

Glucocorticoids

cortisol

1 period in wavelength is from where to where?

crest to crest!!

_________contains a thiol group (-SH). If in close proximity with another thiol, cysteines can form a bond between the two Sulphur atoms called a disulfide bridge.

cysteine

______ is capable of making the most hydrogen bonds out of all nucleic acids and likes to form disulfide bonds Which is heavier? Guanine or Adenine? ______'s side chain can form a bond similar to a peptide bond

cytosine guanine lysine

Hypotonia

decrease in tone of skeletal muscle.

Social Integration

degree to which individual feels affiliated with his/her community

formula for change in distance

delta x = v0*t + 1/2 a*t2

SDS-PAGE separates based on Native PAGE separates based on Reducing SDS-Page

denatures protein by MASS AND SIZE (homodimers show up as one band) mass:charge ratio of protein same as SDS but also breaks cysteine bonds (homodimers show up as 2 bands)

Obedience

describes how we follow orders/obey authority. No cognitive component. Ex. "I'm just following orders"

amphoteric

describes water and other substances that can act as both acids and bases

secondary process thinking

development of strategies for solving problems and obtaining satisfaction

Relationship between resistivity and temperature?

directly proportional so when resistivity↑ then temperature↑

Rho proteins help RNA polyermase ___________________________________--

dissociate from DNA upon transcription termination

What is aldosterone and where does it target?

distal convoluted tubule and it reabsorbs Na⁺

______ bonds hold the antibody together

disulfide bonds

What is face validity in terms of research?

does this test actually measure what it claims to?

Equation for number of stereoisomers of a compound?

doesn't work on meso compounds tho

What is ecclesia?

dominant religion that includes most members of society

To calculate magnetic field use:

don't forget t: CURRENT f: MAGNETIC p: FORCE

Ventral Tegmental area is where _____ is made

dopamine

Calcitonin tones _______ levels of what element in the blood?

down levels of Ca2+

Both shizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease are characterized by cognitive _______ particularly in tasks of ____fluency and ____priming

dysfunction verbal negative

Red Cat, An Ox only applies to _____ cells

electrolytic cells which are non-spontaneous and where electrons flow from cathode to anode

Most viruses that infect eukaryotes are introduced to the cell by ________

endocytosis

Euchromatin vs Heterochromatin

euchromatin: uncoiled genetic material (lighter stained) where mRNA is transcribed heterochromatin: coiled genetic material that is transcriptionally inactive

Ksp formula

ex: Ksp=[A]¹[B]¹ If solubility of M(OH)₂ is S mol/L then [M]= S mol/L and [OH⁻]=2s Ksp=[M][OH⁻]² =[S][2S]² =4S³

Dual Coding Effect

example: processing words and images at the same time

what technique would help analyze where the most brain activity is occuring? What would it measure and why? [fMRI, PET, CT, MRI]

fMRI because it measures changes in blood flow which would change when certain areas of your brain are more active in order to give those areas more nutrients

cells absorb glucose through ____________

facilitated diffusion

Lots of Ghrelin will make you

fat fat like oGres

affective attitude component

feelings or emotions about topic

When given a bunch of letters/numbers/signals/weird molecules in B/BC section, what should I try to do to decrease time spent on the question?

find differences in the answers

Trait Theory

focus on identifying, describing, measuring, and comparing individual differences and similarities with respect to traits associated with Raymond Cattell (16 trait guy)

Conflict Theory Functionalist

focused on keeping SOCIAL CONTROL and social INEQUALITY focuses on behavior that contribute to SOCIETAL STABILITY

Satellites orbiting the Earth are in ____________ and their centripetal acceleration equals _______?

free fall the acceleration from the Earth's gravity

What kind of junctions do electrical synapses use?

gap junctions

The lac operon is activated when __________ and __________

glucose is scarce lactose is present

The simplest, smallest carbohydrates are (2)

glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone

_______ and _______ introduce kinks in the helical structure, they are referred to as alpha helix breakers

glycine and proline

Formula for weight when going up OR down an elevator?

going up :F = mg + ma going down: mg - ma

Glucagon acts when glucose is (gone or absent)?

gone! Glucagon is secretes during times of fasting in order to stimulate the degradation of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose and production of new glucose via gluconeogenesis

Capillaries have a [greater or lesser] TOTAL cross sectional area than arteries/veins?

greater

Strong acids have Ka greater/less than 1? Ka=? Low Ka means high/low pKa? List of all strong acids

greater Ka=10^-pKa pKa=-log₁₀Ka Low Ka means high pKa and weak acid HClO4 HBr CHNO3 H2SO4 HI

Majority group

group in society that controls most of the wealth and power, -though not always the largest group in numbers

_____ arises from a desire to minimize conflict between people (social process)

groupthink

E=_ _/ _

h=Planck's constant c= charge lambda= wavelength and E is also equal to eV₀ if given 140-keV and e= 1.6∙10⁻¹⁹ then to find E (1.4∙10⁵)(1.6∙10⁻¹⁹) = E 2.24∙10⁻¹⁴ = E

hynopompic hallucinations

hallucinations that occur when awakening from sleep; seen in narcolepsy

hypnagogic hallucinations

hallucinations that occur when going to sleep; seen in narcolepsy

are the products of meiosis haploid or diploid? mitosis?

haploid diploid

Periphery

have low levels of economic productivity, low per capita incomes, and generally low standards of living

Every time there is friction, _____ is produced as a by-product

heat

heat shock proteins

help protect other proteins from heat stress

Pericytes

help stabilize capillary walls and control permeability

Kozak Sequence

helps the ribosome identify the start codon in eukaryotes

cytochromes are proteins that require a prostethetic ____ group

heme

There is NO acceleration in the __________ component because ______ is constant

horizontal, velocity

Role engulfment

how a person's identity becomes based on one role which dominates and supersedes other roles

According to Piaget, what does the child learn during the sensorimotor stage?

how to manipulate his/her environment to fit physical needs

Accomodation

how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences "cc" to create/change schemas

What is orexin?

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus that also is involved in alertness and the sleep-wake cycle. Low blood sugar and ghrelin will stimulate it

how do i know if the results are CAUSATION not association???

if the results are from an EXPERIMENTAL STUDY. the independent variable can cause the dependent variable. THIS IS THE ONLY TIME

alter-casting

imposing an identity on someone. "You look like a kind person. Can you sign this petition against animal cruelty?" "Ok let's get ready. You make the coffee and I'll make the toast."

transmembrane helices are located n terminus located c terminus located

in the phospholipid membrane membrane extracellular side (hydrophilic) intracellular side (hydrophobic)

__________can lead a population to speciation by increasing the number of homozygous individuals in that population without changing the allele frequency

inbreeding

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event occurs when person's memory is less strong

What is marginal poverty?

individual can't find/keep a job

Cytoplasmic/extra-nuclear inheritance

inheritance of things outside the nucleus such as mitochondrial DNA

Endogenous means?

inside the body

high dipole moment increases chances of [solubility or insolubility] in an aqueous solution

insolubility since the dipole moment is so strong and don't want to break apart

Lazarus Theory

interpretation must happen before arousal or emotion, which happen simultaneously.

self-disclosure

introducing yourself as doctor to a patient

For UNIFORM CIRCULAR motion, the acceleration ____ Formula for UNIFORM circular motion acceleration and FORCE? **This applies to harmonics too!!!**

is directed toward the center of the circle

How to calculate efficiency?

it is RELATIVE so 3 pounds added to a pebble is much more significant than 3 pounds added to a boulder

What's special about alanine?

it's an energy source for the liver! One of the amino acids which most easily used as an energy source. Reported to improve alcohol metabolism. Used as a material for synthesis of glucose (blood sugar) needed by the body.

only care about P values if there are graphs/tables included in passage!!!!

just a tip :)

if a solvent isn't given on test day, assume it's polar

kaplan tip

When a molecule is in a thermodynamically unfavorable state, it relies on its _______ property to function

kinetic

Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde Propionaldehyde

knows these by their common names! Formaldehyde (methanal) CH4 Acetaldehyde (ethanal) C2H6 Propionaldehyde (propanal) C3H8 2n + 2 = how many H

avolition

lack of motivation

inert means (physics)

lacking the ability or strength to move

Which amino acids are only ketogenic?

leucine and lysine

To make cDNA, what do you start with?

mRNA

What happens when a macrophage/phagosome ingests foreign material?

material gets trapped in phagosome phagosome fuses with lysosome to make phagolysozome digests material

Dielectric meaning and function?

means nonconducting material and insertion between plates of a capacitor INCREASE capacitance

Paradigm means? (English Vocab)

model

Cattell's Trait Theory

model of personality that states there are 16 different characteristics that we all have at varying levels

*** important Electric Potential Energy is the work necessary to

move a test charge from a position to a specific point of in an electric field surrounding a source charge

Transporter Proteins

move chemicals across membranes

What do microtubules do for mitosis/meiosis?

movement of chromosomes towards opposite sides of the pole via spindle apparatus during Anaphase

Mutarotation and Hemiacetal formation?

mutarotation = equilibrium between a and b anomers hemiacetal formation -OH attacks carbonyl group and makes ring form

Electron acceptors will have a ______ charge

negative

Signaling Stimuli

neutral stimuli that have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus

Cribiform plate of ethmoid bones contains holes that allow axons of sensory molecules to pass through for which sense?

olfaction (smell)

If I add a gene to a group of cells undergoing translation right then and there, where on the strand will that gene be incorporated?

on the C end since translation starts on the N end

Form Perception

one's cognitive understand of an object's visible shape and conFiguration

cognitive attitude component

person's knowledge and information about the object or idea

A common problem throughout evolution and how it has changed us?

problem: not having enough high caloric foods humans have developed a preference for high caloric foods because they are a good source of fuel in the form of fat. Fat can sustain bodily functions through periods of time when food is scarce

What's titration?

procedure for determining concentration of a solution. Usually we'll have the something we know the VOLUME of (HCl), but not its CONCENTRATION. Then we'll add a "Strandard" solution of known concentration (NaOH) that we add (titrant). We'll also have some indicator when a certain pH balance is reached (phenylthaline common). When that happens, we'll measure how much of the standard we used (this is the equivalance point; equal parts acid and base)

What is senescence

process by which cells stop proliferating in response to environmental stressors and are cleared away by immune cells (allows for shaping of tissues)→Loss of cell's power of division and growth (as you age ya know) ▪Implicated in aging

Assimilation

process of social integration and generally refers to when new members adopt the main elements of a culture. The other response options each provide an aspect of the definition of assimilation (cultural adaptation, adopting new norms, and relinquishing old norms)

Shine Dalgarno sequence is used in ______[eukaryotes or prokaryotes] for [transcription/translation/replication] Kozak sequence sequence is used in ______[eukaryotes or prokaryotes] for [transcription/translation/replication] Where are these sequences located?

prokaryotes, translation eukaryotes, translation located upstream from initiation codon

akt

promotes movement of glucose transporters to the cell membrane involved in apoptosis

somatosensory cortex

registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

3 things needed for a social movement to develop?

relative deprivation(feeling like you dont have enough) feelings of deserving better and that conventional means to attain your goals are useless

Alkanes, ethers, aromatics, alkyl halides are all? Trend in polarity in relation to carbons?

relatively nonpolar the more carbon, the less polar

The time since something was learned is known as a __________ interval.

retention

kcat is used to describe the rate-limiting step of catalysis under _____________ conditions of substrate

saturating

What is the difference between shadowing and recalling?

shadowing is repeating things IMMEDIATELY recalling is trying to remember after some sort of time period

Neuroleptics are the first antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia, used to treat positive symptoms but side effects include _______?

side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms

Pons

sleep and arousal

________ helps remove introns post transcription

small nuclear RNA aka snRNA

Micelles

small transport carriers in the intestine that enable fatty acids and other compounds to be absorbed

What are sects?

smaller, established in protest of the larger church

functionalism analyzes how groups behave to contribute to long term_______

societal stability

________ is 2 or more people living together and sharing a culture

society

An ordered mechanism will have a substrate that binds ________

specifically

primary process thinking

sprimitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy oriented

Thrombus

stationary blood clot

Strong bond require [weak or strong] concentrations of solvent to break

strong since it has so much affinity!

Longer strands means [stronger or weaker] overall bonds

stronger!! and longer!!

Macula

structure within retina that includes the wider area around the fovea

Ethology

study of animal(and human) behavior

lipid raft

subdomain with high concentration of cholesterol and glycoshingolipids Located in PM

Cataplexy

sudden loss of muscle control

Comparative Methods

systematic comparison of elements from many cultures

What are the cristae in the mitochondria?

the infoldings of the inner mitochondrial membrane. -they help to increase the SA available for the ETC enzymes

retinyl esters

the main storage form of vitamin A; one of the retinoids; retinyl esters are retinol combined with fatty acids, usually palmitic acid; also known as preformed vitamin A

Economic System

the method used by a society to produce and distribute goods and services

Achetypes (Jung)

the original model by which other things are made

Mead's "The Self"

the part of an individual's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image

Primary Socialization secondary socialization anticipatory socialization

the process of learning that begins at birth and occurs in the home and family process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society learning that helps a person achieve a desired position

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Sensory Amplification

the strengthening of a sensory signal during transduction

Sleepwalking mostly occurs during __ stage of sleep

third

Spontaneous deamination of 5-methylcytosine converts it to _______

thymine

condidium

tiny fungal spore that forms at the tips of specialized hyphae in ascomycetes

KNOW GLYCOLYSIS LIKE THE BACK OF YOUR HAND AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION AND ALL THAT JAZZ

tip

MAKE SURE YOUR ANSWER IS THE *BEST* ANSWER AKA ANSWERS THE QUESTION TO THE MOST SPECIFIC AND GREATEST EXTENT

tip

When a protein is modified to produce a mature form of itself, it uses a delayed mechanism of secretion.

tip

when choose answers for bio and physics, make sure the answer uses the same PHRASING as the passage

tip

when in doubt, use cos*theta if you can't remember if it's sin or cos

tip

when there's air resistance, acceleration (gravity) will decreasse because the force (weight - resistance) is decreasing due to increasing resistance (air's resistance)

tip

Who will form an oil droplet in water?

triacylglycerols

Motivational Interviewing (Motivational Enhancement Therapy)

tries to change ambivalent patients so that they wanttt to change and willl meet their goals

disulfide bonds in amino acids ____ becomes _____

two cysteine molecules bind → cystine

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information

How to find time projectile is in the air

use the vertical component calculate the time it takes for projectile to hit the group

How did Meselson and Stahl proved DNA is semi-conservative? What were they looking for to see if it was semi-conservation or dispersive?

used heavy (15N) DNA as the old (pre-replication) DNA, and used light (14N) nucleotides for the synthesis of new DNA. They can tell the difference between heavy and light DNA by centrifugation. What they found was that when heavy DNA undergoes one round of replication in light nucleotides, the DNA made is of intermediate weight. After the second round of replication, the DNA is split between intermediate and light weight. If DNA replication were completely conservative, only heavy and light DNA would be seen, and nothing in between. If DNA replication were dispersive, everything would be of intermediate weight.

Correspondent interference theory

used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (esp unexpected) behaviours performed by another person

Shape of a molecule depends on the number of _______ at the central atom

valence electrons

Gravity is the [strongest/weakest] of the four universal forces What are the 4 forces

weakest The strong force (also called nuclear force) which is the strongest. Electromagnetic Force (little weaker than strong force) Weak Force (10x weaker than strong force). Gravity (50x weaker than strong force)

managing appearances

wearing a white coat, looking compassionate

According to Piaget, what are secondary circular reactions?

when a child repeats a manipulation outside the body to get a response from the environment

When do you perceive the color white?

when light contains all the colors in equal intensity

Interference

when people study new material, any new info introduced between the initial learning and retrieval (like watching a movie) messes with their memory

Confirmation Bias

when someone looks for ideas/evidence that supports whatever he already thinks is right and completely disregards information that refutes it

The relative thermodynamic stability of isomers can be determined based on the amount of heat produced_________________

when the compounds are combusted; less heat, greater stability.

When will Fructose 1,6BP make dihydroxyacetone P (DHAP)

when we have excess glucose and need to perform lipid synthesis.

x and y in terms of cos and sin

x = cos y = sin (cos, sin)

When asked y=x + (1-b)/3 is this equal to y = (x + (1-b))/3 or y = x + ((1-b)/3)?

y = x + ((1-b)/3)

Are prions self replicating?

yes

When both a positive and a negative charge are present it is called a ________

zwitterion

Angular velocity/frequency

ω=2πf

Role of duodenum, jejunum and ileum?

• Duodenum digests food • Jejunum and ileum absorb food

Proximal Stimulus vs Distal Stimulus?

• Proximal stimuli are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.). It is the light that is actually falling on the retina. ∙Distal stimuli are objects and events out in the world about you. Aware of and respond to this - this is what is important.

o Steps for how antigens are processed to be displayed on MHC's (4)

▪ 1) Antigen uptake: pathogen is either already in the cell (MHC I) or needs to be phagocytosed (MHC II) ▪ 2) Antigen processing: pathogen processed into smaller peptides in cytosol (exogenous) or in vesicles (endogenous) ▪ 3) Peptide-MHC association: antigens associate with MHC in the ER (endogenous) or via fusion with vesicles (exogenous) ▪ 4) Cell surface expression: antigen-MHC complex placed on cell surface for interaction with appropriate immune cells

Steroid Pathway

▪ 1) Steroid hormone (and thyroid hormone even though it's amino acid based) goes inside the cell ▪ 2) Hormone binds receptor inside the cell (cytoplasm or nucleus) ▪ 3) Hormone-receptor complex (transcription factor) turns certain genes on inside the nucleus

Signal 1 and Signal 2: signals needed for B and T cell action. Both must be present for activation to occur ▪ Signal 1: • T-cells: • B-cells: ▪ Signal 2: • T-cells: • B-cells:

▪ Signal 1: BCR and TCR recognize its appropriate antigen • T-cells: Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) show Signal 1 to T-Cell Receptor. APCs engulf pathogens and display antigen on MHC II's. • B-cells: Signal 1 received when an antibody binds to multiple BCR's on the same cell ▪ Signal 2: "danger signal," received when there's an actual infection occurring. "Oh shit, this antigen is harmful" • T-cells: Signal 2 provided by activation of innate immune system (ex: increase in circulating cytokines) • B-cells: Signal 2 provided by signals from helper T-cells

Inborn Errors of Metabolism (IEM)

▪Genetic diseases resulting in faulty metabolism ▪Considered congenital (present since birth) metabolic diseases & inherited metabolic diseases

When are primary oocytes made and where are they arrested? Are all secondary oocytes equal? Where do they get arrested?

▪Primary oocytes only made before birth in females. Occurs constantly after puberty in males then get arrested in Prophase I ▪Secondary oocytes are not equal. One gets all cytoplasm and becomes a secondary oocyte while other one doesn't and gets trashed ▪Secondary oocyte arrested at metaphase II. Released from ovary and travels down fallopian tube

A and T form how many H bonds? How about G and C

A-T=2 bonds G-C=3 bonds

operant extinction

Disappearance of a behavior through removal of reinforcers (ex. if a dog learns to sit down in order to receive a treat, and treats are no longer given, the "sit down" behavior will eventually disappear) if the dog DOES IT AGAIN and he doesn't get rewarded, the behavior will become extinct

Discriminatory Stimuli

Discriminative stimulus is a term used in classical conditioning as a part of the process known as operant conditioning. A discriminative stimulus is a type of stimulus that is used consistently to gain a specific response and that increases the possibility that the desired response will occur. For example, in an experiment where a rat is being taught to navigate a maze it is easiest to train the rat with a highly desirable treat (such as peanut butter) rather than a less desirable reward such as a piece of broccoli.

What abilities decline as people age? what improves as we age?

Divided attention, Episodic memory, Recall, Processing speed DERP semantic memory, emotional reasoning, crystallized IQ(ability to retrieve general info) SEC

Periodic Table Metals, Nonmetals

Sodium is considered a metal!

Totipotent vs Pluripotent vs Multipotent vs Embryonic

Totipotent: the potential to differentiate into any type of cell(only fertilized egg) Pluripotent: the potential to differentiate into most any type of cells except placental cells (embryonic stem cells) Multipotent: can develop into more than one cell type, but more limited than pluripotent, . Ex. adult stem cells and cord blood stem cells Embryonic: present only within the first couple of cell divisions after fertilization and are the only example of cells that are totipotent

What happened after WWII?

baby boomers and relatively high birth rate

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, why do we feel angry?

because our skin is hot and blood pressure is high

phosphodiester bond

"nucleotides are linked to one another by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide in a way that the 5' end bears a phosphate, and the 3' end a hydroxyl group. " the type of bond that links the nucleotides in DNA or RNA. -joins the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the hydroxyl group on the sugar of another nucleotide

Hydropathy Plot

# of cellular membrane-spanning regions = regions where y values change from negative to positive

How does the myosin head move actin?

*ADP creates affinity between the myosin head and actin filament *Extra Phosphate group causes myosin head to be in cocked position The myosin head has ADP + P (ATP) and binds to the actin filament. It's cocked and in it's RELAXED state. Myosin head PERFORMS ATPASE, drops a phosphate group, myosin head tries to DROP BACK DOWN but is attached to actin filament so it also moves actin along with it thus creating the "POWER STROKE"

Bipolar I vs Bipolar II

*I*: higher highs *II*: lower lows, and more low than high II has a greater suicide risk Antidepressants can precipitate mania

Important Reaction: Robinson Annulation Reaction

*Robinson annulation* is a two-step method for forming a ring, in which a Michael addition is followed by an intramolecular aldol condensation NuOH (reagent) attacks H (reactant). Then intramolecular aldol condensation to make 6 membered ring. (add carbonyl)

Types of Decay

*note effects on atomic and mass number Alpha - helium! Result: 2 protons less Beta- a neutron turns into an electron and is emitted Result: add 1 proton Gamma- high energy photon released.

Situational vs. Dispositional Attribution

- *Situational*: Explains behavior in terms of something outside of behavior (EX: friend's late to pick me up - she must be stuck in traffic) - *Dispositional*: Explains behavior in terms of the persons character/personality (EX: friend's late to pick me up - she must not care about my time and is a crappy person)

Dissociation of Water What does an acid attack?

- A hydrogen atom leaves its electron behind and a hydrogen ion (H+) is transferred - The water molecule that lost a proton is now a hydroxide ion (OH-) and has a charge of 1- - The proton binds to the other water molecule making it a Hydronium ion (H30+)

Self Determination Theory

- another needs based theory of motivation 1) autonomy: the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas 2) competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks 3) relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships

How to break a protein effectively and have it not fold correctly again? What bonds have to be broken? What order? What can we use?

-Breaking the disulfide bonds reagent like mercaptoethanol followed by heating to 100C to destroy hydrogen bonds (or treatment with urea) causes loss of activity -mercaptoethanol, can reduce the disulfides (between cysteine residues) -urea hydrolyzes hydrogen bonds

Retroviruses

-a single-stranded RNA genome and use DNA intermediates to replicate. After uncoated, uses ITS OWN REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE to change its OWN RNA -> DNA then virus' integrase inserts its DNA into the host's DNA genome which is copied to produce a double-stranded molecule of viral DNA.

siRNA

-aka silencing RNA which inhibit the continuation of transcription -class of double-stranded RNAs about 23 nucleotides in length that silence gene expression; act by either promoting the degradation of mRNAs with precisely complementary sequences or by inhibiting the transcription of genes containing precisely complementary sequences

Perspective of Basic Groups in Sociology Dyads and Triads Big groups and small groups

-larger groups are generally considered more stable but less intimate -whereas smaller groups are usually considered less stable but more intimate. -Dyads, two-person groups such as the physician-patient group, are unstable because either party can break the single social tie. -The triad, three person groups such as the physician-patient-cultural liaison group, is considered relatively more stable because of the additional social ties.

Motor development in infants

-motor development sequence determined by CEREBELLUM -all approximates: 2 Months: Baby is prone (lying face down, flat), can lift head 3 Months: use arms to lift chest and roll over 6 Months: sit alone 7 Months: stand with support 9 months: crawl 10 months: walk with support 12 months: stand alone 13 months: walk alone

steric hindrance/steric interference difference between steric hindrance vs torsional strain

-overlap of electron clouds from the two or more groups -results in slowing of reaction rate due to steric bulk Torsional strain is the repulsion caused by the electrons from two different groups passing by/being close to eachother which occurs between eclipsing groups

Protium vs Deuterium vs Tritium in terms of priority assigning?

1 H = protium (1 proton and 0 neutrons) 2 H = D = deuterium (1 proton and 1 neutron) 3 H = T = tritium (1 proton and 2 neutrons) T > D > H

standard atmosphere (atm)

1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 101.3 kPa

1 calorie vs. 1 Calorie

1 calorie = 4.185 J 1 Calorie = 4,185 J

One NADH mole can reduce ____ disulfide bond

1 mole

pH represents hydrogen concentration in relation to

1 x 10^-[pH]

cAMP pathway

1. Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor. 2. G protein activated. 3. Adenylate cyclase activated. 4. cAMP made. 5. Protein kinase cascade.

DNA Replication

1. DNA gyrase uncoils DNA, helicase breaks, SSB (single-strand binding proteins) helps keep it unwound 2. DNA Primase -> DNA Polymerase III on leading strand -> DNA Polymerase I on lagging strand only lagging strand has Okazaki fragments because it works 3' to 5' Ligase glues fragments where DNA Pol. I can't synthesize Telomerase: catalyzes lengthening of telomeres Nuclease: cuts unwanted segments Topoisomerase: nicks the DNA backbone to unwind

Reproductive sequence: fertilization; implantation; development; birth

1. Fertilization 2. Cleavage: Zygote multiplies into morula 3. Morula becomes blastocyte and implants in uterus' wall 4. Gastrulation: germ layers form 5. Neurulation; become neurula. notochord induction causes neural plate to bind its ends and form the neural tube. cells near neural tube are considered neural crest.

Stages of early development/embryogenesis

1. Fertilization 2. Cleavage: Zygote multiplies into morula 3. Morula becomes blastocyte and implants in uterus' wall 4. Gastrulation: germ layers form 5. Neurulation; become neurula. notochord induction causes neural plate to bind its ends and form the neural tube. cells near neural tube are considered neural crest. Neural Crest eventually develops into PNS Neural Tube eventually develops into CNS

Newton's Laws

1. Remain at rest until hit 2. F=ma 3. Equal and Opposite Force relative to Earth and the object

mask like facies cogwheel rigidity pill-rolling tremor

1. a facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth 2. muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb 3. flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as if rolling something in the fingers

Theories to WHY we sleep

1. we are not nocturnal creatures (Evolutionary/Circadian) 2. heals us/helps us grow (Restorative) 4. processes info from the day (Consolidation)

Mega is 10^ _____?

10^6

An intensity level of 80dB really means what?

10^8th

What is the average weight of one amino acid? so how much would a 300 amino acid residue weigh? what if a protein had 5 of those residues?

110Da 110 * 300 = 33000 thus 33kDa 33kDa * 5 = 165kDa

Fertilization occurs at week __? Fetal Development is at __ weeks?

2 10

A forms __[#] hydrogen bonds with T. G forms __[#] hydrogen bonds with C. GC bonds are [stronger/weaker]. DNA with [high/low] GC content will be harder to break apart. Complementary strands of DNA hydrogen bond with each other. 5'-ATGC-3' will be complementary to ________ or __________ '. make sure you get the 5's and 3's right.

2 3 stronger, high 5'-GCAT-3' or 3'-TACG-5

Carboxylic Acids (tend to undergo substitution, not addition, b/c they have good LG's on their carbonyl C's) Reactions at _-position, substitution ▪ Carboxylic acid derivatives tend to lose an H on their ____ carbon. This can be substituted for a halide Physical properties: ____ BP bc H bonding, ____ in water Reactions Carboxyl group reactions: Nuc attack on COOH → ___? Nuc attacked by COOH → ____? Reduction: _____+ COOH → alcohol ______ is weaker. Can only reduce ketones and aldehydes (not carboxylic acids and esters) Decarboxylation: occurs for beta-keto acids and _____?

2; alpha high; soluble nuc attaches to COOH only nuc halide or LG ends on COOH LiAlH₄ NaBH₄ takes off a COOH

Simple sugars tend to have how many carbons?

3 - 7 carbon atoms

Na/K ATPase

3 Na out, 2 K in

Corticosteroid functions?

3 S's Salt (mineralcorticoids) Sugar (Glucocorticoids) Sex (cortical sex hormones)

Echoic Memory: something you hear that lasts for _____ seconds

3-4 seconds

What is the value of "c" (speed of light)

3.0 x 10⁸ m/s

How many electrons to make tetrahedral geometry?

32 electrons

About how many ATP are produced per glucose in aerobic respiration?

34

Theta is always in radians and 2pi radians = ____degrees

360

Languages (with native competency) are usually learned by the age of __. Theory of Universal Grammar (UG)

5 all languages are alike in structural foundation, and because of common grammar rules and patterns, we are able to learn to speak without formal instruction.

Purines have ___ nitrogens and ___ C=O

5, 1

What is avogadro's number and what does it represent

6 x 10²³ particles/molecules/atoms represents number of particles/molecules/atoms within one mole of x

What is the value of "h" (Planck's constant)

6.62 x 10⁻³⁴ J∙s

Dreams & Theories a) activation-synthesis theory b) problem-solving dream theory c) cognitive process dream theory

70% of dreams occur during REM a) activation-synthesis theory: dreams caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry - can mimic incoming sensory info, access memories/desires b) problem-solving dream theory: dreams are a way to solve problems while asleep c) Cognitive process dream theory: dreams are the sleeping counterpart of consciousness

Color Spectrum? Wavelength?

750nm-380nm 10⁻⁷ high to low Red ~700, Orange ~600, Yellow ~580, Green ~500, Blue ~400, Indigo ~350, Violet ~300 don't forget complementary colors! they're the ones on the opposite side of the spectrum!

Typically, how old are babies when they generate stranger anxiety and can imitate facial responses??

8 months

The microtubules in cilia are arrange in a _____ pair outer circle with ______ lone tubules in the center

9, 2

Components of Fractional Distillation A. Distilling Flask: B. Oil Bath: C. Thermometer: D. Condeser: E. Receiving Flask: F. Ice Bath: G. Vacuum Adaptor

A Distilling Flask: contains mixture of compounds that you want to separate out B Oil Bath: helps maintain a constant temperature during process; doesn't evaporate C Thermometer: measures what temperature your compounds are boiling out at D Condenser: water cycles in and out to keep the condenser cool allowing the condenser to condense evaporated compounds into receiving flask E Receiving Flask: collects the condensed liquid from condenser F Ice Bath: keeps condensed liquid in receiving flask cold G Vacuum Adapter: lowers pressure of the system making it easier to vaporize substances (especially if has high boiling point).

Perceptual maladaptation

A TRAIT that is MORE HARMFUL THAN HELPFUL, in contrast with an adaptation, which is more helpful than harmful. All organisms, from bacteria to humans, display maladaptive and adaptive traits.

Bottleneck effect how does it affect genetic drift?

A change in allelic frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population Genetic Drift: random changes in allelic frequencies increases effect of genetic drift

dehydration reaction

A chemical reaction in which molecules combine by removing water

pulley system (block and tackle)

A combination of fixed and movable pulleys

intermediate filaments

A component of the cytoskeleton that includes filaments intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments.

La belle indifference

A condition in which the person is unconcerned with symptoms caused by a conversion disorder. A naive, inappropriate lack of emotion or concern for the perceptions by others of one's disability, usually seen in persons with conversion disorder.

What is calmodulin? A ________ ____ binding protein Calmodulin is particularly important in _____________muscle cells where binding of Ca2+ allows calmodulin to activate ____________, the first step in smooth muscle cell contraction.

A cyoplasmic Ca2+-binding protein. smooth myosin light-chain kinase

Proteasome

A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.

Collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers - found extensively in connective tissue and bone -contains specific amino acids: Glycine, Proline, Hydroxyproline and Arginine.

Transformational Grammar

A linguistic theory that focuses on how changes in word order affect meaning

What is electron affinity?

A neutral atom's likelihood of gaining an electron and creating a negative ion

Angiotensin

A normal blood protein produced by the liver, angiotensin is converted to angiotensin I by renin (secreted by kidney when blood pressure falls). Angiotensin I is further converted to angiotensin II by ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme). Angiotensin II is a powerful systemic vasoconstrictor and stimulator of aldosterone release, both of which result in an increase in blood pressure.

Chemiosmosis

A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.

Rorschach inkblot test

A projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure

myosin light chain

A small regulatory protein chain at the base of the myosin head. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the myosin light chain control contraction and relaxation in smooth muscle.

kinetochore vs centromere

A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.

What is ADH? Where's it found?

ADH = Antidiuretic Hormone = Vasopressin = water reabsorption in kidney = conserve water, increase blood pressure distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct (CD)

Important Reaction: Aldol Condensation Mechanism then (if applicable) dehydration reaction (synthesis)

ALDOL CONDENSATION: 1. OH attacks enolate. 2. enolate attacks carbonyl. PRODUCT: nucleophilic addition of an enolate to a carbonyl group. end with carbonyl having OH instead of =O DEHYDRATION: new O from OH group attacks a floating H and re-establishes the alpha carbon's adjacent double bond.

Energy Profile of Reactions: Where is activation energy and overall energy change?

Activation energy: energy difference from reactants to threshold/highest point on graph Overall Energy change: energy difference between reactants and products/lowest point of graph

Are norepinephrine(noradrenaline) and epinephrine hormones or neurotransmitters? What are the neurotransmitters?

BOTH. they are secreted by the adrenal medulla which releases things into the bloodstream! ▪ Acetylcholine (ACh) ▪ Norepinephrine (NE) ▪ Dopamine ▪ Serotonin ▪ Histamine ▪ ATP ▪ GABA

Concave Mirror Object behind vs infront of focal point

Behind the RIM: BEHIND focal point of concave (still infront of center of curvature C) always produces an image that is Real, Inverted, Magnified (RIM) MUV in Front: INFRONT of focal point always makes an image that's Magnified, Upright, Virtual (MUV)

Actor Observer Bias

Blame our actions on the situation, but blame actions of others on personality

SSRI mechanism of action

Blocks the reuptake of released serotonin back into presynaptic cell which causes an increase in its effects because its super bound to receptor

Boyle's Law Charles' Law Gay-Lussac's Law Avogadro's Law and # Combined Gas Law Ideal Gas Law Real Gases Concept

Boyle: PV = PV Charles: V/T = V/T Gay-Lussac's : P/T = P/ T Avogadro: n/V = n/V , 6 x 10^23 atoms Combined Gas Law: PV/T = PV/T Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT Real Gases Concept: Decreasing the volume of a sample gas makes it behave less ideally because the individual gas articles are in closer proximity in a smaller volume so they're more likely to have interactions.

How does cancer affect mitosis?

Cancer is unchecked cell growth. accelerates cell division rates or inhibits normal controls on the system, such as cell cycle arrest or programmed cell death

3 Types of Muscles and their characteristics

Cardiac: intercalated discs that separate cardiac muscle cells, gap junctions for propagation of AP, striates and made of sarcomeres, ONE nucleus Smooth: found in arteries and lungs types, no sarcomeres, ONE nucleus Skeletal/Striated: connects bonds, striations made of sarcomeres, MULTIPLE nuclei

Control of Cell Cycle Checkpoints

Checkpoints ▪G1 checkpoint • If conditions are favorable for division→S; if not→G0 o Favorable conditions based on cell size (Large = ready) ▪G2 checkpoint • Checks for mitosis promoting factor (MTF) o High MTF levels indicates aligned chromosomes → mitosis is triggered

Chemical Stability means? What is it also considered?

Chemical stability when used in the technical sense in chemistry, means thermodynamic stability of a chemical system. Thermodynamic stability occurs when a system is in its lowest energy state, or chemical equilibrium with its environment.

Fate of NADH + H in glycolysis Where does it come from? Where can it go

Comes from Glyceraldehyde 3P ⇌ 1, 3 BPG step. Fate: aerobic respiration: Gets OXIDIZED by pyruvate dehydrogenase to make energy to make ATP anaerobic respiration: Get REDUCED by lactate dehydrogenase to make lactate and heads back to being next to Glyceraldehyde 3P dehydrogenase

D/L vs R/S D and L vs d and l

D and L = where OH group of last carbon center is located R and S = fisher projection clockwise vs counter clockwise D and L used for absolute configuration in sugars d and l used for absolute configuration in other

Configurations that dictates direction of optical activity?

D(dextro aka right) and L (levo aka left) Cis vs Trans - cis can have optical activity bc its non superimposable Trans cannot bc it is superimposable

In a cross of AaBb x AaBb, what fraction of the offspring can be expected to express one of the two dominant alleles, but not both? A. 9/16 B. 3/16 C. 1/2 D. 3/8

D. 3/8 because the dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1 so 9 homozygous dominant, 3 heterozygous dominant, 3 heterozygous dominant and 1 homozygous recessive so the heterozygous dominants can be expected to express one of the two dominant alleles but not both because they aren't homozygous for both thus 6/16 = 3/8

DNA Sanger Sequencing

DNA (Sanger) sequencing o Used to determine the sequence of nucleotides in a strand of DNA o Modified nucleotides, known as "dideoxynucleotides" (ddNTPs), are used in this method. ddNTPs are missing the OH group on the 3' carbon, thus unable to create a new 5'→3' phosphodiester bond. This allows us to control termination of replication. o 1. DNA strand of interest is denatured using an NaOH solution to create a ssDNA strand that we can use for replication o 2. ssDNA strand of interest is added to a solution containing: ▪ 1. A radiolabeled DNA primer that is complementary to the gene of interest ▪ 2. DNA polymerase ▪ 3. All four dNTPs (dATP, dTTP, dCTP, dGTP) ▪ 4. A very small quantity of a single ddNTP (e.g., ddATP) ▪ This is done once for each of the four nucleotides in separate solutions o 3. Each solution containing a specific dNTP and ddNTP are placed in their own lane of a gel and ran under gel electrophoresis. The gel is transferred to a polymer sheet and autoradiography is used to identify the strands in the gel. o For each respective nucleotide, the insertion of a ddNTP will terminate replication and create various strands of different length that correspond to that specific nucleotide. Therefore, the gel can be read from bottom-to-top to determine the nucleotide sequence. The smaller the fragment, the further it travels in the gel.

DNA Polymerase I, II, III

DNA Pol I: works on lagging strand 3' to 5' DNA Pol II: repairs DNA Pol III: works on leading strand 5' to '

Function of DNA Pol III vs DNA Pol I?

DNA Pol III synthesizes nucleotides onto leading end in 5' to 3' direction DNA Pol I synthesizes nucleotides onto primers on lagging strand and makes Okazaki fragments. cannot completely synthesize all nucleotides!

Display Rules, Impression Management and Dramaturgical Approach

Display Rules: unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotion Impression Management: maintenance of a public image through various strategies Dramaturgical Approach: individuals create images of themselves in same way actors perform a role infront of audience

How to determine R or S configuration?

Draw out isolated Carbon center with its functional groups -Determine Priority using Atomic Number, H is usually #4 -Ignore #4 and figure out if it is R or S

Major waste products in the kidneys to be excreted in the urine?

Dump the HUNK H+ Urea NH3 K+

*** important Electric Fields

E = magnitude of an electric field in general Fe =magnitude of force felt by test charge q

Ego-dystonic vs Ego-syntonic

Ego-syntonic - the thoughts, impulses, behaviors, etc. are acceptable to the person (OCPD-personality disorder) Ego-dystonic - the thoughts, impulses, behaviors, etc. are not acceptable to the person, they're invasive (OCD-anxiety disorder)

Explain these types of intelligences: Emotional Analytical (componential) Creative (experiential) Interpersonal

Emotional: able to perceive, express, control/manage own emotions Analytical: standard. ability to logically reason and think abstractly. Creative: able to familiarize self with new circumstances and form new concepts/adapt Interpersonal: ability to understand & associate with other people

How do we separate racemic mixtures and enantiomers?

Enantiomers form crystals that can rotate light differently ENANTIOMERS HAVE SAME PROPERTIES AS EACH OTHER WHILE DIASTEREOMERS DO NOT can convert to diastereomers

Endocytosis vs Exocytosis

Endocytosis has 3 types: phagocytosis - ligands signal for membrane to engulf pinocytosis - engulfs extracellular fluid and TAKES UP SOLUTE Receptor-mediated endocytosis: takes up ligands Exocytosis: vesicle FUSES with cell membrane and EXPELS contents -transfer shit ton of molecules

Female Reproductive System

Estrogen Establishes, Progesterone Protects Endometrium Menstrual Cycle (FOLMP): Follicular→Ovulation→Luteal→Menstruation→Pregnancy HFELRC Her Female Estrogen Lets Red Come Hypothalamus tells Pituitary to secrete FSH which stimulates follicule →follicule has oocytes →estrogen inhibits LH&FSH but causes LH surge once reach threshold →LH triggers primary oocyte →secondary →ruptures follicule in ovary →Corpus Luteum makes estrogen&progesterone

Euchromatin vs Heterochromatin?

Euchromatin= loosely packed DNA, DNA is usually in this phase & transcriptionally active. Prokaryotes only have Euchromatin (light colored under microscope) Heterochromatin=tightly packed DNA and DNA is silenced (dark colored under microscope)

Convergent Evolution

Evolution toward similar characteristics in unrelated species

triarchic theory of intelligence

Experiential/Creative intelligence: the ability to familiarize oneself with new circumstances and form new concepts. Ex: move to a foreign country -> able to learn the new language Componential/Analytical intelligence the traditional idea of intelligence. do well on IQ tests Contextual/Practical intelligence- ("street smarts") this is the ability to apply one's knowledge base to the world around them. Example: Learned UV rays can give you skin cancer -> you move to sit in the shade. Experience(Creative people do this) new countries, Components of normal smarts, context (Practical aka don't need textbook) clues to survive in hood

Generalizability

Extent to which research results apply to a range of INDIVIDUALS NOT INCLUDED in the study. -concerned with EXTERNAL validity

Properties used in Extraction Distillation Crystallization Gel Electrophoresis SDS Page; normal and isoelectric focusing

Extraction: solubility; uses immiscible solvents Distillation: boiling point through cycles of condensation and evaporation(reflux!) Gel Electrophoresis: for NUCLEIC ACID harge and size; can't use to separate proteins bc too big for pores Native Page = retains structure of protein ; SDS-Page = break proetins into subunits and uses size Isoelectric Focusing uses isoelectric points

Coulomb's Law quantifies the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charges and is seen as :

F = magnitude of the electrostatic force k = coulomb's constant quantifies force between magnitude of one charge(q1) to magnitude of other charge (q2)

F-actin vs. G-actin

F-actin: F = filamentous. A fibrous protein made of a long chain of G actin molecules twisted into a helix; main protein of the thin myofilament Globular-actin (G-actin) readily polymerizes under physiological conditions to form Filamentous-actin (F-actin) with the concomitant hydrolysis of ATP.

Assesses the value of a research question on the bases of whether or not it is

FINER Method Feasible Interesting Novel Ethical Relevant

Developmental Changes in Adolescents

Female changes: Growth of breasts, pubic hair, underarm hair, menstrual period, increased oil and sweat production (acne), overall body growth. Male changes: growth of pubic, facial, and underarm hair, deepening of voice, increased oil and sweat production (acne), ejaculation, development of testes, penis, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland.

These molecules contain a derivative of? Flavoproteins Steroids

Flavoproteins→contain nucleic acid derivative of riboflavin Steroids→Terpenes

How do our capillaries give our bodies nutrients and O2?

Fluids and nutrients diffuse through selectively permeable capillaries into the tissues of the body, and waste products are picked up in the capillaries to be transported through veins to the kidneys and liver where they are thus processed and eliminated from the body.

Formula for # of possible peptides that contain one each of n amino acids is n! (n factorial)

For n=3 (a tripeptide) n!=3!= (3∙2∙1) =6

Functions of 4 lobes of cerebral cortex

Frontal: executive function, impulse control, speech production (Broca's area) Parietal: sensations, spatial processing/orientation Occipital: Visual Processing Temporal: sound processing(auditory cortex), speech perception(Wernicke's Area), memory and emotion (limbic system)

What step in glycolysis is regulated by the amount of ATP and citrate? Why those 2 specific molecules? What stimulates glycolysis? Why?

Fructose 6P → Fructose 1,6 Biphosphate Glycolysis MAKES ATP and results in TCA, so if there's already ATP and citrate in the system, we know not to make more. ATP AND CITRATE INHIBIT GLYCOLYSIS AMP stimulates it because AMP is made when adenylyl cyclase is active and turns ATP → cAMP which will turn itself into AMP showing that an ATP was used and the system needs more.

Phases of Cell Cycle

G0: non-growing state, most protein production takes place here G1: cell growth. Protein, RNA, and phospholipid synthesis highly active S: preparing cell for mitosis, DNA synthesis G2: cell prepares to divide, RNA and proteins (esp tubulin) are produced M: mitosis, division of nucleus

depressants act on ___ receptors dopamine is produced in the_____ region of the brain

GABA Ventral tegmental

What do these regulate: GABA and glycine Glutamate

GABA and glycine = brain stabilization Glutamate = brain excitation "hey MATE i'm excited"

PKC Pathway

GPCR → PLC → DAG and IP3 → DAG activates PKC → Ca2+ efflux

What two hormones are secreted during stress?

Glucocorticoid and aldosterone(increases sodium reuptake) by the adrenal medulla

______ binds to NDMA receptors which are found in the _________

Glutamate, hippocampus

Which substrates does gluconeogenesis like to use?

Glycerol 3P from fats Lactate Glucogenic amino acids from muscle(to make intermediates)

Summary of Energy Yields Glycolysis: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase: TCA: # ATP per NADH # ATP per FADH2

Glycolysis: 2NADH and 2 ATP Pyruvate Dehydrogenase: 1 NADH per pyruvate (2 NADH per glucose) TCA: 3 NADH, 1 GTP, 1 FADH₂, 2 CO₂ (multiply by 2 for glucose since this is per Acetyl CoA) 2.5 ATP per NADH (which goes to Complex I) 1.5 ATP per FADH₂ (which goes to Complex II) 1 ATP per GTP Total: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (GTP) from TCA + 25 from chemiosmosis/ATP Synthase = 32 ATP per glucose (optimal). 30-32 ATP per glucose

Change in Gibbs Free Energy

Goldfish ARE(equal sign) Horrible WITHOUT(minus sign) Tarter Sauce

Properties of transition metals

Good conductors of heat, electricity Dense, strong, shiny make good catalysts

HAT HDAC HDAC inhibitors

HAT: histone acetyltransferases, LYSINE from the HISTONE CORE of the nucleosome are acetylated. INCREASE TX HDAC: histone DEacetylase DECREASE TX HDAC Inhibitor Suppresses Histone de-acetylation, there increase acetylation. INCREASE TX

Habituation and Dishabituation

Habituation: over time there's a decreased response to stimulus, person may learn to ignore stimulus bc happened too many times. Dishabituation: fast recovery of response that has undergone habituation

what are the 6 universal emotions?

Happy, Anger, Fear, Disgust, Sad, Surprised HAF-DSS

Cell Theory History and Development and Impact on Biology

History and development o Robert Hooke observed under a microscope what appeared to be cells. o German botanist Matthias Schleiden looked at all sorts of plants under a microscope and noticed all had the same microscopic structure. o German scientists Theodor Schwann looked all nervous systems of different animals and noticed all had similar structures that were these cells. o German physician and pathologist, Rudolph Virchow observed bacteria that divided and formed two bacteria that were identical = binary fission. o French scientist Louis Pasteur did a famous experiment known as the Swan-Neck Bottle experiment proved that all cells come from preexisting cells. • Impact o Proved that cells were the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of life and cells come from preexisting cells.

Irreversible Steps of Glycolysis

How Glycolysis Pushes Forward the Process: Kinases Hexokinase Glucokinase PFK-1 Pyruvate Kinase

Strong Acid Formulas (6)

Hydroiodic acid (HI) Hydrobromic acid (HBr) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Nitric acid (HNO3) Perchloric acid (HClO4) Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Structure of Hydroquinone vs Benzoquinone vs Benzoic Acid

Hydroquinone: C6H4(OH)2 aka benzene ring + 2 OH single bond attached. think HYDRO + quinone Benzoquinone: C6H4O2 aka benzene with moved db to make 2 OH dbed to ring Benzoic Acid: C7H6O2. benzene ring + carboxylic acid attached.

Hydrostatic Pressure is? formula? Gauge Pressure is? formula? Buoyant Force is?

Hydrostatic Pressure is the total pressure that's exerted on an object that's been submerged in a fluid. P= absolute pressure, P0 = incident pressure, p = density, g = gravity, z = depth of the object in meters P = P0 + pgz Gauge pressure is the pressure DIFFERENCE between the absolute pressure and the surrounding atmospheric pressure Pguage = Pabsolute - Patmosphere Buoyant Force is the force exerted by a mass of fluidi against a submerged object (always directed up) which is equal to the weight of the submerged object Fbuoyant = pVg p = density V = volume g = gravity

Impression Management vs Hawthorne Effect

Impression management - In ANY social context, a person will alter their behavior to be that of a more socially acceptable manner. Ex: you are meeting your boyfriend/girlfriend's family and bite your tongue when you conjur up some sort of crude joke. Hawthorne effect - Subjects behavior IN A STUDY is different because they are aware they are being STUDIED.

practice effects

Improvements in performance resulting from opportunities to perform a behavior repeatedly so that baseline measures can be obtained.

(Physics harmonics) Phases: In phase: Out of phase: Completely out of phase:

In phase: the waves are 0 or 2π radians (0 or 360°) apart. The resulting amplitude (sum of the waves) is twice the original. Completely out of phase: the waves are π radians (180°) apart. The resulting amplitude is zero. Out of phase: resulting amplitude is between 0 and twice the original.

Genetics: Incomplete Dominance Penetrance Expressivity Leakage

Incomplete Dominance: when you cross black and white chickens and get greyish chickens Penetrance: the likelihood that genotype will result in phenotype Expressivity: the degree to which gene is expressed Leakage: gene flow from one SPECIES to another (through hybrid offspring)

Translation Initiation Codons and Termination Codons role of tRNA and rRNA

Initiation: AUG signals start of TRANSLATION and lies downstream of the Shine Dalgarno sequence (Kozak sequence for eukaryotes/initiation site) Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG, and a "release factor" protein comes and terminates translation tRNA and rRNA are products of transcription tRNA works for translation and looks like clover leaf with anticodon tip rRNA makes up ribosomes which work translation

Where do cardiac muscles get their calcium? How about skeletal muscle? Compare their structures

Intracellular Ca2+ and sarcoplasmic reticulum Skeletal muscle only gets it from intracellular Ca2+ Cardiac muscle has more mitochondria(since it needs a lot of stable ATP flow) and less myofibril proteins and SR, uninucleated

Mutation Types: Inversion Translocation Base Substitution vs Mispairing

Inversion: stretch of DNA (chromosome segment) breaks off and reattaches in opposite orientation Translocation: stretch of DNA (chromosome segment) breaks off and reattaches to another chromosome Base Substitution: base mutates to different base (template) Mispairing: base paired with wrong base (new strand)

Which amino acid has a second chiral carbon? What is its conformational isomer?

Isoleucine does! Its conformational isomer is leucine

declarative memory

It refers to memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events.

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Key enzyme: Glucose 6P Dehydrogenase uses available molecules of Glucose 6P 2 Phases: Oxidative Phase (irreversible) results in: +2 NADPH, + 1 CO2, -1 water results in Ribose 5P for DNA/RNA building makes NADPH, which is used as a REDUCTIVE agent in cellular respiratory processes.

Renin-Anginotension-Alderosterone System

Kidney (JGA cells) release renin which triggers formation of ANGIOTENSIN II which stimulates ALDOSTERONE release which results in higher bp Aldosterone(mineralocorticoid): Adrenal Glands: ↑Aldosterone→distal tubules reabsorb Na⁺→more water reabsorption bc homeostasis ADH/Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin (MADE IN HYPOTHALAMUS, stored in PITUITARY): ▪ More water reabsorption in kidney tubules→higher blood volume→higher blood pressure bc vasoconstriction ↑ If BP is too high, all of these hormones stop release.

BCAAs? ketogenic AAs? glucogenic amino acids?

LIV: leucine, isoleucine and valine lazy Ls: leucine and lysine are ketogenic (aka can be directly converted to acetyl CoA or ketone bodies) glucogenic amino acids = includes most essential and non-essential aas and can be directly converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis

Lipid Metabolism: Lipogenesis aka Fatty Acid Synthesis? Lipolysis and beta oxidation? malonyl coA?

Lipogenesis: 3 steps: transport acetyl-CoA into cytosol → carboxylation of acetyl CoA → assemble FA chain. occurs in cytoplasm and uses NADPH (from PPP) as electron carrier. excess G3P OR excess acetyl-CoA (ends up getting converted to malonyl-CoA in cytoplasm then Palmitic Acid, which is a type of lipid) lysophosphatidic acid → phosphatidic acid →diacylglycerol →triacylglycerol. synthesizes 3 waters Lipolysis: first: hormone-sensitive lipase cleaves the first FA off a triacylglycerol then triACYL- becomes diacyl then monoacyl then molecule needs to be transported to mitochondria for beta oxidation(note* short chain FA can easily travel through but medium and long FA need transporters and energy equivalent to 2ATPs) Preparation for Beta Oxidation: FA is in cytoplasm and fatty acyl-CoA synthetase turns FA into Fatty-Acyl CoA which enters intermembrane space. then attaches to L-carnitine to become acyl-carnitine then uses carnitine transporter (CAT-1) to get into inner mitochondrial matrix. dissociates from L-carnitine using CAT-2 and L-carnitine goes back into intermembrane space. Beta oxidation: Fatty Acyl Coa goes through several steps involving dehydrogenases and hydratases then becomes Acyl-CoA + Acetyl-CoA. acyl-CoA goes through beta oxidation again then acetyl-CoA is released into mitochondria matrix and oxidized in TCA. Each round of Beta Oxidation produces 1 FADH2, 1 acetyl-CoA, 1 NADH + H. (aka 1 FAN) 12 ATP net

Major histocompatibility complex o Membrane proteins which display antigens for recognition by immune system o 2 classes of MHC's ▪ MHC I: ▪ MHC II:

Major histocompatibility complex o Membrane proteins which display antigens for recognition by immune system o 2 classes of MHC's ▪ MHC I: Display antigens derived from intracellular pathogens (viruses, some bacteria). Endogenous pathway • All nucleated cells have these since all nucleated cells can be attacked by intracellular pathogens ▪ MHC II: Display antigens derived from extracellular pathogens. Exogenous pathway. • Only cells that phagocytose need these, since these pathogens must be phagocytosed to enter the cell • Professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs): Cells that phagocytose extracellular bacteria for the sole purpose of displaying their antigens. WAY TO TAKE ONE FOR THE TEAM. WHAT A HOMIE CELL. o e.g., Macrophages, some B-cells, dendritic cells

DNA Repair Mechanisms (5) Mismatch Repair: Base-Excision Repair: Nucleotide-Excision Repair: Nick Translation: SOS Response in E. Coli:

Mismatch Repair: cuts out mismatch and polymerase adds correct nucleotides Base-Excision Repair: damaged base, its backbone and surrounding nucleotides get cut then polymerase adds in correct segment Nucleotide-Excision Repair: damaged nucleotide cut, polymerase adds correct nucleotide Nick Translation: 5'->3' exonuclease activity coupled to polymerase activity SOS Response in E. Coli: when there's too much DNA damage in replication, polymerase replicated over damaged DNA and uses it as a template. This method is better than no replication occurring at all.

Concepts of Natural and Group Selection: Natural Selection: Directional Selection: Stabilizing Selection: Disruptive Selection: Group Selection:

Natural Selection: survival and reproduction of fittest Directional Selection: favors ONE extreme trait Disruptive Selection: favors ALL extreme traits Stabilizing Selection: favors ONE moderate trait AND selects against extremes Group Selection: natural selection acting on group, not individual (occurs via altruism where fitness of individual is sacrificed fro survival of group, group shares similar genes with individual)

You can't have an unconditioned stimulus without a ________.

Neutral Stimulus! A neutral stimulus doesn't trigger any particular response at first, but when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, it can effectively stimulate learning. A good example of a neutral stimulus is a sound or a song.

NADH and FADH stand for?

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydroquinone Flavin adenine dinucleotide hydroquinone

Do satellites crash into the Earth (physics)

No, even though they're accelerating toward the Earth, they never crash into Earth because the Earth is ROUND and the surface CURVES AWAYYY from the satellite at the SAME RATE IT FALLS

Can triacylglycerides pass through the membrane freely?

No. -The walls of blood vessels have lipoprotein lipases which must break down (hydrolyze) triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. -Fatty acids can then be taken up by cells via the fatty acid transporter (FAT).

Do the number of carbon in TCA increase as the cycle continues? How long will it take to process 100 acetyl CoA

No. 100 acetyl CoA will takes 100 seconds to make 100 oxaloacetate. it can only make ONE molecule at a time.

Do kinases use/have their own phosphate groups?

No. They use an ATP or something with one

Normative Social Influence vs Informational Social Influence Perceptual Error?

Normative - go along with answer even if you know it's wrong just because everyone else is Informational - go along with answer because you doubt your own is right Truly believe answer given by other is right and have no idea of cognitive dissonance

Important Reaction: Nucleophilic addition reactions Important Reaction: Acetals and Hemiacetals

Nucleophile=(R-OH) Nucleophile attacks and attaches to alpha C

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

OCCURS After receiving acetyl coA from beta oxidation or glycolysis 1. oxaloacetate couples with Acetyl CoA to make CITRATE (citrate synthase) 2. Citrate + isomerase -> ISOCITRATE **3. Isocitrate uses ISOCITRATE DEHYDROGENASE(rate limiting enzyme of TCA!!) and gets decarboxylated -> A-KETOGUTARATE also: NAD⁺→NADH*** CO2 is released*** 4. a-ketoglutarate uses its DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX (TPP, lipoic acid, Mg²⁺) to make SUCCINYL COA NOTE: mechanism is VERY similar to pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. :NAD⁺→NADH*** CO2 is released*** 5. succinyl coa uses succinyl coa synTHETASE (creates covalent bond WITH ENERGY INPUT unless synthase) to make SUCCINATE NOTE: ONLY TIME TCA MAKES ATP : GDP → GTP to give P to ADP so ADP→ ATP 6. succinate uses its dehydrogenase to make FUMARATE NOTE: this enzyme is bound to FAD and makes FAD → FADH₂ which goes to ETC and makes 1.5 ATP in ETC :FAD is electron acceptor here :ONLY STEP IN TCA THAT HAPPENS IN INNER MEMBRANE 7. fumarate uses fumarase to make malate 8. malate uses its dehydrogenase to make oxaloacetate also: NAD → NADH net yield of: PER ACETYL COA (3 Naked GFs): 3 NADH 1 GTP 1 FADH2 2 CO2

Ligase ONLY helps where and for what protein?

ONLY on the lagging strand for DNA Pol I since it works 3' to 5' and needs to back up constantly, creating breaks in the sequences

restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases)

ONLYYYY Cut double-stranded *DNA* molecules MOST recognition sites are SIX bps long, PALINDROMIC but can be FOUR *makes TWO INCISIONS to cut BOTH sugar-phosphate backbones (i.e. each strand) of the double helix leaves single-stranded overhangs (sticky ends)

Types of Studies: Observational, Correlational, Case

Observational Study: looks at cause and effect relationships. no control over variables Correlational Study: quantitative with 2 or more quantitative variables Case Study: descriptive research to get in-depth analysis of phenomenon

Km and Vmax changes in competitive, mixed and uncompetitive, noncompetitive inhibitors

Order: Competitive, Mixed, Noncompetitive, Uncompetitive (ALPHABETICAL ORDER) Km: Increase, Either one, Unchanged, Decrease Vmax: Unchanged, Decrease, Decrease, Decrease

Malic Acid

Organic acid that is used to store carbon dioxide during the night and is released during the day to allow photosynthesis when the stomata are closed found in apples :)

Which participant in the ETC has the greatest attraction for electrons? Where do these pathways take place Glycolysis Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle ETC (has oxidative phos. and chemiosmosis) Photosynthesis

Oxygen!! Cytoplasm outside of mitochondria Mitochondrial Matrix Inner Membrane of Mitochondria Chloroplasts and in some non-plant species, the cytoplasm

Haldane Effect

Oxygenation of Hb causes affinity for CO2 to be lowered. Facilitates transfer of CO2 from blood to lungs (oxygenation of Hb at alveoli causes dissociation of CO2)

Essential Amino Acids?

PVT TIM HALL Phenylalanine Valine Threonine Tryptophan Isoleucine Methionine Histidine Arginine Leucine Lysine

These sense what? Pacinian corpuscle - Meissner corpuscle - Merkel cells - Ruffini endings -

Pacinian corpuscle - vibration Meissner corpuscle - light touch Merkel cells - texture Ruffini endings - stretch

Paramagnetic vs Diamagnetic

Paramagnetic: likes to have as many subshells occupied as possiblean atom whose electrons are *not* spin-paired; these atoms are *attracted* into externally produced magnetic fields Diamagentic: wants to have all of its subshells 100% filled---> this atom will be *repelled* by an external magnetic field

What is partial pressure and how can I find it?

Partial pressure: amount of pressure contributed by a single gas to a mixture Px = Ptotal (n / ntotal in reactants) compare target species' molar fraction to whole reaction

What happens in sickle cell anemia?

People with sickle cell anemia have a genetic mutation that alters the shape of their hemoglobin molecules, and this alteration causes the proteins to aggregate together into useless clumps.

Phenols: Biological 2e⁻ _____ centers Ubiquinone or Coenzyme Q is an important part of the _______ When ubiquinone is reduced to ______ NADH is oxidized to NAD+ thus serves as the ___agent

Phenols (OC, BC) • Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2e- redox centers o Ubiquinone, or Coenzyme Q, is an important part of ETC ▪ When ubiquinone is reduced to ubiquinol, NADH is oxidized to NAD+ ▪ NADH, thus, serves as the reducing agent *image of hydroquinone

Sphingolipids are?

Phosphoglycerides but with a sphingosine backbone. In cell membrane

Which amino acids can be phosphorylated?

Phosphorylation can occur on serine, threonine and tyrosine side chains (often called 'residues') through phosphodiester bond formation also glutamic and aspartic acid -only amino acids with terminal -OH group

Piaget's Cognitive Development Stages: Kohlberg's Moral Development: Freud's Psychosexual Stages: Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages:

Piaget: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, Formal Operational. 0, 7, 11, 12 (SAM Lets Liv Categorize Herpes Science) Kohlberg: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional 0, 12, 20 (SELF -> OTHERS -> PRINCIPLES) (OS -> CL -> SU) Freud's Psychosexual: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Genital. 0, 1, 2, 6, 12 (Old Aged Pedophiles Lack Genitals) Erik Erikson: Trust, Autonomy, Initiative, Industry, Identity, Intimacy, Generativity, Integrity

Hypothalamus' Posterior and Anterior Pituitary Gland What do they do?

Posterior: Releases ADH and oxytocin. Releases releasing factors for anterior pituitary glands' hormones Anterior: Stores ADH and oxytocin. makes and releases FLAT PEG

Kohlberg's Moral Development: think Kohlberg conventionally does PCP

Preconventional: 1. obedience 2. self control Conventional: 1. Conformity 2. Law and order Postconventional: 1. Social contract 2. Universal Ethics Starts at 0 -> 12 -> 20 (SELF -> OTHERS -> PRINCIPLES) (OS -> CL -> SU) Oh, Sam -> Can Live -> Super Ugly

PROactive vs RETROactive interference

Proactive: old info messes up ability to LEARN NEW RETR-Oactive: new info makes it difficult to RETRieve -Old info RETR-O and RETRieve Old

5 Gestalt Principles? What does it explain?

Proximity Similarity Continuity Closure Connectedness explains how a whole object can be perceived differently than simply the sum of its part (basically how we put things together)

Pyranose vs Furanose

Pyranose is a six membered cyclic ring..PIE CUT INTO 6 PIECES Furanose is a five membered cyclic ring..Fur Five

The biological 2e- redox centers

Quinones and hydroxyquinones ●Phenols + oxidizing agents ➙ quinones

Acetyl Group

R-C=O

Power is the _________________

RATE at which energy is transferred or transformed W/t

When questions ask stuff like "What is the identity of the substance that has undergone net reduction after the reaction is complete" the answer will ALWAYS BE A [product/reaction]

REACTANT!!!!!!!!!

Types of waves from longest to shortest length (thus lowest energy to highest)

RMIVUXG Real Men In Love Use Xtra Gel Radiowaves Microwaves Infrared waves Visible Light UV Rays X Rays Gamma-Rays

Primacy Effect

Recall is strongest for items at the beginning of a list. *think PRIMER = first*

Name the opposite color and wavelengths Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Which are primary colors? Secondary Colors?

Red = 700, opposite is Green (500) Orange = 600, opposite is Blue (400) Yellow = 580, opposite is Violet (300) Green = 500, opposite is Red (700) Blue = 400, the opposite is Orange (600) Violet = 300, opposite is Yellow (580) Primary color Red, Yellow, Blue Secondary colors Orange, Green, Purple

If you gain electrons, it's ______ by an ______ agent.

Reduction Oxidizing Ex:Cl₂(aq)+2Br⁻(aq)→2Cl⁻(aq)+Br₂(aq) Cl₂=oxidizing agent 2Br⁻=reducing agent 2Cl⁻=reduced Br₂=oxidized Agents are on reactant side Oxidized/Reduced are on product side

Lifespan Motor Development

Reflexive movement- (0-1 year) include involuntary movements (e.g. blinking, grasping, sucking) Rudimentary movement- (0-2 years) these are the first voluntary movements (e.g. crawling, sitting, standing) Fundamental movement- (2-7 years) child is beginning to coordinate his limbs (e.g. running, catching a ball) Specialized movement- (7-14 years) fundamental movements are mastered and applied to completing specific actions (e.g. playing sports, riding a bike, gymnastics) Application of movement- (14+ years) movements are applied and refined throughout the span of one's lifetime RRF-SA age at end of each stage: 1, 2, 7, 14, older

Optic Disc

Region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina. - blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light.

Equipotential Lines

Regions within an electric field with equal electrical potential; movement from one point on these lines to another causes no change in the energy of the system.

Heme biosynthesis

Required for efficient erythropoiesis - glycine, B6 and iron requirements. Impaired biosynthesis results in disorders called Porphyrias. Lead inhibits final step of adding Iron cofactor.

How do restriction enzymes work? sticky ends vs blunt ends

Restriction enzymes (also called restriction endonucleases) cut double stranded DNA at palindrome sequences. resulting fragments are called restriction fragments. If you read from 5' → 3' of one strand, then read from 5' → 3' of the other strand, and they are the same, then the section of the double stranded DNA that you just read is a palindrome sequence. Some restriction enzymes cut to make sticky ends, which can hybridize. Some restriction enzymes cut to make blunt ends, which cannot hybridize.

General Formula of Fatty Acid? Carbohydrate? Amino acid?

Rn-CO₂H CH₂O R-CH(NH₂)-COOH

Every amino acid has an ____ (S or R) and (D or L )configuration except for ______ and _______, respectively Every amino acid has a chiral alpha carbon except _____

S except Cysteine L except Glycine Glycine

Sperm Production in Male Reproductive System? What do FSH and LH do? What's their anatomy? How do they move?

SEVEN UP *each give rise to next Spermatogonia→Primary Spermatocyte→Secondary→spermatids→ Spermatids mature →sperm FSH→Sertoli cells(which surround and nurture spermatocytes and spermatids) LH→Leydig Cells (releases testosterone) ANATOMY: separated into 3 sections (head, midpiece, and tail), very little cytoplasm • Head: contains genetic information, only parts that penetrate egg in fertilization • Midpiece: contains mitochondria which power tail • Tail: propels sperm through fallopian tube Sperm motility requires lots of ATP produced by their midpiece mitochondria

What two reactions contain carbocation intermediates?

SN1 and E1

Selective Attention vs. Divided Attention

Selective: focus on ONE thing while NON-RELATED things are going on. Divided attention: type of attention we NEED to use when we are FORCED TO DO MORE THAN ONE THING AT A TIME. How much our attention is divided depends on the difficulty of the tasks.

Piaget's Cognitive Development Stages: Think Operation: Piaget

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, Formal Operational (SAM Lets Liv Categorize Herpes Science) Stages each start at 0 -> 2 -> 7 -> 11

sensory stimulus

Sensory stimulus is a stimulus that your body can DETECT (light, sound, touch) like you aren't noticing it but it comes right at you

Ultrasounds use ____ waves/high _____ sounds and work by using _____

Shock; Frequency; Conical wave front produced when velocity of the sound source exceeds the velocity of the sound

Smooth Muscle Cells Epithelial Cells Connective Tissue Cells

Smooth: long and slender for contraction Epithelial: lines all tissues and responsible for (1) protection of the underlying tissues (2) absorption (3) secretion (4) reception of sensory stimuli Connective Tissue: includes immune system cells but Fibroblasts are the MOST COMMON cell type of connective tissue. They PRODUCE FIBERS AND GROUND SUBSTANCE.

Ovum is to female as _____ is to males What is an ovum?

Spermatozoa an ovum is an egg/gamete a spermatozoa is a spermy sperm and plural for it is spermatozoon

Fibroblasts

Spindle-shaped cells that form connective tissue proper

Le Chatelier's Principle

States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.

Stereoisomers? Enantiomers? Diastereomers? Epimers?

Stereoisomers have the same chemical (think STEREOchemistry) properties. Enantiomers have the same chemical formula and are mirror images. Diastereomers have same chemical formula but are not mirror images thus have different physical properties A special type of diastereomer is an Epimer which are mirror images EXCEPT at ONE carbon.

Synthesis of α-amino acids?

Strecker Synthesis: Use aldehyde with an R group or just a ketone Add cyanide and ammonia→ Get amino group, R group and cyanide group→ Replace N from cyanide with H2O→ carboxylic acid → Product: amino acid with R group Gabriel Synthesis: Take the big phthalamide molecule Add base, R-X (with x being the halide you want to replace with the amine in the phthalamide) and NH2NH2 (to fill for the empty amine that will be give to the R-X) → get R-NH2 BIG FAT MOLECULE + BASE = AMINO ACID

Disulfide bonds

Strong chemical side bonds formed -sulfur atoms in two adjacent protein chains are joined together. -can link DNA strands together

Hemoglobin Affinity for O₂ and what does hemoglobin do? What does myoglobin do?

TOW RIGH (Hemoglobin affinity for O2) • T state = Low affinity • R state = High affinity a protein in your red blood cells that carries: O₂ →organs and tissues CO₂ from organs and tissues → lungs. Myoglobin holds oxygen in organs and muscles

Functions of Forebrain: Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Basal Ganglia?

Thalamus: relay station for sensory info Hypothalamus: maintains homeostasis and integrades with endocrine system through hypophyseal portal system that connects it to anterior pituitary Basal Ganglia: smoothens movements (no swaying around)

Theories of Memory Decay:

The Decay Theory states: if long-term memories are not recalled often, it will become harder and harder (if not impossible) to remember them. Another theorized that our inability to remember certain pieces of information may be due to the natural physiological death of neurons, especially as we age.

What's special about proline?

The main component of "collagen" which constitutes the skin and other tissues Serves as a fast-acting energy source.

Propinquity

The more we see and interact with a person, the more likely he or she is to become our friend or sexual partner.

Mead's "Me"

The part of our sense of self that we get from interacting with others. Our me is informed by how we think others perceive us. This concept is very similar to The Looking-Glass Self.

3 Classes of ncRNA

Three major classes are microRNAs (miRNAs), short interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and piwi- interacting RNAs (piRNAs)

medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

Tract that connects structures in the brainstem with various parts of the limbic system; forms the activating projections that run from the brainstem to the basal ganglia and frontal cortex.

What starts transcription, translation and replication? What ends them?

Transcription: Starts via TATA box promoter, ends via Rho protein bumping off RNA polymerase or termination site causes RNA pol. to slip off Translation: Starts via initiation site, ends via release factor recognizing termination sequence Replication: Starts via initiator protein unwinds short segment then helicase starts, ends via telomeres

6 Types of Enzymes

Transferase: moves a functional from one to another Ligase: glue two to make one Oxidoreductase: moves around electrons Isomerase: interconversion of isomers Hydrolase: cleavages with water Lyase: cleavage without water or redox

(Physics)Transverse waves vs Longitudinal Waves

Transverse wave: wave displacement is perpendicular to the direction of motion. Light. Electromagnetic radiatio A standing wave by oscillating a string side ways. The speed for such a wave = square root of (string tension / mass per unit length of the string). For the MCAT, just know that tense, light strings can produce faster transverse waves. Longitudinal wave: wave displacement is parallel to the direction of motion. Sound. Pressure wave. Earth quakes.

Superposition of Waves

When waves superimpose on each other, they interfere. Interference results from the addition of waves. When in phase waves add, the resulting wave has a greater amplitude. When out of phase waves add, the resulting wave has a smaller amplitude. Constructive interference: addition of waves resulting in greater amplitude. Destructive interference: addition (cancellation) of waves resulting in diminished amplitude.

Sarcomere parts? Z line I band H zone A band M line

Z-I-H-A-M- ZIHAM Z lines are found at BOTH ends of the sarcomere (Z is found at the end of the alphabet) I band consists of thin filaments only (I letter is thin) H zone consists of thick filaments only (H letter is thicccc) A band consists of all thick filaments, whether or not they overlap with the thin filament (A =all, or Type A person covers all) M line is in the middle of the myosin filaments and sarcomere (M for middle)

Operon = ? Two types of operons: inducible and repressible systems. o Jacob-Monod Model: 1. Structural gene: 2. Operator site: 3. Promoter site: 4. Regulator gene:

a cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA. The numerous genes share a single common promoter region on the DNA sequence and are transcribed as a group. 1. Structural gene: ▪ 2. Operator site: nontranscribable region of DNA capable of binding a repressor protein ▪ 3. Promoter site: provides a place for RNA polymerase to bind ▪ 4. Regulator gene: codes for the repressor protein

Photodiode

a device that converts light into electricity

cyclothymic disorder

a disorder marked by numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and mild depressive symptoms

Cheyne-Stokes Breathing Sleep Associated Hypoventilation

a distinct pattern of breathing characterized by quickening and deepening respirations followed by a period of apnea brachypnea that results in low O2 levels

Huntington's disease

a fatal disease symptoms include: -memory loss -dementia -involuntary movements of the limbs caused by neurons that are programmed to degenerate over time.

ncRNA (noncoding RNA) what does it do?

a functional RNA that skips the last step of being translated into a protein. It can directly perform functions within the cell as an RNA molecule. (ex: tRNA and rRNA)

CpG islands

a group of CG sequences that may be clustered near a promoter region of a (usually) REGULATORY gene. almost NEVER methylated. cancer often has it methylated.

recovered memory controversy

a heated debate among psychologists about the validity of recovered memories

What is an ideal gas

a hypothetical gas whose molecules occupy negligible space and have no interactions, and that consequently obeys the gas laws exactly. *taken straight from google dictionary+

What is the shadowing technique?

a language learning technique in which subjects repeat speech immediately after hearing it

Liposome

a minute spherical sac of phospholipid molecules enclosing a water droplet, especially as formed artificially to carry drugs or other substances into the tissues.

Source Monitoring Error is?

a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained

Plasminogen

a plasma protein that is converted to plasmin (zymogen to plasma protein)

Ventral tegmental area

a portion of the midbrain that projects dopaminergic fibers to the nucleus accumbens

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Chymotrypsin

a protease that likes to specifically cleave peptide bonds next to aromatic amino acids (aka large and nonpolar) Most proteases are non-specific!

structure functionalism

a sociological theory that attempts to explain why SOCIETY functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society

operational definition

a statement of how researchers will figure out what will be their exact variables ex: "the teddy bear she cries most for is the teddy bear she likes the most"

Gesellschaft

a type of society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and self-interest

drysfunction

abnormality or impairment in the function of a specified bodily organ or system can include behaviors too

D/L are used for _____configuration and are assigned based on ______

absolute; the chirality of the carbon atom furthest from the carbonyl group

acceleration formula + average acceleration formula

acceleration is change in velocity/time

style of life

according to Adler, each person's distinctive way of achieving superiority

adaptive vs. maladaptive methods

adaptive: humor, support from friends, sleep, exercise, nutrition, relax muscles; adaptive methods show less risk for stress and disease than maladaptive methods which include: dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance and escape such as self-medication

Carboxylation

adding a COO- group

Tip to Tail Method

adding vectors

illusion of invulnerability

adolescents' belief that misfortunes cannot happen to them

What is social desirability bias?

affects how people can respond to research questions

Gordon Diagnostic System

aids in the diagnosis of attention deficits, especially ADHD

alkane _____ contains an unbranched alkane

alanine

Important Reaction: Oxidation of Aldehydes

aldehydes are oxidized -> form carboxylic acids H of aldehyde becomes OH

Constitutional Isomers, Geometric Isomers, Stereoisomers, Conformational Isomers

all have same molecular formula and are Constitutional Isomers Geometric Isomers: different double bond connectivitiy Stereoisomers: -Enantiomers: same molecular formula, mirror images and same physical properties -Diastereomers: same molecular formula, not mirror images, different physical properties Conformational Isomers: eclipsed, staggered, chair, twist boat, boat, etc

According to Freud, what is Id?

all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce.

ATP has what type of phosphates?

alpha, beta and gamma for 1st, 2nd and 3rd phosphate group

splitting

also called black-and-white thinking or all-or-nothing thinking the failure in a person's thinking to bring together the dichotomy of both positive and negative qualities of the self and others into a cohesive, realistic whole. It is a common defense mechanism.[1] The individual tends to think in extremes (i.e., an individual's actions and motivations are all good or all bad with no middle ground).

instrumental relativist stage

also could be the self interest stage of kohlberg's moral reasoning based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing "if you scratch my back ill scratch yours"

Rac Protein function

alters actin cytoskeleton

VERTICAL component of projectile velocity is __________ toward the Earth at the rate of gravity

always accelerating

Current is measured in

amount of charge (Q) traveled per unit time (t) I = Q/t ampheres (A)

What bond links monosaccharides together in an oligosaccharide?

an acetal linkage aka a glycoside bond

Retinol

an active, alcohol form of vitamin A that plays an important role in healthy vision and immune function

Intersectionality

an analytic framework for assessing how factors such as race, gender, and class interact to shape individual life chances and societal patterns of stratification

Constituent (English vocab word)

an essential part

Deindividualization

an individual loses self-awareness in groups.

Mass Spectrometer how to read what's it good for

an instrument used to determine the relative masses of atoms by the deflection of their ions on a magnetic field Mass spec is useful for: Measuring the molecular weight of a molecule. Identify the molecule by fragmentation patterns. Identity heteroatoms by their characteristic isotope ratios.

In anion exchange chromatography, ______ will bind to the _______ stationary phase

anions, cation because opposite charges attract POLAR opposites do NOT attract

Catalytic Turnover

another way of say kcat

Methadone is a _______ treatment that helps treat symptoms of withdrawal

anti-opiod treatment

Interleukin

any of a class of glycoproteins produced by leukocytes for regulating immune responses.

Limiting Reagent

any reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction determines the amount of product that can be formed in the reaction

Lipids are carried between cells by _______ and they also surround a lipid core

apoproteins!

Approach-approach conflicts two options are both ______. Avoidant-avoidant conflicts both options are _______ An approach-avoidance conflict is when ________________ Double approach-avoidant conflicts consist _____________--

appealing unappealing one option has pros and cons of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics(normally seen in court)

Cohort Differences

are due to the fact that individuals were born and grew up during different historical times

dorsal prefrontal cortex

associated with attention and cognition

Frontal Lobe

associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving

Atomic Bond length depends on?

atomic radii of each atom :)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory People change their ______ to match their behavior to get rid of this

attitude lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate by changing our beliefs/behaviours. People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, and words.

what are characteristics of collectivist cultures? individualistic cultures?

attribute success to external factors but failure to internal factors(Asia) attribute success to internal factors but failure to external factors (US)

echolalia Echopraxia (catatonia) inappropriate affect

automatic and immediate repetition of what others say imitating gestures of others Display of emotions that are unsuited to the situation; a symptom of schizophrenia.

imprinted gene

autosomal gene straight up expressed just from one parent Ex: Mom=Type A blood. Dad=Type B. Child = Type B although it should get AB Ex: In humans (and other mammals like mice and pigs) the IGF2 allele inherited from the father (paternal) is expressed; the allele inherited from the mother is not. If both alleles should begin to be expressed in a cell, that cell may develop into a cancer.

Why does glucose turn into glucose 6P?

because GLUTs have affinity to glucoses but glycolysis doesn't want GLUT to take glucose so hexokinase/glucokinase phosphorylates glucose to change its identity and make sure it can't leave. This requires an ATP to steal a P from.

Why is the Na+/K+ pump (ATPase) important?

because it pushes ions against the concentration gradient when they especially need that extra push in order to make sure we get neuronal action potentials

Why are those 3 steps of glycolysis irreversible? What are those steps?

because they have a VERRRRY -∆G 1.) Glucose → Glucose 6P by hexo/glucokinase 2.) Fructose 6P → Fructose 1, 6 BP by PFK-1 3.) PEP → Pyruvate by Pyruvate Kinase

Surface Traits are evident in ______ Source Traits are evident in ______ What are the 3 types of trits by Gordon Allport? What are the 5 factors in the 5 Factor Model/Big 5?

behavior personality cardinal: dominant traits we use with all behaviors central: personality secondary: preferences/attitudes like love for bio OCEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Thought Broadcasting Delusion thought insertion delusion

belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world The delusion that certain of one's thoughts are not one's own, but rather are inserted into one's mind.

Phenol gets oxidized to _________ using numbers _____ reagents and _____ could get reduced to hydroquinone

benzoquinone; organic

Opsonin receptors

bind bacteria or other particles that have been coated with immunoglobulin G (or "IgG") antibodies by the immune system.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) vs Scavenger Receptors

bind to specific molecules produced by bacteria scavengers bind to actual bacteria both help immune system

Language development: 9 to 12 months: 12 to 18 months: 18 to 20 months: 2 to 3 years: 5 years:

birth to 12 months: babbling 12 to 18 months: about one word per month 18 to 2 years: "explosion of language" and combining words 2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more) 5 years: language rules largely mastered

Extracellular Fluids of a Cell?

blood plasma and lymph

Ciliary Bodies and Ciliary Muscles and Suspensory Ligaments

bodies: structures that connect iris to choroid and control shape of lens usingg ciliary muscles muscles: a circular smooth muscles that relaxes and contracts to shape lens suspensory ligaments: fibrous memebrane that attaches the ciliary body to the lens

When I push an object up an inclined plane, I need to overcome :

both the parallel component of gravity and friction.

Glycogenolysis vs Glycogenesis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver Glycogen + **Glycogen phosphorylase**** -> Glucose 1P Glucose 1P + phosphoglucomutase -> Glucose 6P Glucose 6P + Phosphatase -> Glucose ***regulating enzyme = glycogen phosphorylase Glycogenesis: turns glucose into glycogen -rate limiting enzyme = glycogen synthase inhibited by epinephrine and glucagon which inactivates glycogen synthase

Social Anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community. "Associated with functionalist theoretical paradigmin socieology. Without attachment to society, people will experience purposelessness, and aimlessness. Periods of rapid social change are often associated with anomie.

How does the immune system prevent autoimmune disorders?

by suppressing activity of cells that target the body's own antigens/autoimmune cells

_____ effect increases with TIME _____ effect increases with NUMBER of people

bystander = time social loafing = #

The catabolite activator protein of the lac operon is activated when ________ binds

cAMP

Ternary Complex

can be a complex formed between two substrate molecules and an enzyme; two products can be formed. -an intermediate between the product formation in this type of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

RNA Viruses

can be single or double stranded (+)ssRNA = can be immediately translated by host's machinery (-)ssRNA = viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase before translation.

Arrhenius equation

can be used to find activation energy and rate constant

Rules about Vector Adding: You can only directly add vectors if they are in _______ direction(s) To add vectors in different directions, you must:

can only directly add vectors if they are in the same direction. To add vectors in different directions, you must add their x, y and z components. The vector sum of all components of a vector equal to the vector itself.

Diamond is a form of _____

carbon

Epoxidation

carbons of a double bond become bonded to the same oxygen atom

***very important**** Alcohol is often used as a NUCLEOPHILE and NUCLEOPHILES ALWAYS ATTACK _________ and attach themselves

carbonyl carbons!! the C of C=O

Soap in chemistry terms is just a _______?

carboxylate salt of a fatty acid, ionically bonded to a cation -made via saponification

Korsakoff's Syndrome

caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine, malnutrition, eating disorders and especially alcoholism symptoms: severe memory loss, confabulation (patients creating false stories to fill in memory gaps)

Apoptosis Process

cell rounds up and target nucleus undergoes growth arrest plasma membrane blisters cell dissolves into fragments

Episodic memories focus on _____ aspects of their trauma which are DIRECTLY TIED to their EMOTIONAL elicitor

central

Microtubules are cellular structures that originate from the ______

centrosome

Equation for Weber's Law

change of original Intensity/current Intensity = k

A pulley system can change the direction of: If the pulley is NOT moving, for every 1 meter you pull, the box or object the pulley is holding will move __ meter (s) When there is one moving pulley, the force needed to pull is HALVED because strings on both side of the pulley contribute equally. You supply 50 N (which is transmitted to the right-hand rope) while the left-hand rope contributes the other 50 N. Because effort here is halved, the distance required to pull the box is _______.

change the direction of a force and multiply the force 1 meter doubled

Structural Poverty

characterized by single-parent families, low levels of education, high infant mortality rates, and low social mobility

Alzheimer's disease

characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning

____ is the process by which bacteria move toward a food source

chemotaxis

____ isomers exhibit a dipole moment where trans isomers do not

cis

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory

classic personality test

Aldolase

cleaves fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

In field lines, what does this represent? Lines are close together: Lines a far apart: side notes: Lines/Fields have DIRECTION Things can travel parallel, perpendicular or spiral to the field line

close together = STRONG FIELD far apart = WEAK FIELD

Closed Pipes and Open Pipes Determining n

closed: [# nodes and anti nodes] - 1 open: # nodes

What is an amyloid?

clump of misfolded protein

Alcohol Myopia

cognitive-physiological theory on alcohol abuse in which many of alcohol's social and stress-reducing effects, which may underlie its addictive capacity, are explained as a consequence of alcohol's narrowing of perceptual and cognitive functioning

Selective Attention: Exogenous Cues to attention: pop out effect Endogenous Cues to attention: Inattentional Blindness Change Blindness: Shadowing Task (Dichotic Listening Task) Broadbent's Early Selection Theory Cocktail Party Theory Deutsch and Deutsch's Late Selection Theory Treisman's Attenuation Theory Spotlight Model of Attention Resource Model of Attention Controlled Processes Automatic Processes

concentrate at one stimuli at a time Exogenous: stimuli that naturally causes focus to be redirected like loud or bright stimuli Pop-out Effect: idea that one different looking visual cue will be noticed in a set of similar ones Endogenous: stimuli that causes focus to be redirected bc of some internal knowledge or intention like hearing your name or feeling an arrow Inattentional: failure to perceive stimuli that aren't being consciously attented to Change: failure to see a difference between previous and current state Shadowing: method of studying selective attention that makes participant repeat stimuli that comes in one earphone and ignore the stimuli coming from the other earphone Broadbent: idea that all stimuli come in through a sensory registor and we have some filter that only some pass Deutsh: idea that all stimuli are sensed and assigned meaning before selectively filtered Treisman: attenuator weakens unattended stimuli Resource Model of Attention: we have limited amount of focus that can be given in total Controlled: tasks that require selective attention and can't be perform with divided. Automatic: tasks can be completed with divided attention

Feature Detection Theory: Parallel Processing: Trichromatic Theory: Parvo Pathway: Magno Pathway:

concept that describes how different eye cells perceive specific aspects of complex stimuli Parallel Processing: lots of different cells work to lets us see color, form and motion at once Trichromatic: 3 different types of photoreceptors that detect certain wavelengths (blue, green and red) Parvo Pathway: there's specialized cells for seeing high spatial resolution and color Spatial Resolution: how clear image is when not moving Magno Pathway: there's specialized cells for seeing high temporal resolution. has low spatial resolution and no color. Temporal Resolution: how clear perception of image is whennnn moving

a child that recognizes conservation of matter (the water glass test) is in what stage of development?

concrete operational

Evaluation of strangers involves automatic and unconscious processes that are THEN followed by ______________ processes

conscious and controlled cognitive processes

Free falling objects move toward the ground at a _______ acceleration

constant

Total energy is ______ for a propagating wave

constant. As a wave propagates outwards, its SA increases. This causes intensity to DECREASE (less energy per SA)

Codons and their properties Codon and Anti-Codon relationship

continuous, non-overlapping and degenerate No nucleotides inbetween triplet codons non-overlapping one codon will never serve as part of another codon During translation, codons pair with anticodons so that the correct amino acids can be linked to a given codon

Left Hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; processing the right visual field & body, grammar, positive emotions, speech, and writing. smart side language analytical math Positive emotions Speech Recognizes LAMPS

The unfolding of proteins is a ________ process and will show a _______ pattern on a graph of fraction bound vs. denaturation concentration

cooperative sigmoidal

hybridization of electrons

count groups of electrons/bonds 1 lone electron pair = 1 orbital double bond = 1 orbital

Pulley systems -> The ropes on BOTH SIDES of the moving pulley contributes to the pulling of the load WHAT IS THE TRICK?

count the # of vertical ropes supporting lower pully and divide weight by #

Peptide bonds are _______[covalent or ionic] bonds formed by the nucleophilic addition-elimination reaction between the carboxylic group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid; this reaction releases a molecule of ________ as the by product. A peptide bond is essentially an amide bond.

covalent water

Fovea is the part of the retina that contains a high density of cones for ________ vision The periphery of the retina contains a high density of rods which are more photosensitive and can detect ______ light

daytime dim

Multiple Bonding its effect on bond length and bond energies Multiple bonding _________bond length Multiple bonding ___________ bond energy. Multiple bonding ________ rigidity in molecular structure. Even partial double bonds like those found in the peptide bond prevents free rotation.

decreases bond length. increases bond energy. increases rigidity in molecular structure.

Parkinson's disease

degeneration of substantia nigra cells in the brain leads to low levels of dopamine. substantia nigra cells produce dopamine often a genetic predisposition present.

What triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

depolarization of the muscle membrane (sarcomere)

In operant conditioning, the subject's motivation state is typically operationally defined by _____ the subject of some desirable stimulus for some period of time

depriving

At high pH, ionizable groups tend to be [protonated or deprotonated]

deprotonated

Induced States of Consciousness: Hypnosis has _____ waves Meditation has _____ and occasionally ____ waves

deviation from normal levels of alertness due to hypnosis, meditation or drugz hypnosis has alpha waves meditation has alpha waves and occasionally theta waves

DNA, RNA and proteins are linear polymers, meaning tha:

each individual monomer is only attached to, at most, two other units

Elements of McDonaldization

efficiency, calculability, uniformity, and technological control

Anode and cathode flow for electrons vs current

electrons flow from anode to cathode current flows from cathode to anode

Nucleophiles always attack _______

electrophiles!! aka carbonyl carbons of C=O

First, second, third, etc Ionization Energy?

energy it takes to remove ONE electron in outer shell First = neutral atom Second = +1 charged atom Third= +2 charged atom Ionization Energy Trend: First<Second<Third the more to the right on the periodic table it is, the higher the ionization energy required Noble gases have highest ionization energy because you must remove a complete layer of electrons

Arrestin

enzyme that temporarily inhibits GPCRs via phosphorylation

alpha and beta anomers are [epimers/enantiomers]?

epimers!

glucose, galactose, fructose are all _________ what are their differences?

epimers/structural isomers and hexoses galactose is a C-4 epimer and is considered a 6carbon aldose fructose forms a furanose due to its C2 configuration and has a ketose

Plasmids that can be integrated into the genome are known as ______

episomes

_____cells and ______tubule of the kidney can absorb glucose against a concentration gradient

epithilial cells and the proximal

Electric field lines are ________ spaced in a uniform field.

equally

Kb and Ka

equilibrium constant for a base equilibrium constant for an acid

Error in basic research is most often from?

error in measurement

Absorption of ultraviolet light does what to atoms and molecules?

excites them but CAAAn break their bonds sometimess

Homogenous vs. Heterogenous catalyst

exists in the same phase as the reactant molecules heterogeneous catalyst exists in a different phase than the reactants.

The pancreas makes 4 things:

exocrine pancreas releases four main things: • (1) Bicarbonate — neutralizes gastric acid (HCl with chyme from the stomach) • (2) Amylase — breaks down starch into monosaccharides. • (3) Lipase — breaks down triglycerides into free FAs, monoglycerides, diglycerides, and glycerol. • (4) Proteolytic enzymes — includes trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen.

Role Conflict vs Strain

experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations -strain = ONE role (S for Singular)

World Systems Theory

explains the power hierarchy in which powerful and wealthy &quot;core&quot; societies dominate and exploit weak and poor peripheral societies.

How to determine how polar certain bonds are?

find the difference in their electromagnetivities

How to find how far projectile traveled

first find time in air using vertical component then use horizontal compponent's speed*time (don't over analyze this and just try to calculate the parabolic path)

Renal System and Function

first we're in the adrenal cortex Bowman's Capsule→Glomerulus:first filter powered by hydrostatic pressure PCT: reabsorbs nutrients, ions and gets rid of waste LOH: creates osmotic gradient/countercurrent mechanism DLOH: water reabsorption ALOH: sodium reabsorption DCT: hormone controlled (aldosterone!!!Na⁺!) now we're in the adrenal medulla Collecting Duct:concentrated urine via osmotic gradient, will reabsorb water if ADH

coordinate covalent bond

forms when one atom donates a pair of electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that needs two electrons to become stable

Cones are found primarily in the _____ and have a very ____ recovery time compared to rods The periphery of the retina contains a high density of ___ which are more ____ and can detect dim light

fovea, fast which is why eyes take so long to adjust to a dark room but not different colors rods; photosensitive

________ is not changed when a wave switches mediums. _________ changes. What are frequency and wavelength determined by?

frequency wavelength Frequency is determined by the wave's source. Wavelength is determined by the medium

assimilation is ___ level while socialization is ___ level

group; individual

Calorimetry measuring changes in _____ flow of rxn by monitoring temp change of a calorimeter coupled to the rxn to find the change in _______ Heat capacity: How much E must be added to a substance to change its temp by 1 C or K ▪ More bonds in a molecule = _____ heat capacity ▪ Important for calorimeter chamber to be ______ insulated from the surroundings. No heat exchange between system and _______

heat; enthalpy greater thermally; surroundings ▪ Two types: • Coffee cup calorimeters (constant pressure): • Bomb calorimeter (constant volume): ▪ C of calorimeter is known, T change can be measured after the reaction

False memories are generally given with _______[high/low] confidence

high

Assimilated Group

high dominant and low ethnic society immersion (rejects own country of origin)

Faster Route of Entry Means?

higher risk of addiction/dependence

Explicit Memory Location

hippocampus, frontal lobes, amygdala

antibodies release _____ and other chemicals when the antibody binds to a pathogen

histamines

Fatty Acids consist of?

hydrocarbon tail and carboxylic acid

Phosphate likes to form _____ bonds

hydrogen

How are the 2 strands of DNA held together?

hydrogen bonds

Oxygens with 3 lone pairs tend to attach

hydrogens!

Important Reaction: Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage Dehydration

hydrolysis: breaks the linkage using H2O and gives each cut molecule an OH instead R1-O-R2 -> R1-OH + OH-R2 dehydration: does the opposite. makes a bond form.

Most amino acids that want to dimerize are usually ___________

hydrophobic to make sure they react with each other and not react with the hydrophilic environment instead Example: Antibodies have disulfide bridges between the heavy chains, and the light/heavy chain. Antibodies are dimers.

Myoglobin has a _________ binding trend Hemoglobin has a _____ binding trend

hyperbolic sigmoidal

Freud's Theory of Dreaming: 1. Manifest Content 2. Latent Content

idea that dreams are unconscious thoughts and wishes Manifest: storyline or literal subject matter of a dream Latent: meaning and unconscious wishes that underlie the actions and events of dreams

Sensory interaction

idea that one sensory modality (like vision) may influence another (like balance)

Signal Detection Theory states that ? Noise: Hit: False Alarm: Miss: Correct Rejection: Conservative Strategies: Liberal Strategies: Ideal Observer:

idea that perception of a stimulus is depends on intensity of stimuli and person being unprepared/not expecting it Noise: random factors that interfere with correct discernment of stimuli (includes mental state and equipment errors) Hit: stimulus is present and sensed False Alarm: stimulus not present but was perceived Miss: stimulus is present but not perceived Correct Rejection: stimulus is not perceived when not present Conservative Strategies: won't say there's a signal until 10000% sure (minimizes false alarms but creates lots of misses) Liberal Strategies: will say there's a signal unless 10000% sure there wasn't one (minimizes misses but creates false alarms) Ideal Observer: person who minimizes miss andd false alarms

When doing ksp problems, what should I not forget to do?

if there is a H₂O product, must get rid of it and cancel out the reactant atoms that make up H₂O and then edit equation so that new charges are present

SN1 vs E1 SN2 vs E2 carbocation? What does E1 make What does SN1 make

if there's heat then it's E1 no heat = SN1 SN2, E2: tertiary carbocations, strong nucleophile/base, one step, Rate= k[halide][Nuc] which means its a 2nd order rate law, likes salts!!, likes polar APROtic solvents SN1, E1: primary carbocations, weak nucleophile/base, TWO STEPS, Rate=k[halide] which means its a 1st order rate law, FORMS INTERMEDIATE CARBOCATION, likes polar PROtic SN1: MAKES RACEMIC MIXTURES Eliminations make a double bond using base substitutions make nuc+reactant using nucleophile

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

As our vessel diameter increases, the viscosity of our blood [increases/decreases]

increases

Michelangelo phenomenon is used to reflect:

interdependent individuals influence and "sculpt" each other (opposite of Blueberry phenomenon, in which interdependent individuals bring out the worst qualities in each other).

Porphyrin

intermediate substance in the formation of heme (part of hemoglobin)

Fasciculations

involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle that can occur after some problem of the motor neurons.

Mixed Methods Research

involves collecting, analyzing and integrating quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) research.

Public Declarations

involves publicly declaring a belief or idea, that may or may not have been influenced by outside social pressures. more we declare something, especially publicly, the more likely we convince ourselves that we believe what we are saying

lipoic acid

is a cofactor for severeal mitochondrial enzymes needed for oxidative phosphorylation especially pyruvate dehydrogenase where a deficiency here would result in lactic acidosis. is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase!!

Negative priming (it's a noun) what does it require?

is a slow down in response speed and an increase in error rate when responding to an object that had to be ignored previously. think negative = taking away implicit memory

Images projected to the right visual field are represented in the _____ hemisphere of the brain. someone with a severed corpus callosum would still be able to see things because the _____ is before the corpus callosum the language center is on the ___ hemisphere

left optic chiasm left

Variation from the consensus sequence causes a gene to be transcribed ____ frequently

less

Psychoanalytic theory states there are 2 instinctual drives pushing human behavior, what are they?

libido and death instinct

Where are ligand gated ion channels and voltage gated ion channels?

ligand gated Na+ channels are found at the motor end plates of the NMJ voltage gated Na+ channels are found along the axon

What do phosphodiester bonds link? Where do hydrogen bonds link?

linkage between the 3' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon atom of another, deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA. pulls amino acids together Hydrogen bonds link complementary base pairs

mismatch repairs look like

looks like

GPCR domains

lots of cysteine, threonine and serine threonine and serine tend to be on the C terminus for phosphorylation

7 Key features of an enzyme

lower the ae increase rate of reaction don't alter K constand are not changed or consumed during rxn are pH and temp sensitive with optimal activity at a certain pH do not affect overall gibbs free energy are specific for a particular reaction or class of reactions

The ______ pathway of viral infection comandeers the host's synthetic machinery to create new virions while the _____ pathway inserts viral genome into host's genome

lytic, lysoGENic

ANYY MOVING CHARGEE, creates a __________ which is measured in _____

magnetic field, tesla (T) 1 T = 10^4 guass

What should I associate Le Chatelier's principle with?

maintaining equilibrium within an equation does this by shifting to products or reactants

Order of Middle Ear Bones

malleus, incus and stapes (from out to inner ear)

Next generation sequencing = ? How's it done: Pros: Cons:

massive parallel sequencing basis: addition of different nucleotide causes different color fluorescence, detected on a 2D chip containing many simultaneous reactions pros: can sequence an entire genome, can detect mutations at very low levels cons: expensive

psychoticism

measure of nonconformity or social deviance

The frequency of a wave is not affected by the ________ through which it propagates

medium

Recovered memory

memory not retrieved for a long period of time until some later event brings it suddenly to consciousness

Information Processing Model

memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages **THREE stages encode -> store -> retrieve

Factitious Disorder (formerly known as Munchausen Syndrome) and Factitious Disorder imposed on another/by Proxy

mental disorder characterized by desire to be ill and attended to. People with this will site symptoms they don't have or falsify tests by proxy: someone claiming someone else is ill and falsifying tests to suggest that person is ill

Which alcohols are polar?

methanol and ethanol are polar -while hexanol is more nonpolar than polar. This is because the chain length increases when comparing methanol and hexanol.

Huckle's Rule

method used to determine if the structure is aromatic or not. 4n + 2 = given pi electrons solve for n. if n is a positive integer or 0 then molecule is aromatic

How to calculate potential energy(PE)?

mgh mass∙gravity∙height gravity = 10 m/s²

Choroid

middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera sends nutrients to the retina :)

Microtubules _______ end is anchored in the Microtubule organizing center

minus

where does beta oxidation occur?

mitochondria

Serotonin regulates

mood (like aggression), appetite GI tract sleep dreaming

Further apart that two genes are, the ______ likely it is that they recombine

more

When a reaction's product causes a flux between two stereoisomers, the isomer with the greater % presence is [more/less] thermodynamically stable than the other isomer

more

The further apart that two genes are the ____ likely it is that they recombine gene distance is measured in _____

more centimorgens

What DNA bases can get methylated?

most often cysteine but adenine can also

Doppler Effect As source moves towards an observer, what happens? What does it increase?

moving sound source or observer, reflection of sound from a moving object o Moving sound source ▪ Change in frequency • As source moves TOWARDS an OBSERVER, relative distance between wavefronts decreases, INCREASING THE FREQUENCY • Doppler effect is associated with a change in frequency

An acid with multiple pKa values means it'll have lots of _____ ?

multiple deprotonations aka lots of H+ which means its buffer will have multiple salts

What are oncogenes proto-oncogenes?

mutated proto-oncogenes that can cause cancer code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division

rapport

mutual understanding and harmony doctors want to establish this

To calculate how many stereoisomers are possible for a molecule, you use the ___ factorial, where ____ stands for the # of different peptides

n! n stands for the number of carbons present Ex: 3 carbons n! = 3! = 3 * 2 * 1 = 6

Axons are usually ____charged

negatively!

What consequences come from performing gluconeogenesis? Where does this loss come from?

net decrease of 6ATP and 2 NADH so we lose energy to make energy. Pyruvate → PEP takes 4 ATP 3 PG → 1,3 BPG takes 2 ATP 1, 3 BPG →Glyceraldehyde 3P takes 2 NADH

Isoelectric Focusing requires a _____pH

neutral/stable

Do paramecium have subcellular organelles?

no

Adiabatic

no heat exchange

Prokaryotic Cell Description?

no nuclear membrane, or typical eukaryotic organelles. Bacteria don't have Golgi, ER, mitochondria or chloroplasts Has cell wall, exponential growth

are enantiomers superimposable?

no!!! they are like left and right hands

_________ regions can help forensic scientists identify specific individuals by looking at things like short tandem repeats, STRs, which are short sequences of DNA, two to six base pairs long. They are found in high amounts and to varying degrees between individuals. Thus, if they sequence these STRs, they could identify specific individuals given a DNA sample.

non coding regions

Difference between coding and template strand? Coding strand and mRNA strand are [same or different]

non-coding strand is called template strand which DOES NOT code for mRNA coding stand DOES code for mRNA which is further used for transcription and translation. SAME

bind the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex with the same affinity; Vmax decreases, but KM does not change. This describes which type of inhibitor?

noncompetitive

Benzene is polar or nonpolar?

nonpolar

Equations: % Composition by mass Mole Fraction Molarity Molaly Normality

normality = molarity * (# H equivalents per mole) or gram of compound * ( moles of compound/ H equivalents) all about hydrogen equivalents!*

Cell Types in Nervous System Astrocytes Ependymal Microglia Oligodentrocytes Schwann

nourish neurons, forms blood brain barrier lines brain, makes CSF engulfs antigens, protects CNS PNS -both produce myelin around axons

The strong force binds _________ the electromagnetic force binds _______ and allows magnets to stick to my refrigerator and is why I'm not falling out of my chair

nucleons together atoms together

Peptide Bonds are formed by? Characteristics of Peptide bond? Resonance? Rigid or not?

nucleophilic addition - elimination (condensation-dehydration reaction) between C=O of one amino acid and NH of another amino acid nucleophilic amino group attacks electrophilic carbonyl bond has lots of resonance delocalization (partial db all over the place) which makes bond very rigid and planar psi and phi angles :)

Phosphodiester bonds link _______ together Disulfide bonds link _____ together

nucleotides amino acids

Frequency is

number of waves per second

Types of Epidermis Cells: o 1) Keratinocytes: ▪ Keratinization: o 2) Melanocytes: o 3) Langerhans cells: o 4) Merkel cells:

o 1) Keratinocytes: provide water impermeability and strength to skin ▪ Keratinization: keratinocytes rise to the top layer of the epidermis o 2) Melanocytes: transfer melanin to keratinocytes o 3) Langerhans cells: interact with Helper T-cells o 4) Merkel cells: connect with motor neurons to sense touch

Tissues' role in immune sytem o Bone marrow: o Spleen: o Thymus: o Lymph nodes:

o Bone marrow: synthesize B and T cells, site of clonal selection for B-cells o Thymus: site of maturation and clonal selection for T cells o Lymph nodes: site of activation of B and T cells o Spleen: site of lymphatic tissue and B and T cell activation

Embryogenesis: -Fertilization -Blastula Formation -Gastrulation -Neurulation What prevents polyspermy?

o Fertilization (Sperm head fuses with Secondary Oocyte) ▪1) Sperm acrosome (head) enzymes dissolve egg's zone pellicuda (outer layer of follicule) ▪2) Sperm nucleus enters cytoplasm of oocyte and fuse ▪3) Cortical reaction occurs, preventing other sperm from fertilizing same egg ▪4) Secondary oocyte continues Metaphase II division to become ovum and releases polar body ▪5) Nuclei of both fuse to make a zygote 6) Cleavage- Zygote multiplies to a morula Blastula formation ▪1) Morula divides, makes blastocyst (hollow ball of cells) ▪2) implantation: Blastocyst fuses with uterine tissue to form placenta ▪3) Placenta HCG(pregnancy hormone) prevents degeneration of corpus LUTEUM ▪4) Blastocyst cells differentiate (inner cells become embryo, outer cells become placenta) o Gastrulation ▪Formation of primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) o Neurulation ▪embryo becomes neurula, NOTOCHORD causes neural plate and neural tube to FORM VIA INDUCTION ▪Ectoderm→brain and spinal cord (by folding into a tube) Polyspermy is prevented by cortical reaction: release of cortical granules from the egg, which prevents polyspermy, the fusion of multiple sperm with one egg.

Thermodynamic System State function and path function

o State function: properties that describe the current state of the system. (ex: temperature, pressure, volume) o Path function: properties that depend on the pathway used to achieve a state (ex: work, heat) o Thermodynamic systems can't describe systems on a molecular scale. Thermodynamic systems average out all molecular interactions to find an average. Molecular scale means the sample size is too small

Growth Arrest in the proces of mitosis

o Too much genomic mutation/damage causes cell to arrest in M phase o Contact inhibition: normal epithelial cells stop growing when it gets crowded such that it's touching adjacent cells o Lack of food can also cause growth arrest

Three Main Components of Socioeconomic Status

occupation income education

Hawthorne Effect

occurs when an individual participant changes his or her behavior, specifically due the awareness of being OBSERVED

Social Facilitation

occurs when individuals unconsciously perform better in front of an audience. most dominant response for particular behavior would be shown. Dominant response refers to response most likely to occur.

Biological system are often considered open or closed?

open

Operant Conditioning vs Classical

operant: uses rewards and punishments to make behavior more or less likely to happen again classical: learning mechanism that pairs two stimuli to create a novel involuntary response

What is friction's direction in relation to the motion of the object involved What about on inclined or flat planes?

opposite opposite still but always parallel to the planes

for things being tossed upwards, initial velocity will have ______ gravity.

opposite because it's working against gravity

Important Reaction: Retro-adol reaction

opposite of aldol condensation splits the molecule at the beta carbon (next to the C=O)

Network Redundancy

overlapping connections with the same individual

____ description o Production of enzymes ▪ Trypsin and chymotrypsin: degrade proteins ▪ Pancreatic amylase: hydrolyzes polysaccharides to tri/disaccharides ▪ Lipase: degrades fats o Transport of enzymes to small intestine ▪ Gall bladder: stores bile and transports it to the small intestine by funneling it through the cystic duct, the common bile duct, and then the pancreatic duct • Bile: emulsifies fat, increasing their SA so they can be digested

pancreas

When you push or pull an object up an inclined plane, make sure you divide that force into its components. Only the component _________ to the plane contributes to the motion.

parallel

Gustatory Cortex Taste Bud Types and Lx: Fungiform Foliate Circumvallate

part of brain that receives signals from taste buds. has separate sections for each type of taste (5 tastes) Fungiform: tip of tongue Foliate: sides Circumvallate: mostly back of tongue

temporal cortex

part of the neocortex important in processing sounds, in speech comprehension, and consciously remembering past events, and for facial recognition.

Episodic Buffer

part of working memory that combines and integrates info from visuo spatial sketchpad and phonological loop

Inductive Effect

partial charges making a dipole moment in a "neutral" compound

Triangle Theory of Love

passion, intimacy, commitment PIC

Optimal Arousal Theory/ Yerkes-Dodson Theory

people perform better at a moderate level of arousal

Effort justification

people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving.

Law of Prägnanz

perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetric as possible

Oxidation of phenol

phenol → benzophenol -OH → =O

Group Polarization

phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted. For a view point to influence a groups final decision making: • All the views do not have equal influence. • Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group • Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view • Any criticism is directed towards minority view

The vomeronasal system detects ______ how?

pheromones has sensory receptors that send signals to glomeruli in accessory olfactory bulb and causes hormonal responses

_____ gives DNA its acidity

phosphate groups

Pentose Sugars in DNA are linked together by a _____ bond

phosphodiester

Eidetic Memory

photographic memory

Iconic Memory

picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

_______ makes melatonin, which makes you sleepy at night

pineal

alpha helix pitch rise turn

pitch: 5.4 angstroms rise: 1.5 angstroms turn: 3.6 residues per turn

Fibrin/Fibrinogen

plasma protein involved in blood clotting

The center of mass is: can be obtained by:

point in a object that moves as if all of the object's mass were concentrated at that point obtained by doing a weighted average for all the positions by their respective masses *can set reference point anywhere and use relative coordinates**** x, y and z

Silica gel is polar or nonpolar?

polar

Prokaryotes are known as ________- with many genes per RNA transcript

polycistronic

Multiple peptides make a _____________. Folded polypeptides make ________.

polypeptide chains proteins

Cellulose

polysaccharide consisting of glucose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls

Malthusian Theory

population grows exponentially will eventually outgrow its resources. War, famine, disease bring the population back down to a sustainable level (positive checks). Population control (preventive checks) such as later marriage also keeps the population from outgrowing its resources.

Electric field lines exit from _____ and enter _______

positive, negative

Flashbulb Memory: Positively Valenced Negatively Valenced

positively: memory that is tied to happy emotions negatively: tied to bad/strong emotions

Equipotential Line is a line on which the ______ at every point is the same

potential aka voltage

Stereospecificity means?

prefer a certain 3D arrangement of the atoms

You interpret things that are [present or not present or both] You perceive things that are [present or not present or both]

present both!

primary group vs secondary group vs in group vs out group

primary: close, intimate relationships secondary: impersonal, temporary, business-like relationships. in group = where individual identifies out group = outside of group individual identifies - opposes PRIMARY/SECONDARY = individuals relationships IN/OUT GROUP: individual's identity

BAK and BAX

pro-apoptotic proteins

Right Hemisphere

processing the left visual field/body RECOGNIZES: spacial skills (includes facial recognition) intuitive (understand immediately) creative emotions recognizes SICE

Significance of Colligative Properties and all examples

properties depend ONLY on number of actual solute particles, not actual identity *cares about how many and not who Ex: Very Overly Frozen Butt VOFB Vapor Pressure Osmotic Pressure Freezing Point Boiling Point

Fluid Mosaic Model is described as?

protein boat in a sea of lipids

Interpersonal Attraction Factors

proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity in interests, exchange, intimacy NOT personality

PEN model (Eysencks)

psychoticism, extraversion, neuroticism

method of limits, method of adjustment, method of constant stimuli are all types of ______________[type of test] What does this test do?

pychophysical discrimination testing assesses our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties

Pyrophosphates

pyrophosphate is a phosphorus oxyanion.

Porphyrins are _____ rings which are ____ sided heterocycle containing one _______atoms

pyrrole, five-sided, nitrogen

How does pyruvate enter the mitochondrial matrix? What happens? is it reversible????

pyruvate/H+ symporter pyruvate dehydrogenase takes away 2CO₂ to make pyruvate SPLIT into 2 Acetyl CoA which go into TCA to make 4CO₂ and 4H₂O NO REVERSIBLEEEEEEE!!! PYRUVATE -> ACETYL COA

Hardy Weinberg

p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (phenotypic expression) p + q = 1 (allelic expression) Assumes large population, random mating, no mutation/migration/natural selection

q=mc∆T, what does c and q stand for?

q=heat c=specific heat

What do these carbocations look like: primary secondary tertiary quaternary

quaternary violates octet rule

Bohr Model states what?

radiation or energy is emitted only when an electron falls from a higher to lower energy level

The weak force is responsible for ________

radioactive decay

Rate of Forgetting and Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve and Relearning

rate of forgetting: rate of memory decay. doesn't really different between people forgetting curve: graph that tracks memory over time. usually has drastic drop in accuracy over the first few days then flattens relearning: second time memorizing something takes less time to learn but has equal accuracy

kcat is used to describe the ____-________ step of catalysis under _____ conditions of substrate

rate-limiting; saturating

Dissociation constant Kd

ratio of dissociated enzyme and ligand to bound enzyme+ligand when [E+L] = 50% Kd = [Enzyme] [Ligand]/ [E+L]

Dependency Ratio

ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members. The economically dependent are those considered too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the working-age population (approximately between the ages of 18 and 65).

intrusion symptoms risky shift

recurrent reliving of the event, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would

NADH likes to ______[reduce or oxidize]

reduce

Cysteine is ______[reduced or oxidized] form Cystine is _____[reduced or oxidized] form

reduced oxidized

behavioral attitude component

refers to how one intends or expects to behave toward a situation

Interoceptive Awareness

refers to signaling and perception of internal bodily sensations

Photoelectric Effect

refers to the emission of electrons from a metal when light shines on the metal Einstein proposed that light is made up of packets of energy called photons. The photoelectric effect occurs when light shines on a metal. Sometimes electrons are emitted.

socioeconomic gradient in health

reflects that those with the lowest status are less healthy than those in the middle, who are less healthy than those at the top

In paper chromatography, what properties and bonding properties relative to the stationary phase determines its Rf value?

relative amount of hydrogen bonding to the stationary phase will determine the relative rate of migration of the various components in the sample

What does the reliability of tests refer to?

reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces STABLE AND CONSISTENT results NOT how accurate it is

Monocular Cues: relative size, interposition, relative height, shading and contour, motion parallax (relative motion), size constancy, shape constancy and color constancy

rely on visual information from a SINGLE eye

What is the life course perspective?

research perspective that considers how experiences from earlier in life affect outcomes later in life

mixed-methods study

research study that includes elements of both quantitative and qualitative research

Resistors are materials that ______? which is why the equation for resistance is ___?

resist the movement of charge flow R = (resistivity of material * Length of material)/ area of material

rhodopsin vs photopsin

rhodopsin is a protein found in rod cells photopsin is a protein found in cone cells!

ATP and ADP's general structure looks like?

ribose with groups attached on 1 and 4, 4 having the phosphates

Lamellae (compact bone)

rings of bone matrix within an osteon

Rate of psychological disorders % of Americans? How much worldwide?

roughly 25% of Americans have been diagnosed with a some form of mental illness at one point About 450 million people have suffered worldwide.

safety and ethics of DNA technology

safety - accidental or intentional transfer of cancer genes using bacteria into humans -creating resistance - researchers have exposure risk to DNA technology ethics - correcting DNA defects in fetus - terminating pregnancies of children with genetic defects - put genes in fetus to benefit them - genetic modification in general - genetic fingerprinting - genetic discrimination (health insurnace companies)

Like disulfide bridges, these hydrogen bonds can bring together two parts of a chain that are some distance away in terms of sequence. _________bridges ionic interactions between positively and negatively charged sites on amino acid side chains, also help to stabilize the tertiary structure of a protein.

salt

Equivalence Point

same molar ratio 1:1

In bacterial DNA replication, two DNA polymerases start at same/different points and replicate in [same or opposite] directions

same point opposite

energy of activation (Ea) vs activation energy

same thing, idiot

formal sanctions vs informal sanction

sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced vs not

Golgi apparatus' main job?

secrete proteins out of cell or back into mitochondria or ER

Signal sequence domains are for proteins bound for the

secretory pathway

Distillation

separates based on boiling point Raoult's Law: occurs in non-ideal solutions. predicted vapor pressure is higher than should be at given molar fraction, since vapor pressure is higher, boiling point is lower. These non-ideal solutions cannot be separated by distillation Simple: big difference between bp Fractional: small difference between bp Vacuum: performed under reduced pressure to decrease bp (since bp is too high/low or will breakdown compound) all techniques use rischig rings which help to increase surface area travel for the evaporating compounds and allows for more cycles of evaporation and condensation (reflux) Reflux line is at top of fractionating column

Peer Group

set of individuals of roughly the same age and interests

4 Main Types of Stressors

significant life changes - pregnancy, etc. catastrophic events - large scale threats e.g. tornados daily hassles - finding keys, spam mail ambient stressors - global stressors like pollution

People's response to various stressors are usually very _____

similar

Simple vs Fractional Distillation

simple: used to separated compounds with pretty big boiling point differences (25-30 degree diff) fractional: used to separate compounds with smaller differences in boiling point.

Single Crossovers vs Double Crossovers

single crossovers****Only affect the ends of a chromosome's arms Double Crossover***Can affect segments of the chromosome closer to the middle of the chromosome

DNA Transcription helpers snRNAs snRNPs spliceosome Ribozyme Enhancers

snRNAs: helps proteins make snRNPs snRNPs: combines with unspliced mRNA + proteins to make spliceosome spliceosome: RNA protein complex where RNA splicing occurs Ribozyme: RNA molecule that catalyzes reactions Enhancer: is a short (50-1500 bp) region of DNA that can be bound by proteins (activators) to increase the likelihood that transcription of a particular gene will occur

Social Support

social network ties that provide individual with various types of assistance associated with IMPROVING HEALTH AND REDUCING HARM these are certain activities that result in better health/less harm!

Geimenshcaft

social relations between individuals, based on close personal and family ties; community.

social capital vs cultural capital

social: the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively. cultural: knowledge, skills, education, and similar characteristics that are used to make social distinctions and that are associated with differences in social status. who you socialize with vs. what you've achieved/done in life

Symbolic Interactionism

society is viewed as composed of SYMBOLSSSS PEOPLE USE TO ESTABLISH meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another

False Information is encoded when

someone or something in the moment plants an idea into someone's head and causes them to falsely incorporate it into some present memory

Reconstructive memory

something added to an already existing memory which sounds consistent with memory also considered a type of false memory

Auditory Pathway

sound passes through vestibulocochlear nerve→brainstem→medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus→auditory cortex in temporal lobe in some people, linguistic processing is only is the left hemisphere

What do these detect? Cochlea Utricle & Saccule: Semicircular Canals

sounds linear acceleration rotational acceleration

______ are lipids that regulate metabolic activities

steroids

Static friction only occurs when an object is _____ so kinetic friction occurs when an object is _____ Thus ____ friction is ALWAYS larger than ____ friction and so are their coefficients

still moving static is larger than kinetic

Growth Hormone does what?

stimulates bone and muscle growth as well as glucose conservation.

When a charge moves in a magnetic field, a MAGNETIC FORCE may be exerted. the magnitude of the magnetic force = for a straight wire?

straight wire = q -> (charge) v -> (length of wire)

Subliminal Stimuli compared to absolute threshold of sensation?

subliminal = stimuli perceived LESS than 50% of the time absolute threshold of sensation = lowest amount of detectable stimuli MORE than 50% of the time

Social Cognitive Theory/Social Learning Theory

suggests that behaviors are learned through observing others and modeling their actions.

function of HDL?

sweep up cholesterol in blood vessels for delivery to liver and steroidogenic tissue; moves apolipoproteins to other lipoproteins

Somatic Symptom Disorder Panic Disorder

symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause Panic disorder is a type of anxiety disorder. Person has panic attacks b/c of sudden feelings of terror bc they're scared they might eventually get a panic attack, that they might go crazy, hypothetical situations. Person may feel as if you are losing control and may also have physical symptoms, such as fast heartbeat, chest pain, shortness of breath, sweating, dizzy difference between PD and GAD is GAD focuses on current things happening in life "omg im in a crowd rn" vs PD is like "omg i'll be in a crowd in 2 weeks and i might get a panic attack or step on a knife and die"

_______ _____________ is a Complex of proteins that are located between pairs of homologous chromosomes • Protein structure that mediates synapsis (the pairing of homologous chromosomes in Prophase I) o Consists of SYCP2 and SYCP3 which attach laterally to homologous chromatin structures and are attached via a central region (SYCP1 and other proteins) - interdependent with recombination

synaptonemal complex

Strategy to divide small # by big #? like 7/86300

take denominator and see how many number places it is away from the numerator's number place. In this case, 86300 is 4 places away. so the answer is going to be 4 places away from the numerator so 0.0001 away. We know 7 divided by 8 is almost 1 so we can say approx. .8 or .9 so .00009 the real answer is 0.00008

Core Countries

take the lion's share of profits in the world economic system

Which of Newton's laws applies to rockets moving in space?

technically all of them but rockets are propelled forward and work EVEN IN A VACUUM OF SPACE between of his third law: 3: Every Action has an Equal and Opposite Reaction

Ingratiation

telling your interviewer that his research is fascinating, even when you couldn't care less

the nucleotide sequence of both the coding strand and the mRNA are complementary to the sequence of the ________________

template strand

choice shift

tendency for groups to make decisions that appear more extreme than the decisions group members would have made on their own focusses on the BEHAVIOR group polarization focuses on the ATTITUDE

Self-Serving Bias? Self Actualization? Self Efficacy? Self-Fulfilling Prophecy? Ego-Depletion

tendency to see yourself better than you really are to help your self esteem. fulfilling your full potential. Maslow's Hierarchy how much one believes in their abilities False idea of oneself which ends up becoming true and includes when someone takes on a bad stereotype Idea that self control is a limited source

Idealized Way to Support Validity of an experiment?

test two independent variables that have the same dependent variable and see if they get the logical correlation

Trypsin only cleaves on:

the CARBOXYL side of BASIC amino acids

Equation for Catalytic Efficiency

the Cat pounces on top of the Mouse Kcat goes on the top (numerator), Km goes on the bottom (denominator)

Personality Disorder Clusters Cluster A: Cluster B: Cluster C:

the W's in alphabetical order: A: wEird (paranoid, shizo) B: wIld (antisocial, borderline, histrionic narcissistic) C: wOrried (OCD, avoidant, dependent)

crystallized intelligence

the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience increases with age

Propulsion (physics)

the action of driving or pushing forward.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Motion Parallax

the apparent movement of stationary objects relative to one another that occurs when the observer changes position

In regards to the center of mass: The center of mass of the Earth and a chicken in space is going to be almost at the center of the Earth, because the chicken is tiny, and its coordinate is weighted so. The center of mass between two chickens in space is going to be right in the middle of the two chickens, because their positions are weighted equally.

the centers are based on their weight relations

Hydrolysis

the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.

Episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a PARTICULAR TIME AND PLACE in OUR PERSONAL LIVES OUR PERSONAL LIVESSSSSSS EPISODIC PERSONAL LIVES

bond polarity is?

the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms in the bond

Social Stratification

the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy

Exchange Mobility

the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down

Law of Gravitational Force if the distance INcreases 2 fold, gravity DECREASES by a factor of _____

the force of gravity acts between all objects in the universe that have mass four

Sound Attenuation

the gradual loss of intensity as sound travels through a medium this occurs greatest for soft, elastic, viscous and less dense material

Financial System

the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person's saving with another person's investment

Theory of Planned Behavior: Subjective Norms Perceived Behavioral Control

the idea that actions are the result of the evaluation of implication sof an action and intentions behind the actions. Subjective Norms: perception offf judgements by peers or family (similar to social pressure) that affect the intentions of behaviors Perceived Behavioral Control: amount a person believes they control their behavior

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Dependent Stressor

the independent variable to your dependent stress

What does the lumen refer to?

the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine. In latin, it means 'an opening'.

****Plasma Proteins are made in _____ and include ____

the liver, albumin cannot cross the walls of blood vessels Increase in albumin in blood causes influx of interstitial fluid, increasing blood pressure and increasing viscosity One of the causes of edema (increased fluid in body tissues) is a decrease in plasma protein levels since albumin helps to control osmotic balance.

Autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Gravity is divided into two components on an inclined plane:

the normal (perpendicular) F= mgcostheta the parallel F=mgsintheta

What forces act on an object laying still on an inclined plane?

the normal force + frictional force = mg the object's weight is equal to the forces

What is a coordinate number?

the number of molecules coordinated to attach to target molecule

reticular activating system Reticular Formation

the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Mead's "I"

the part of the self that is spontaneous, impulsive, creative, and unpredictable

Racialization

the process by which understandings of race are used to classify individuals or groups of people

Some sensors require a little bit of energy in order to work, so i must subtract this amount of energy from _______

the product's energy

What do acid catalysts enhance?

the quality of a leaving group

Homogeneity

the quality of being similar or comparable in kind or nature

Important Reaction: Transesterification reaction

the reaction of an ester with an alcohol to form a different ester

What is a primary circular reaction according to Piaget?

the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance

Pulley systems reduce the force you need to lift an object BUT they also increase: The distance of pulling increases by the ____ factor that the effort decreases

the required pulling distance same

Cognitive Dissonance

the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change.

Prosody

the study of sound and rhythm in poetry

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

What is a half life?

the time it takes for half of all radioactive nuclei to decay into DAUGHTER nuclei (which may or may not be radioactive) as it decays radioactive nuclei → daughter nuclei bc of breakdown

Net Yields of TCA/Citric Acid/Kreb's Cycle

there are 2 acetyl coA per glucose**** Per Acetyl CoA there are: -3 NADH -1 GTP -1 FADH₂ -1 ATP -2 CO₂ 3 Naked Girl Friends + 1 ATP and 2 CO₂

Is free energy considered a thermodynamic or kinetic property?

thermodynamic

Important Reaction: kinetic vs. thermodynamic enolate which is more stable? which forms faster?

thermodynamic is more stable kinetic forms faster

Are R and D amino acids mirror images or superimposable on each other?

they ARE mirror images but are NOT superimposable. They are like our left and right hands.

What do tail fibers do on bacteriophages?

they allow them to recognize and connect to target cells

Flashbulb memory

they found that people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event

thin filaments vs thick filaments

thin: actin, troponin, tropomyosin thick: myosin

What is capacitance? Capacitance Equation? What is capacitance measured in?

think of capacitance as the amount of charge permitted to flow per pushing force (voltage) C = Q/ V Measured in Farads C = Capacitance Q = Charge V = Voltage

What is the incentive theory of motivation?

this theory calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture can motivate behavior

Right Hand Rule

thumb = direction of the current fingers = direction of the magnetic field palm = direction of the force. CURRENT, MAGNETIC, FORCE

____ stimulates T cells to develop

thymus

In free fall physics problems, going down = (+) distance

tip

Integration with nervous system: feedback control o The nervous system can modulate and override normal control of hormones based on the status of the body. For example, the body's blood "normal" glucose level is set higher when you're under stress o Hormones can modulate the nervous system. For example, low estrogen levels during menses give you a bad mood o Normal control of hormones ▪ Humoral: glands directly respond to chemical levels in the blood (parathyroid response to low blood calcium) ▪ Neural: glands release hormones when stimulated by nerves (fight or flight response) ▪ Hormonal: glands release hormones when stimulated by other hormones

tip

Membrane Dynamics ▪Everything in the cell moves around ▪Uncatalyzed movement (trans-bilayer diffusion) • Phospholipid on the outer leaflet (extracellular part of membrane) move into the inner leaflet (intracellular part of membrane) or vice versa • Very slow movement = no catalyst ▪Lateral Diffusion • Movement of phospholipid from side to side • Fast type of movement ▪Catalyzed Movement • Need a catalyst (protein) • Uses ATP, protein is called flippase • Floppase also uses ATP to bring phospholipid from inner leaflet to the outer leaflet ▪*Many ways to move phospholipids around the membrane

tip

When determining role strain vs role conflict Remember: Singular role = role Strain and the role you have towards yourself is not considered a separate role. ex: Parents who have a hard time with their kids bc they're busy cleaning experience Role STRAIN

tip

What is the purpose of a statistical adjustment?

to control for variables that could affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variable

GLUT-1 GLUT-2 GLUT-3 GLUT-4

transfers glucose to target tissues: GLUT-1: tissues= brain, RBCs, colon, placenta HIGH AFFINITY GLUT-2: works in digestive system AFTER MEAL GLUT-3: brain, kidney, placenta HIGH AFFINITY GLUT-4: muscles and fat AFTER MEAL GLUT 1 AND 3 = basically always working GLUT 2 AND 4 = after a meal!

Binding between reactant and enzyme STRONGEST at the _________ state

transition

Activated complex is another term for.... How to find activation energy? Free energy? Transition state (catalyzed and uncatalyzed)?

transition state!! peak of energy diagram

Importins

transport proteins containing a NLS into nucleus

Capacitors are Thus, capacitance is

two plate system that can store charge at a certain electrical potential (Voltage) the magnitude of charge stored on one plate to the potential difference (Voltage) across the capacitor. voltage is also considered that pushing force for electrons***

Electrons of glucose end up as ____ and _____ and are used in the ______ as electron carriers

ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q) and NADH in the ETC

What happens after a protein is tagged with ubiquitin ligase?

ubiquitin grabs it and give it to a proteasome which proteolysises it to recycle

____inhibitor does not alter the slope Km/Vmax (slope of lineweaver burke)

uncompetitive

Constancy Perception

understanding that despite looking at an object at different angles, it's still the same object

Both vertebrates and protozoans undergo ______ division

uneven when vertebrate oocytes undergo meiosis, one daughter cell will get lots of cytoplasm while the other will get very little but the amount of nuclear material is equal in both daughter cells

What makes molecules portray color?

unfilled d orbital, double bonds, aromatic rings, delocalized electrons

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

For resonance to occur the number of ___________ _____________ must remain the same

unpaired electrons

Tollen's Reagent

uses silver nitrate=oxidizing agent; Formation of solid silver from original non-solid silver indicates the molecule had an aldehyde

What is the significance of Benedict's Reagent?

uses sodium carbonate, sodium citrate and copper II sulfate pentahydrate to test for the presence of reducing sugars aka the sugars with (free carbonyl groups) free hemiacetal or free hemiketal groups aka all monosaccharides!! :) plus cellubiose and lactose

hidden curriculum in schools

values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling

A lesion to this area of the hypothalamus could lead to obesity

ventromedial hypothalamus

What does clathrin do?

vesicular trafficking protein -- trans - golgi (side not facing nucleus) to lysosomes -- plasma membrane to endosomes (receptor mediated endocytosis)

Two monosaccharides bind together through what type of reaction?

via a dehydration reaction, also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis. -This reaction releases a molecule of water and forms a covalent bond known as glycosidic linkage.

*** important Electrical potential is another way to say ______ it is the ratio of the magnitude of a charge's PE to the magnitude of the charge itself

voltage W=PE

Schlera

white of the eye

Tactical self

who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us

holo- (prefix)

whole

Mass Spectrometer The parent peak, or molecular ion peak, is the peak that depicts the ion of the molecule _____ fragmentation. It has the ______ m/z ratio Useful for: ▪ Measuring molecular weight of a molecule ▪ Identify molecule by __________ patterns ▪ Identify heteroatoms by their characteristic isotope ratios

without; highest fragmentation is when you bombard a molecule with electrons which smash into your molecule which fragments into ions ↑energy=↑fragmentation into ions and ↓molecular ion peak bc they're spread out in size o These ions have characteristic mass to charge ratio (m/e or m/z) o A magnetic field resolves (separates) the different m/z ions so they can be individually detected o Resulting spectrum plots Relative abundance vs the m/z ratio W=Pt for electromagnetic energy delivered during one pulse by radiation

Horney's belief on women and men

women are culturally inferior, not biologically inferior; stereotypes hold women back

NMR spectroscopy How is it graphed? (y and x axis) What is TMS? How to read:

x = chemical shift (ppm; parts per million y = frequency position of peak: downfield(left aka decreasing)=deshielding, upfield(right aka increasing) = shielding TMS: tetramethylsilane = calibration standard: 0 ppm. make sure to NOT count this as a peak. equivalent protons: each peak represents a group with equivalent protons, the area under the curve of each peak represents the actual number of H, o Spin-spin splitting, NEIGHBORING AFFECT [total + of peaks - 1]= number of adjacent hydrogens (neighbors) To read: remember upshield = stronger and CH3s that are far from branches/large groups are strongest. don't forget to count # of neighbors!

in y = mx + b, "b" stands for? How to find y intercept on lineweaver burke?

y-intercept 1/Vmax

Can reduction or oxidation occur alone, separately?

yes

Can tertiary structures limit binding affinity?

yes

Can you analyze gene expression through reverse transcription PCR?

yes

Do aromatic compounds show up under fluorescence?

yes

4 primary secretory cells in the stomach

• 1) Mucous cells: secrete mucous to lubricate stomach wall and protect it from acidic environment • 2) Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (zymogen to pepsin) • 3) Parietal cells: secrete HCl o This lowers pH of stomach, increases pH of blood • 4) G cells: activated to release gastrin, which stimulates parietal cell activity

How can the kidney constantly move fluid through itself?

• 1) Single effect causes filtrate concentration to decrease and medulla solute concentration to increase • 2) Increase in medulla solute concentration causes water in descending loop to flow into medulla to equilibrate • 3) Dilute filtrate in ascending limb gets pushed out of loop, concentrated filtrate in descending limb gets shifted towards the bottom hairpin turn ▪ Takeaways • Active transport is necessary to establish a solute concentration in the medulla • The medulla's high solute concentration helps to reabsorb water into the body and concentration urine

What are tyrosine hormones?

• Either water or fat soluble • Thyroid hormones (fat soluble) o Diffuses through membrane to bind to receptors in the nucleus o Strong affinity for binding protein, increases duration of its effects o Primary mechanism of action: increasing transcription of certain genes • Epinephrine and norepinephrine (water soluble) o Dissolve in blood to bind to receptors on target tissue o Act mainly through secondary messenger cAMP • Neuroendocrinology - relation between neurons and hormonal system

Gestation process When is organogensis? When is embryo consider fetus? When do the sperm and egg material combine? At what week do you hit a milestone of 50% chance of survival if born? What is full term and it's standard deviation?

• Gestation can be divided into three trimesters, or into weeks. • Week 0: Last menstrual period (LMP) • Week 2: Fertilization of sperm+egg • Weeks 2-10: Embryogenesis + organogenesis, at end of stage all organs are formed. • Week 10 + rest, the embryo is considered a fetus, • At ~24 weeks, we hit a milestone of 50% survival outside the womb. • Full term is considered to be at 40 weeks (+/- 3 weeks). pre-term = before 40 weeks post-term = after 40 weeks

How do bacteria grow as a population?

• Lag phase: replication is slow • Exponential growth: population divides exponentially & growth shoots up • Stationary phase: The plateau • Death phase: everything dies off., Look! Extra Suspected Death

Key differences between meiosis and mitosis

∙meiosis has CROSSING OVER/GENE RECOMBINATION, 2 divisions, is sexual and makes gametes/germ cells, ends with haploid cells, Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes separate Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate in meiosis II and mitosis centromeres split, but in meiosis I they do not

Fick's Law

∙rate of diffusion is directly proportional to SA and differential partial pressure across the membrane ∙inversely proportional to membrane thickness

cAMP Pathway

▪ 1) Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor ▪ 2) G protein activated ▪ 3) Adenylate cyclase activated ▪ 4) cAMP made ▪ 5) Protein kinase cascade

Phospholipid Pathway

▪ 1) Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor ▪ 2) G protein activated ▪ 3) Phospholipase C activated ▪ 4) Membrane phospholipid split into DAG and IP3 ▪ 5) DAG triggers protein kinase cascade ▪ 6) IP3 release Ca2+ from the ER

Ideal Gases have 4 Qualities

▪ 1) no size or volume ▪ 2) no inter/intramolecular forces ▪ 3) completely elastic collisions ▪ 4) Average KE per gas molecule is proportional to the overall temp

Water Soluble Hormones can they cros the plasma membrane? What do they bind to? What do they do?

▪ Cannot cross the plasma membrane ▪ Bind to membrane receptors on the outside of cells ▪ Secondary messengers then relay the signal inside the cell

Types of Sweat glands located in the dermis

▪ Eccrine sweat glands: located everywhere along dermis, responds to temperature, releases sweat to cool body ▪ Apocrine sweat glands: located in central regions of the dermis, responds to stress, releases acrid sweat

Ways Endocrine System releases secretions Endocrine: Exocrine: Autocrine Paracrine:

▪ Endocrine: hormone, no duct, acts long distances ▪ Exocrine: non-hormone secretions into ducts ▪ Autocrine: local chemicals, act short distances on themselves ▪ Paracrine: local chemicals, act short distances on other cells

▪ Gastrin: ▪ Secretin: ▪ Gastric inhibitory polypeptide: ▪ Cholecystokinin:

▪ Gastrin: increases HCl production when stomach is full, released in stomach ▪ Secretin: regulates pH, signals for the pancreas to release bicarbonate and enzymes after chyme gets to small intestine, released in duodenum ▪ Gastric inhibitory polypeptide: released in response to fat and protein digestion in duodenum, decreases motor activity of stomach and stimulates pancreatic enzyme activity ▪ Cholecystokinin: released in response to fat and causes gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion, released in duodenum

Adrenal Cortex (hydrophobic, steroids) releases which hormones (3)

▪ Mineralocorticoids = aldosterone = increase Na+ and water retention, raises blood pressure ▪ Glucocorticoids = cortisol = longer-term stress response compared to medulla hormones, responds more to chronic instead of acute stress ▪ Androgens = testosterone

Function of Myosin/Kinesin/Dynein

▪ Myosin = responsible for forces exerted by contracting muscles ▪ Kinesin/Dynein = motor proteins responsible for intracellular transport • Dynein = plays a role in the motility of cilia

Counter Current Multiplier Mechanism ▪ How the kidney can constantly move fluid through itself

▪ Steps • 1) Single effect causes filtrate concentration=decrease and medulla solute concentration=increase • 2) Increase in medulla solute concentration causes water in descending loop to flow into medulla • 3) concentrated filtrate in descending limb shifted towards the bottom hairpin turn ▪ Takeaways • Active transport is necessary to establish a solute concentration in the medulla

pH of duodenum? How is the stomach neutralized?

▪ Stomach acid is neutralized in the duodenum by bicarbonate (which is released by the pancreas) ▪ pH of the duodenum is 6

Adrenal Medulla (hydrophilic, tyrosine) releases what hormones (2)

▪ Supplement nervous system activity by secreting neurotransmitters into the blood (provides slower, more generalized sympathetic nervous system response) ▪ Epinephrine and norepinephrine = fight or flight response • Constrict blood vessels of internal organs/skin, dilate blood vessels on skeletal muscle

Muscle Fiber Types Type I: Type II Type III:

▪ Type I (slow twitch): red colored (b/c contains lots of myoglobin for oxygen storage), has a slow contractile velocity and produces a small amount of force but has a high resistance to fatigue and uses aerobic metabolism for energy ▪ Type II A (fast twitch): red colored (lots of myoglobin), has a fast-contractile velocity and produces high force but not as resistant to fatigue as type I fibers, uses long-term anaerobic metabolism for energy ▪ Type II B (fast twitch): white colored (little myoglobin, lots of glycogen), has a very fast contractile velocity and very high force production but fatigues very easily, uses short-term anaerobic metabolism for energy

Ovum Production

▪1) Follicle (egg + zona pellucida) is formed in the ovaries ▪2) Theca cells grow around the follicle to form the secondary follicle ▪3) Theca cells are stimulated by LH which makes them secrete androgen. Androgen converts ->estradiol and is secreted into blood ▪4) Follicle grows in ovary ▪5) Estradiol levels build up fast, causing LH surge (luteal surge) ▪6) Luteal surge causes ovulation (bursting of follicle, release of egg) ▪7) Egg swept into Fallopian tube ▪8) Remaining follicle becomes corpeus luteum and secretes estradiol and progesterone throughout pregnancy or (if not pregnant) for 2 weeks then becomes corpus albicans